Chapter XIII: The Nahua Tribes (1)

Early Spanish discoveries in Mexico—The Nahua tribes
defined—Climate of Mexico—The Valley of Anahuac—Ruins at
Tezcuco—The hill of Tezcocingo—Ruins at Teotihuacan—Ancient
Tulla—Ruins in the province of Querataro—Casa Grandes in
Chihuahua—Ancient remains in Sinaloa—Fortified hill of
Quemada—The Pyramid of Cholula—Mr. Bandelier’s investigations at
Cholula—Fortified hill at Xochicalco—Its probable use—Ruins at
Monte Alban—Ancient remains at Mitla—Mr. Bandelier’s
investigations—Traditions in regard to Mitla—Ruins along the
Panuco River—Ruins in Vera Cruz—Pyramid of
Papantla—Tusapan—Character of Nahua Ruins.

When the ships of the Spanish admiral came to anchor before the
Island of San Salvador, he had indeed discovered a “New World.”
It was inhabited by a race of people living in a state of society
from which the inhabitants of Europe had emerged long before the
dawn of authentic history. The animal and plant life were also
greatly different from any thing with which they were acquainted.
The Spaniards little suspected the importance of their discovery.
Columbus himself died in the belief that he had simply explored a
new route to Asia. A quarter of a century elapsed after the first
voyage of Columbus before an expedition coasted along the shores
of Mexico. This was the expedition of Juan De Grijalva, in 1518.
He gave a glowing description of the country he had seen, which
“from the beauty and verdure of its indented shores, and the
lovely appearances of its villages, he called ‘New Spain.’”1

Map of Mexico.

This was followed, in the year 1519, by the history-making
expedition of Cortez. The scene of his first landing was about
forty miles south of the present town of Vera Cruz, but to this
place they soon removed. At his very first landing-point he
learned of the existence of what he was pleased to call a
powerful empire, ruled by a most valiant prince. The accounts the
Indian allies gave him of the power and wealth of this empire
inflamed the imagination of Cortez and his followers. This was an
age, we must remember that delighted in tales of the marvelous;
add to this the further fact that Cortez was not, at the
beginning of his expedition, acting with the sanction of his
royal master; indeed, his sailing from the island of Cuba was in
direct violation of the commands of the governor. It was very
necessary for him to impress upon the court of Spain a sense of
the importance of his undertaking.

Certain it is that the accounts that have been handed down to us,
though read with wonder and admiration, though made the basis on
which many writers have constructed most glowing descriptions of
the wonders of the barbaric civilization, which they would fain
have us believe, rivaled that of “Ormus and of Ind,” are to-day
seriously questioned by a large and influential portion of the
scientific world. We have another point to be considered that is
of no little weight, as all candid men must admit that it would
influence the opinions the Spaniards would form of the culture of
the Indians. As the man of mature years has lost the memory of
his childhood, so have the civilized races of men lost, even
beyond the reach of tradition, the memory of their barbaric
state. The Spaniards were brought face to face with a state of
society from which the Indo-European folks had emerged many
centuries before. They could not be expected to understand it,
and hence it is that we find so many contradictory statements in
the accounts of the early explorers; so much that modern scholars
have no hesitation in rejecting.

The main tribe of the empire which Cortez is said have overthrown
is known to us by the name of the Aztecs; but as this name
properly denotes but one of many tribes in the same state of
development, it is better to use a word which includes all, or
nearly all, of the tribes that in olden times had their home in
the territory now known as Mexico. Careful comparisons of the
various dialects of ancient Mexico have shown that, with the
exceptions of some tribes in Vera Cruz, they all belonged to one
stock-language; and so they are collectively known as the Nahua
tribes.2

We wish now to inquire into the culture of this people, to see
how much of the strange story that the Spaniards have to tell us
has a reasonable foundation. We will state frankly that, though
the literature on this subject is of vast proportions, yet it is
very far from being a settled field. All accounts of the early
explorers of the strange scenes, customs, and manners of the
inhabitants, when they were first discovered, are so intermixed
with self-evident fables, and statements that are undoubtedly
exaggerations, that we have a most difficult task before us. We
will first examine the antiquities of this section, compare them
with those found in more northern regions, and then examine the
statements of the early writers as to the customs of the people.
We do not propose to do more than to follow after our leaders in
thought, and try to make plain the conclusions to which they have
arrived. We are not to deal wholly with a prehistoric people,
though their origin is unknown. What we desire to do is to clear
away the mists of three and a half centuries, and to catch, if
possible, a glimpse of what was probably the highest development
of prehistoric culture in North America just before the arrival
of the Spaniards.

