Chapter XVI: Ancient Peru (2)

The people of Chimu, whose ruins we have been describing, belong
to the coast division—differing in many respects from the
Peruvian tribes in the interior. Our information in regard to the
coast people is very limited. We have to judge them almost
entirely from the ruins of their towns, and the remains of their
handiwork. There is no reason to suppose they were the inferiors
of the Peruvians in culture. It is quite the custom to speak of
them as if they were low savages before the Incas conquered the
country; and that they owe to the latter all their advance in
culture. On the contrary, we may well doubt whether their
condition was at all improved by the Inca conquest. The coast
people are supposed to have been conquered about one hundred
years before the Spanish conquest. It was only after a most
stubborn resistance that the principal valleys were subdued.

Cloth found in Grave.

It is not necessary, neither have we space, to give a review of
all the ruins along the coast. They are very plentiful. There is
not an inhabitable valley but that they abound there. The soil
where not irrigated is very dry, and tends to preserve any thing
buried therein. All the coast people buried their dead; hence it
is that we find, in nearly all the coast valleys, such extensive
cemeteries. At Ancon, for instance, twenty miles north of Lima it
is simply wonderful how extensive the cemeteries are. Mr.
Hutchinson says they extend for miles. Very extensive
explorations have been made here for scientific purposes. We have
given, earlier, some water-jars excavated at Ancon, in last
illustration we have some specimens of cloth found in graves
farther north; and in the same locality was found a very
wonderful piece of feather-work. The small feathers were so
fastened to a ground of cotton cloth that they could not be
pulled off.

Wall in Huatica Valley.

Another noted place, about the same distance south of Lima, is
Pachacamac. Mr. Squier concludes, from the cemeteries at this
place, that it was a holy place, to which pilgrims resorted from
all parts of the empire so as to be laid to rest in holy ground.
When we learn of so many other similar localities, we see that
this conclusion does not follow. The most we can say is, that
these valleys have surely been settled for a long while.

The city of Lima is situated on the south bank of the Rimac
River, about six miles from the coast. Its port is the town of
Callao. The valley is called the Huatica Valley. Very extensive
and wonderful rains occur in this valley, between Lima and the
sea. We are told these ruins are thick and close over a space of
a few square miles, and are inclosed within a triple wall. The
last cut is given as a representation of a portion of this wall,
though only a small portion here and there is still discernible.
Amongst these ruins are a large number of immense mounds.

Burial Mound, or Huaca.

Some are huacas, or burial mounds; and some are in the nature of
fortresses. It is best to explain a little more particularly
about the burial mounds of the coast region of Peru. This cut
gives us an idea of their appearance. As to their construction
Mr. Squier says: “Many if not most of the pyramids, or huacas,
were originally solid—built up of successive vertical layers of
bricks, or compacted clay, around a central mass or core.”

But this is not always the case; since in many huacas we find
walls, in some rooms, and, finally, as before remarked, some
apparently consist of a large, many-storied building, the rooms
of which are all filled with clay. In the mound just mentioned,
Mr. Hutchinson found a number of inclosures—though the work was
done in a rough, shapeless manner. Mr. Squier gives us a
description of a many-roomed huaca as follows: “Thanks to the
energy of treasure-hunters who have penetrated its sides, we find
that it had numerous large painted chambers, was built in
successive diminishing stages, ascended by zigzag stair-ways, and
was stuccoed over and painted in bright colors. The conquerors
filled up these chambers, and recast the edifice with a thick
layer of adobe.”37

This is surely a singular piece of work. The building just
described by Mr. Squier must have been much like a pueblo. We
wish we had fuller descriptions of it. Mr. Squier is eminent
authority, and scholars delight to honor him for his researches.
We take the liberty, however, to question some of his
conclusions. How does he know that this structure was ever used
for any other purpose than as a mound? It is indeed a singular
way to construct a mound, but when we learn of the existence of
mounds showing the different methods of work—some solid, some
with walls, others with rude rooms, still others with rooms
towards the top—why not say that this many-storied building was
simply one style of mound-building? He claims that the Incas
filled up these rooms, and transformed the house into a mound.
Mr. Hutchinson claims there is no proof that the Incas did this
sort of work.

As an example of fortress-mounds, also prevalent in the valley of
the Huatica, we present the next cut. Mr. Hutchinson describes
this mound as being eighty feet high, and about four hundred and
fifty feet square. “Some of the adobe walls, a yard and a half in
thickness, are still quite perfect. That this was not likely to
have been a burial-mound may be presumed from its formation.
Great large square rooms show their outlines on the top, but all
filled up with earth. Who brought this earth here, and, with what
object was the filling up accomplished? for the work of
obliterating all space in these rooms with loose earth must have
been almost as great as the construction of the building in
itself.”38 So it seems that in the fortress-mounds also we meet
with this same mysterious feature—rooms filled with earth.

Fortress Mound.

The Huatica Valley was also the location of a famous temple—at
least such are the traditions—and ruins are pointed out as being
those of the temple in question. It is simply an immense, large
inclosed square, of some forty-nine acres. On each side of this
square there is a huge mass of ruins, and another in the center.
In our next illustration we