Mexico was surely a land well adapted to the needs of a
prehistoric people. Along the coasts the ground is low. This
constitutes what is known as the “Hot Country.”3 The greater part
of Mexico consists of an elevated table-land, which rises in a
succession of plateaus. As we leave the coast region and climb
the plateau, we experience changes of climate. If it were level,
it would have mainly a tropical climate, but owing to the
elevation we have just mentioned, it has mainly a temperate
climate. The whole plateau region is cut up with mountains. The
Sierra Madre, on the west, is the main chain, but numerous
cross-ranges occur. The result is, a greater part of Mexico
abounds in fertile, easily defended valleys—just such localities
as are much sought after by a people in barbaric culture,
constantly exposed to the assaults of invading foes.4

We may as well pass at once to the valley of Anahuac, the most
noted in all the region, and learn of the antiquities of this
central section. It is in this valley that the capital of the
Mexican Republic is situated. All travelers who have had occasion
to describe its scenery have been enthusiastic in its praise. The
valley is mountain-girt and lake-dotted, and in area not far
different from the State of Rhode Island. On one of the principal
lakes was located the Pueblo of Tenochtitlan, the head-quarters
of the Aztecs, commonly known as the City of Mexico. When Cortez
first stood upon the encircling mountains, and gazed down upon
the valley, he saw at his feet one of the most prosperous and
powerful pueblos of the New World.

This is not the place to recount the story of its fall. Our
present inquiry is concerned solely with the remains of its
prehistoric age. The enthusiastic Spaniards would have us believe
in a city of Oriental magnificence. We have no illustrations of
this pueblo. It was almost completely destroyed by Cortez before
its final surrender in August, 1521. It was then rebuilt as the
capital city of New Spain. Of course, all traces of its original
buildings soon disappeared. What we can learn of its appearance
is derived from the accounts of the early writers, which we will
examine in their proper place. After having surveyed the entire
field of ruins, we will be much better qualified to judge of the
vague statements of its former grandeur. A few relics have,
indeed, been found buried beneath the surface of the old city.
They illustrate the culture of the people, as will be noticed
further on.

Directly across the lake from the Pueblo of Mexico was that of
Tezcuco, the head-quarters of the second powerful tribe of the
Aztec Confederacy. Traces only are recoverable of its former
buildings. At the southern end of the modern town were found the
foundations of three great pyramids. They were arranged in a line
from north to south. Mr. Mayer says of these ruins: “They are
about four hundred feet in extent on each side of their base, and
are built partly of adobe and partly of large, burned bricks and
fragments of pottery.”5 He tells us further that the sides of the
pyramids “were covered with fragments of idols, clay vessels, and
obsidian knives.” From other discoveries, it would seem these
pyramids were coated with cement. The suggestion is made that on
one of these pyramids stood the great temple of Tezcuco, which,
an early writer tells us, was ascended by one hundred and
seventeen steps.

Bas-Relief, Tezcuco.

In another part of the town a sculptured block of stone was
found, of which this cut is given. “It appears to be the remains
of a trough or basin, and the sculpture is neatly executed in
relief. I imagine that it was designed to represent a conflict
between a serpent and a bird, and you can not fail to remark the
cross distinctly carved near the lower right-hand corner of the
vessel.” Bullock, who traveled in Mexico in 1824, has left a
brief description of the ruins of what he calls a palace. “It
must have been a noble building. . . . It extended for three
hundred feet, forming one side of the great square, and was
placed on sloping terraces raised one above the other by small
steps. Some of these terraces are still entire and covered with
cement. . . . From what is known of the extensive foundations of
this palace, it must have covered some acres of ground.”6 This
last statement is doubtless exaggerated. From what we know of
Indian architecture, these ruins were doubtless long, low, and
narrow, and placed on one or more sides of a square, perhaps
inclosing a court.

About three miles from the town of Tezcuco is a very singular
group of ruins. This is the Hill of Tezcocingo. This is very
regular in outline, and rises to the height of about six hundred
feet. A great amount of work has evidently been bestowed on this
hill, and some very far-fetched conclusions have been drawn from
it. Probably as notable a piece of work as any was the aqueduct
which supplied the hill with water, and this is really one of the
most wonderful pieces of aboriginal work with which we are
acquainted.

The termination of the aqueduct is represented in our next cut.
This is about half-way up the hill, right on the edge of a
precipitous descent of some two hundred feet. “It will be
observed in the drawing that the rock is smoothed to a perfect
level for several yards, around which seats and grooves are
carved from the adjacent masses. In the center there is a
circular sink, about a yard and a half in diameter and a yard in
depth, and a square pipe, with a small aperture, led the water
from an aqueduct which appears to terminate in this basin. None
of the stones have been joined with cement, but the whole was
chiseled, from the mountain rock.”7 This has been called
“Montezuma’s Bath,” simply from the custom of naming every
wonderful ruin for which no other name was known after that
personage; but this was not a bath, but a reservoir of water.

Montezuma’s Bath.

From this circular reservoir the side of the mountain is cut down
so as to form a level grade, just as if a railroad had been made.
This grade winds around the surface of the hill for about half a
mile, when it stretches out across a valley three-quarters of a
mile wide, an elevated embankment from sixty to two hundred feet
in height. Reaching the second mountain, the graded way commences
again, and is extended about half-way around the mountain, where
it extends on another embankment across the plains to a range of
mountains, from which the water was obtained.

Aqueduct, Tezcocingo.

This cut represents the embankment crossing the valley. Along the
top of this way was laid the canals to transport the water, made
of an exceedingly hard cement of mortar and fragments of pounded
brick. It is estimated that nearly, if not quite, as much labor
was expended on this aqueduct as on the Croton aqueduct that
supplies New York City.8 This last statement is probably too
strong, but, considering that this work was accomplished by a
people destitute of iron tools, it is seen to be a most
extraordinary work. From what we have already learned, this hill
was evidently a very important place. On all sides we meet with
evidences that the whole of the hill was covered with artificial
works of one kind or another. On the side of the hill opposite
this reservoir was another recess bordered by seats cut in living
rock, and leading to a perpendicular cliff, on which a calendar
is said to have been carved, but was destroyed by the natives in
later days.9

Traces of a spiral road leading up the summit have been observed.
In 1824 Bullock (who, however, is not regarded as a very accurate
observer) “found the whole mountain had been covered with
palaces, temples, baths, hanging-gardens, and so forth.” Latrobe,
somewhat later, found “fragments of pottery and broken pieces of
obsidian knives and arrows; pieces of stucco, shattered terraces,
and old walls were thickly dispersed over its whole surface.”10
Mr. Mayer, after speaking of the abundance of broken pottery and
Indian arrows, says: “The eminence seems to have been converted
from its base to its summit into a pile of terraced gardens.”

By one class of writers this hill is regarded as the “suburban
residence of the luxurious monarchs of Tezcuco, . . . a pleasure
garden upon which were expended the revenues of the state and the
ingenuity of its artists.”11 Mr. Bancroft has gathered together
the details of this charming story,12 and tells us that the kings
of Mexico had a similar pleasure resort on the Hill of
Chapultepec, a few miles west of the city.13 It is sufficient at
present to state that an explanation much simpler and more in
accord with our latest scientific information can be given. It is
more likely that this hill was the seat of a village Indian
community. Its location was naturally strong. The water, brought
with so much labor from a distance, furnished a supply for the
purpose of irrigation, as well as bodily needs. The terraced
sides show that every foot of ground was utilized, and the ruins
of the palaces that Mr. Bullock mentions were the
fast-disappearing ruins of their communal buildings. Owing to the
cruel raids of the Aztec tribes, this place may have been
deserted before the coming of the Spaniards, and thus no mention
was made of it.

Teotihuacan.

Still further to the north, about thirty miles from Mexico, is
found another extensive field of ruins, which is called
Teotihuacan, meaning “City of the Gods.” The principal ruins now
standing are the two immense pyramids (which are represented in
this cut), which the natives call the “House of the Moon” and the
“House of the Sun.” We will describe the surroundings first. It
is unquestioned but that here was a very extensive settlement in
early times. When the Nahua tribes entered Mexico they probably
found it inhabited. One very recent writer thinks that “nowhere
else in America can you find a more imposing mass of ruins.”14 He
estimates that it was “a city upwards of twenty miles in
circumference.”

Other writers have also noticed its great extent. According to
Thompson, “the ruins cover an area very nearly as large as that
of the present City of Mexico, and the streets are as distinctly
marked by the ruins of houses.”15 And in another place Mr.
Charney tells us “the city was of vast extent; and, without
indulging in any stereotyped reflections on the vanity of human
greatness, I will say that a more complete effacement is nowhere
else to be seen. The whole ground, over a space five or six miles
in diameter, is covered with heaps of ruins, which at first view,
make no impression, so complete is their dilapidation.”16

Of this mass of ruins we are told but little, beyond the general
assertion that it consists of the ruins of buildings, temples,
etc. But very recently M. Charney has uncovered the foundation of
one of these houses. He calls it a palace. It was, in all
probability, a communal building. It had two wings inclosing a
court, and was located on a terraced pyramid. He found, on
digging into the terrace in front of the ruins, a great number of
sloping walls, covered with cement, containing small
compartments, etc. M. Charney can not account for their presence.

In view of the discoveries further north, we would respectfully
suggest that this was, in reality, the lower story of the
building, whose flat roof formed the terrace in front of the
second story, whose foundation M. Charney so happily discovered.
But such suggestions as this are very unsafe to make, and must be
supported by further discoveries before they are of any real
value.

He found a large number of good-sized rooms, and speaks
especially of one hall fifty feet square, in the center of which
was six pillars, sloping from the base upwards. They, doubtless,
served to support the roof. We regret that we have not been able
to see M. Charney’s ground plan of this ruin. Of the pyramids
themselves we have quite full information. The larger one, that
of the sun, is seven hundred and sixty feet square and two
hundred and sixteen feet high. It will be seen that these
dimensions throw the great mound at Cahokia into the shade.
Though the base may not be quite as great, the height of the
pyramid is over twice that of the mound. Three terraces are
plainly visible. The surface was covered with cement, large slabs
of which remain in their place. The moon pyramid is further
north.

It is in all respects like that of the sun, but of smaller
dimensions, being one hundred and fifty feet high. In early times
these pyramids are said to have supported statues, but, if so,
they have long since been thrown down. Their surface and the
ground around is thickly strewn with fragments of pottery,
obsidian knives, and other small relics. Running south from the
House of the Moon, and passing a little to one side of the House
of the Sun, are the remains of a wide, paved road. Its width is
stated to be one hundred and thirty feet, and its length about
two hundred and fifty rods.17

This road suddenly expands in front of the Moon, so as to suggest
the idea of a Greek cross. Pieces of cement (with which this road
was covered) are still visible in places. It is lined with mounds
on either side, and they stand so close together as to resemble
continuous embankments in some places. Speculations are abundant
as to the object of this graded way. Tradition calls it the “Path
of the Dead.” Small mounds are very numerous over the surface.
They may have been for burial purposes, but sculptured stones are
found in them, and specimens of hard cement. This group of ruins
is regarded as of very great antiquity.

We can easily see that the growth of the soil formed by the decay
and detrition of the stone slabs of the pyramids, temples, and
other buildings would be slow, especially as the rainfall is
light. But in some localities it is more than three feet thick.
In places three separate floors are observed, one over the other,
pointing to as many successive occupations of the same sections
by men.

About sixty-five miles to the north of Mexico was located Tollan,
or Tulla. According to tradition, this was the capital city of
the Toltecs, a mysterious people who long preceded the Aztecs. We
are told that “extensive ruins remained at the time of the
conquest, but very few relics have survived to the present
time.”18 M. Charney, whose labors we have referred to at
Teotihuacan, succeeded also in making important discoveries here.
He tells us that on the site of this ancient capital there is a
hill, “about one mile long by half a mile broad, covered with
mounds, plateaus, and ruins of all kinds.”

He gives us the dimensions of two pyramids, as follows. The first
is one hundred and ninety-six feet on each front, and forty-six
feet high. The second is one hundred and thirty-one feet square,
and thirty-one feet high. Both of these pyramids stood on raised
foundations, which M. Charney calls esplanades. As no other
pyramids are mentioned, we are to suppose these are the two
principal ones. Perhaps they are also pyramids of the sun and
moon. Our chief interest is concerned with the remains of the
habitations he discovered here. He says: “I set the men to work
at one of the many mounds upon the ridge, and soon found that I
had hit upon a group of habitations.” A general idea of this
group of buildings is given in this passage: “The dwellings were
united together in groups, and erected on isolated mounds, one in
the middle, the others around about, the whole forming a sort of
honey-comb, with its cells placed at different elevations.”

We can not help being struck with the general resemblance of the
descriptions here given and that of the ruins in the vicinity of
the River Gila. The general tendency is seen to gather together
in clusters, with, probably, the most important house in the
center. As to the materials used in this building, we are told
“they used clay and mud for the inside of the walls, cement to
coat them, dressed stone and brick for casings, bricks and stone
for stairways, bricks for pilasters, and wood for roofing the
edifice. The houses bad flat roofs, consisting of timbers coated
with cement. Of such timbers we find vast quantities.”19

Of the arrangements of the rooms, he tells us, “The apartments
that have been brought to light comprise a number of chambers,
big and little, placed at different heights. We shall have no
clear idea of the relation of these different chambers to one
another, or of the mode of access to them through the
labyrinthine passages and the numerous stairways, until the whole
edifice has been unearthed.”

This was not the only building he discovered. On digging into a
mound supposed to be the support of a temple, he discovered it
was the ruined foundation of a still grander house. He says, “It
is much larger than the other one, stands on a pyramid, and has
two wings inclosing a courtyard. The walls are thicker than those
of the first habitation, and more strongly built. The apartments,
too, are larger, though arranged in a similar fashion.” Elsewhere
he tells us that this building contained at least forty-three
apartments, large and small. We presume very few will now
question but what the buildings he here describes are ruined
communal buildings, much like the structures in Arizona.

But perhaps the most interesting result of his labors was the
proof that these ruins were certainly inhabited after the
conquest—for how long a time we can not tell. This is shown by
fragments of bones and other articles found in the refuse heaps.
The bones were of such animals as the horse, swine, sheep, oxen,
etc.—animals introduced into this country by the Spaniards. The
fragments of pottery include specimens plainly not of Indian
manufacture, such as fragments of porcelain, and that variety of
glazed ware known as delf, and lastly, the neck of a glass
bottle. It may be said that these fragments might have been left
by a band of Spaniards who occupied the ruins in the early days
of the conquest, perhaps long after the Indian owners had left.
This is of course possible, but it is just as reasonable to
suppose the fragments were left by descendants of the original
builders.

Northward from Tulla is a small province, marked on the map
Querataro. From the accounts at our disposal, which are very
brief, we gather that this whole section is a tableland split up
by ravines of great depths and precipitous sides; consequently
one abounding in easily defended positions. It was found that all
the projecting points, naturally strong, were rendered still
stronger by the presence of ditches, walls, and embankments.
Three groups of ruins are mentioned especially, and their
location is marked on the map. At Pueblito there was, at an early
day, plainly to be seen, the foundation of a large, rectangular
building. The walls were built of stone laid in clay.

At Canoas, in the northern part of the State, there is a steep
and strongly fortified bill, but particulars in regard to it are
very meager. “There are, in all, forty-five defensive works on
the hill, including a wall about forty feet in height, and a
rectangular platform with an area of five thousand square
feet.”20 Ranas, the most northern one of the three sites
mentioned, is regarded as the center of population in early
times. “A small lake and a perennial spring are supposed to have
been the attractions of this locality in the eyes of the people.
On all the hills about are still seen vestiges of their
monuments.”

If we look at the map we will notice that we have gone but a
little ways north of the valley of Anahuac. Yet, with the
exception of the Gulf-coast, there are but few striking
aboriginal ruins in Northern Mexico. At the time of the conquest
the whole northern section was the home of tribes not generally
considered to be as far advanced as those who lived in the
section we have already described, and in regions further south.
Yet it is certainly hard to draw the line between the culture of
the two people. We are told that, these Northern tribes though
styled “dogs,” and “barbarians,” by the Southern tribes, were yet
“tillers of the soil, and lived under systematic forms of
government, although not apparently much given to the arts of
agriculture and sculpture.”

This point is of considerable interest to us, theoretically; for
it is a question from whence came the various Nahua tribes. We
would naturally think, if they came from the North, we ought to
find evidence of their former presence in the various Northern
States of Mexico. We must remember, however, that a migrating
people are not apt to leave monuments until they reach the end of
their migration. Neither has the territory been as carefully
explored as it should be. What accounts we can obtain of the
remains in this section are certainly very meager. But one place
in Sonora do ruins occur, and they have never been examined by
competent personages.21 In Chihuahua occur ruins, evidently the
works of the same people as built the separate houses to the west
of the Rio Grande, in New Mexico.

These ruins have received the same name as those on the Rio
Gila—that is, “Casas Grandes,” meaning “Great House.” This cut
represents a view of these ruins. The river valley is here about
two miles wide, and is said to be very fertile. Mr. Bartlett
thinks there is no richer valley to be found from Texas to
California. This valley was once the seat of a considerable
population. Mounds are here found in considerable numbers. Over
two thousand are estimated as occurring in a section of country
sixty miles long by thirty in width.22 We wish we knew more about
the mounds. They are said to contain pottery, stone axes, and
other implements. It is possible, then, that these mounds are
ruins of separate houses. At any rate, such are the only kind of
ruins noticed in the upper part of this same valley by Mr.
Bandelier.

Casas Grandes.

The ruins in question are undoubtedly those of a rich and
prosperous pueblo. They are so placed as to command a very
extensive view. The river valley is cut through a plain, and has
precipitous sides about twenty-five feet in height. The ruins in
question are found partly in the bottoms and partly on the upper
and more sterile plateau. The walls were made of adobe, and in
consequence of their long exposure to the elements are very far
gone in ruins; so much so that Mr. Bartlett was unable to make
out the plan. But enough was seen to show that this was a pueblo
much like the structure already described. They properly belong
to the Arizona group of ruins.

We are told they face the cardinal points, and consist of fallen
and erect walls. The portions still standing are from fifty to
sixty feet high, or rather were that height in 1851. It is
doubtful whether any thing more than a mound of adobe mud now
marks the spot. The walls were highest in the center of the mass.
At the distance of a few miles was a hill said to be fortified.
But the descriptions of it are conflicting. Some represent it as
crowned with a stone-built fortress two or three stories high.
Others more reasonable, represent it as the site of a
watch-tower, or sentry station, and that at regular intervals on
the slope of the hill are lines of stone, with heaps of loose
stones at their extremities.23 Probably the same fate overtook
the tribes of this valley as did the sedentary tribes of the
North. They would not willingly abandon a place so well suited to
their needs. The presence of an invading foe, cruel and
vindictive, alone accounts for this group of ruins.

In Sinaloa we have no very definite account of ruins. However,
Mr. Bandelier says, the existence of ancient villages in that
section is certain, and that from “Sinaloa there are ample
evidences of a continuous flow Southward.”24 There are no ruins
worth mentioning in any of the other States, excepting Zacatecas,
where we find a ruin of great interest. This is at Quemada, in
the southern part of the State. The name is taken from that of a
farm in the near neighborhood. The ruins are situated on the top
of a hill, which is not only naturally strong, but the approaches
to it are fortified. The hill ascends from the plain in a gentle
slope for several hundred yards, it then rises quite
precipitously for about a hundred and fifty feet. The total
height of the hill above the plain is probably not far from eight
hundred feet.25

At all points where the approach to the top of the hill is not
steep enough to form a protection of itself, the brow is guarded
by walls of stone. This is especially true of the northern end of
the hill. One peculiar feature of this place is the traces of
ancient roads, which can still be clearly distinguished crossing
each other at various angles on the slope we have mentioned. They
can be followed for miles, and are described as being slightly
raised and paved with rough stones. In places on the slope, their
sides are protected by embankments.

Considerable speculations have been indulged in as to the
purposes for which these roads were used. It has been suggested
that they were the streets of an ancient city which must once
have existed on the plains; and that the fortified hill, with the
ruins on its summit, was the citadel, the residence of their
rulers, and the location of their temples. But we think a more
reasonable view is that all of the city that ever stood in that
neighborhood was on the hill summit, and that these streets were
for religious purposes, reminding us in this respect of the
graded ways and traces of paved streets sometimes met with in the
Mississippi Valley. In proof of this view, it is said that many
of them, after being followed for a long distance, are found to
terminate in a heap of stones, which are evidently the ruins of a
regular pyramid. In opposition to both of these views, it has
been suggested that the surrounding plain was low and marshy, and
that the object of these causeways was to secure a dry passage,
which explanation is certainly very reasonable.

Quemada.

Of the top of the hill, it may be sufficient to state that it is
of irregular shape, half a mile in length from north to south,
and of varying width, but on an average one thousand feet wide.
The approach to the top of the hill was strongly guarded.
Although buildings were observed covering the whole top of the
hill, yet they were in two principal groups. This cut, though but
one of many, will give us very good ideas of all the ruins. It is
seen to be an inclosure. It is on a small scale. It was one
hundred and fifty feet square. We notice terraces on three sides.
These terraces are three feet high by twelve wide, and in the
center of each side are steps by which to descend to the
square.26 Each terrace is backed by a wall, portions of which are
seen in the engraving. These walls are twenty feet high by eight
or nine in thickness. The openings seen in the wall are not
properly doors, as they extend to the top of the wall.

This court, encompassed by terraces, is a peculiar feature. It is
different from any thing we know of, either north or south.27
Courts, surrounded by buildings located on terraces, are common
enough, but all accounts of these ruins say nothing of buildings.
We remember the inclosures that surrounded the houses clustered
in groups on the Rio Gila. We think this comes near to being a
development of the same idea. The low walls of the former
inclosure are here quite pretentious pieces of masonry. In some
cases two or more of these inclosed courts are joined by
openings.

The opening in the wall on the right of the engraving leads into
a perfect inclosed square of two hundred feet. In one case a
range of pillars was noticed parallel with the walls, and distant
twenty-three feet. These are supposed to have supported the roof
of the portico, and houses of a rude description might have been
ranged along under this roof, which has since completely
vanished. Back of this square, but not very well shown on the
drawing, rises a precipitous hill. A pyramid is placed in the
center of the side towards the hill. It is only nineteen feet
high,28 but is divided into five stages or stories.29

This pyramid will serve as an example of numerous other pyramids
scattered over the summit of the hill. They are made of stone.
The largest one, whose dimensions are given, is fifty feet
square, and the same in height. In front of the pyramid, and in
the center of the square, are the remains of an altar. In view of
the altar and pyramid, within the inclosed square, we may suppose
this to have been dedicated to their religion. As if to confirm
this belief, is the statement that on the hill to the back of the
pyramid are numerous tiers of seats, either broken in the rock or
built of rough stone. The people seated on them would be
conveniently located as regards both sight and hearing of what
transpired there.

From an Indian’s point of view, this hill was very strongly
fortified. It would be almost impossible for an enemy to capture
the settlement on its summit. The surrounding country was
probably fertile, and a large body of Indians could have lodged
within the fortified inclosures. It has some peculiar features,
which have been pointed out. There is now no water on the hill,
but traces of what is supposed to be an aqueduct are observed, as
well as several tanks, and at one place a well. There is not an
appearance of great antiquity about these ruins, and yet native
traditions are silent in regard to them, and but one of the early
writers refers to them, and he had not seen them.30

West of the central basin the remains are more numerous than to
the north, but they are not very striking, and it is scarcely
worth our while to stop and examine them. About sixty miles in a
south-easterly direction from Mexico is the modern town of
Cholula. This has grown at the expense of the ancient city of
Cholula, grouped around the famous pyramid of that name. This was
the Mexican “Tower of Babel.” The traditions in regard to it
smack so strongly of outside influence that but little reliance
can be placed on them. They are evidently a mixture of native
traditions and Biblical stories. Like Teotihuacan and Tulla, this
is regarded as a relic of Toltec times. This is but another way
of saying that it is older in time than the majority of ruins.

At the time of Cortez’s march to Mexico Cholula was a very
important place. In his dispatches he says: “The great city of
Cholula is situated in a plain, and his twenty thousand
householders in the body of the city, besides as many more in the
suburbs.” He further states that he himself counted the towers of
more than four hundred “idol temples.”31

We must remember that this is a Spanish account, and therefore
exaggerated. Still, after making due allowance for the same, it
would remain an important aboriginal settlement. We have no
reliable data of the population at the time of the conquest. From
documentary evidence Mr. Bandelier has shown that while Cholula
was certainly a populous Indian pueblo, it is a misnomer to call
it a city. It was a group of six distinct clusters, gathered
around a common market. He estimates that its population may
possibly have been thirty thousand.32 All explorers have
mentioned the fertility of the plain in the midst of which this
monument is found.

But this plain is almost destitute of easily defended positions;
which fact has an important bearing on the purpose for which the
great mound was erected. At a distance it presents all the
appearance of a natural hill. The casual observer would not
believe it was entirely the work of men. “In close proximity,”
says Mr. Bandelier, “the mound presents the appearance of an
oblong conical hill, resting on projecting platforms of unequal
length. Overgrown as it is with verdure and partly by trees, and
with a fine paved road leading to the summit, it looks strikingly
like a natural hill, along whose slopes the washing of the rains
and slides have laid bare bold bluffs, and into whose bulk clefts
and rents have occasionally penetrated.”

Pyramid of Cholula.

This celebrated mound or pyramid has lately been the subject of a
very careful study by Mr. Bandelier. The illustration we present
gives us a very good idea of the present appearance of the mound.
The mass is probably solid throughout, and if there is a natural
hill in its center, it must be a very small one. The height of
the central higher mass is very nearly two hundred feet.33 The
present appearance of the summit is entirely due to the
Spaniards. At the time of the conquest the summit was convex; the
friars had it leveled in order to plant a cross. The area of this
upper platform is not far from two-thirds of an acre. It is now
paved and surrounded by a wall.

In the illustration we detect the appearance of terraces. These
are level areas, not all of the same height; neither do they
extend entirely around the mound. In fact, the present appearance
indicates three projections, or aprons, surrounding and
supporting a conical hill, and separated from each other by wide
depressions. This central mound, with its three projections,
rests upon a very extensive platform, which was probably
cross-shaped. This platform seems to have been about twelve feet
high, and covered an area of at least sixty acres.

The object for which this great pile was erected is a topic that
has exercised the thoughts of many scholars. Some have supposed
it was a burial mound. Some years ago, while in constructing a
road from Pueblo to Mexico, the first terrace or story was
slightly dug into, and disclosed a chamber, which contained two
skeletons, two idols, and a collection of pottery. Yet, before
deciding it to be a burial mound, it will be necessary to show
the presence of tombs near the center.

We have referred to the results of Mr. Bandelier’s explorations.
He made a very thorough study of this great pyramid—more complete
than any that had hitherto been made—and his results should have
corresponding weight. He finds that the materials of which the
adobe brick is composed are exactly the same as that of the
surrounding plain. This does away with one old tradition, that
the bricks were manufactured at a distance, and brought several
leagues to their destination by a long line of men, who handed
them along singly from one to another.

From the manner in which the bricks are laid, and from their
variation in size, he concludes that the structure was not all
erected at one time, but that the mound is the accumulation of
successive periods of labor. From this it follows that it was
built to serve some purpose of public utility, and not as a token
of respect for some individual. Wherever found, these great works
show the same evidence of not being all completed at once. This
was true of the North; we shall also find it true of the South.
Charney noticed the same thing in the house at Tulla. Nothing is
more natural than that an Indian community would increase their
buildings as the tribe increased.

Mr. Bandelier’s final conclusion in regard to the purpose of its
erection is one of great interest, but not at all surprising. “If
we imagine the plateaus and aprons around it covered with houses,
possibly of large size, like those of Uxmal and Palenqué,34 or on
a scale intermediate between them and the communal dwellings of
Pecos and many other places in New Mexico,35 we have then, on the
mound of Cholula, as it originally was, room for a large
aboriginal population. The structure, accordingly, presents
itself as the base of an artificially elevated, and therefore,
according to Indian military art, a fortified, pueblo.”

But this does not remove from it the air of mystery. Long-fallen
indeed are the communal walls. It was not simply a few years ago
that these pueblo-crowned terraces were reared. The date of its
erection is hid in the dim traditions of the past. The traditions
of the Nahua tribes, who came at a far later date, speak of it as
even then standing on the plain. Scattered over the plain are
other ruins of a somewhat different nature from the general ruins
in the valley. These may be the ruins of works erected by the
same class of people as built the mounds. Especially is this
thought to be true of ruins found on the slopes of neighboring
volcanoes.

To the south-west of Cholula are the ruins of Xochicalco, which,
by some, are pronounced to be the finest in Mexico. There are
many points of resemblance between this ruin and Tezcocingo. The
meaning of the word is “Hill of Flowers.” The hill is a very
regular, conical one, with a base nearly three miles in
circumference, and rises to a height above the plain of nearly
four hundred feet.36 The hill is considered to be entirely a
natural formation; but it probably owes some of its regular
appearance to the work of man. Around the base of the hill had
been dug a wide and deep ditch. When Mr. Taylor visited the
place, the side of this moat had fallen in, in many places, and
in some quite filled up—but it was still distinctly visible.37
The whole surface of this hill was laid off into terraces.

Five of these terraces, paved with blocks of stone laid in
mortar, and supported by perpendicular walls of the same
material, extend, in oval form, entirely around the whole
circumference of the hill, one above the other. From the
accumulation of rubbish, these terraces are not easy to detect in
all places. Probably, at one time, there was some easy means of
access from one terrace to the other, but they have
disappeared—so that now the explorer has to scramble up
intervening slopes of the terraces as best he can. It is probable
that defensive works once protected these slopes.

Mr. Mayer says: “At regular intervals, as if to buttress these
terraces, there are remains of bulwarks shaped like the bastions
of a fortification.”38 “Defense seems to have been the one object
aimed at by the builders.” The top of the hill is leveled off.
Some writers represent that a wall of stone was run along the
edge of the summit but others think that the whole top of the
hill had been excavated, so as to form a sunken area, leaving a
parapet along the edge. This summit-platform measured two hundred
and eighty-five feet by three hundred and twenty-eight feet.
Within this area were found several mounds and heaps of stones.
The probabilities are that it was once thickly covered with
ruins. In the center of this sunken area are the remains of the
lower story of a pyramid, which the inhabitants in the vicinity
affirm to have been once five stories high.

To judge from the ruins still standing, this must have formed one
of the most magnificent works of aboriginal skill with which we
are acquainted. This cut gives a general idea of the ruins from
the west. We presume the broken appearance presented by this side
is in consequence of the removal of stones by planters in the
vicinity for their own use. It seems they have used this monument
as a stone-quarry. This pyramid, or the first story of it, was
nearly square—its dimensions being sixty-four feet by
fifty-eight.

Xochicalco.

The next cut is an enlarged drawing of the north-west corner seen
in the first drawing. Notice the grotesque ornamentations on it.
The ornaments are not stucco-work, but are sculptured in
bas-relief. As one figure sometimes covers parts of two stones,
it is plain they must have been sculptured after being put in
position. The height of this front is nearly fifteen feet. In the
left-hand corner of this sculpture will be perceived the bead of
a monstrous beast with open jaws and protruding tongue. This
figure is constantly repeated in various parts of the façade.
Some have supposed it to be a crocodile. The rabbit is another
figure that constantly reappears in portions of the wall.

Enlarged View of Ruins of Xochicalco.

We can scarcely realize the labor involved in the construction of
this pyramid and the terraced slope. Some idea may be formed of
the immense labor with which this building was constructed from
measurements made of several of the masses of porphyry that
compose it. One stone was nearly eight feet long by three broad.
The one with the rabbit on is five feet by two and a half. When
it is recollected that these materials were not found in the
neighborhood, but were brought from a great distance, and borne
up a hill more than three hundred feet high, we can not fail to
be struck with the industry, toil, and ingenuity of the builders,
especially as the use of beasts of burden was, at the time,
unknown in Mexico. Nor was this edifice, on the summit, the only
portion of the architect’s labor. Huge rocks were brought to form
the walls supporting the terraces that surrounded the hill, a
league in circumference, and the whole of that immense mass was
eased in stone. Beyond these terraces, again, there was still
another immense task in the ditch, of even greater extent, which
had to be dug and regularly embanked.39

Now, what was the object of all this labor? This must have been
the center of a large settlement. It seems that the surrounding
hills—or, at least, some of them—were also terraced. Mr. Taylor
says: “On the neighboring hills we could discern traces of more
terraced roads of the same kind. There must be many miles of them
still remaining.” In a Mexican book we are told “adjoining this
hill is another higher one, also covered with terraces of
stone-work in the form of steps. A causeway of large marble flags
led to the top, where there are still some excavations, and among
them a mound of large size.” Mr. Latrobe, from the top of the
“Hill of Flowers,” saw that it was the center towards which
converged several roads, which could be traced over the plain.
The road he examined was “about eight feet in breadth, composed
of large stones tightly wedged together.” It is extremely
probable that in Xochicalco we have another instance of a
strongly fortified hill, on the top of which was their pueblo,
arranged around their teocalli, or temple.40

In our description of this ruin we must not forget to mention
some curious underground chambers, excavated in the hill itself.
On the northern slope, near the foot, is the entrance to two
galleries, one of which terminated at the distance of eighty
feet. The second gallery is cut in solid limestone, about nine
feet square, and has several branches. The floors are paved with
brick-shaped blocks of stone. The walls are also, in many places,
supported by masonry, and both pavement, walls, and ceilings are
covered with lime-cement, which retains its polish, and shows
traces, in some parts, of having had originally a coating of red
ocher. The principal gallery, after a few turns, finally
terminated, or appeared to, in a large room eighty feet long, in
which two pillars were left to support the roof. In one corner of
this room there was a dome-shaped excavation in the roof, from
the apex of which a round hole about ten inches in diameter
extended vertically upwards.

The natives say there are still other excavations. We have seen
no good explanation of the uses of these excavations. The labor
in constructing them must have been very great. In the province
of Oaxaca we shall find several groups of ruins. In all
probability those known and described are not more numerous than
those unknown. The class of ruins represented by Quemada,
Tezcocingo, and Xochicalco (that is, a hill strongly fortified,
with traces of a settlement on the summit, mounds, foundations of
communal houses, and pyramidal structures) are also to be found
here. At Quiotepec we have very meager accounts of such a ruin.
The hill is over two miles in circumference and a thousand feet
high. A running stream has rendered one side of the hill very
steep and precipitous, but the other sides are terraced.

One of the terrace-walls at the summit is about three hundred and
twenty feet long, sixty feet high, and five and a half feet
thick.41 On the summit of the hill are found great numbers of
mounds, foundations of small buildings, as well as ruins of
statelier buildings, called by some palaces, but which were
probably regular communal structures; also the pyramid base of a
temple. At different points near the summit of the hill are three
tanks or reservoirs, one of which is sixty feet long, twenty-four
feet wide, and six feet deep, with traces of steps leading down
into it.

Still further south, near the center of the state at Monte Alban,
is a more extensive group of ruins on the same general plan as
the one just described. In this case, from the banks of a stream,
there rises a range of high hills with precipitous sides. At
their summit is an irregular plateau half a mile long by nearly a
quarter of a mile wide. M. Charney states that a portion of this
plateau is artificial. He represents the whole surface as
literally covered with blocks of stone—some sculptured—the ruined
foundations of buildings, terraces, and so forth. He regards it
as one of the most precious remains of aboriginal work, and this
is the view of Mr. Bandelier also. It is to be regretted that we
have not more details of such interesting ruins. We, however,
would learn but little new from them. One ruin is spoken of as an
immense square court, inclosed by four long mounds, having a
slight space between them at the ends. It is extremely probable
that these mounds once supported buildings.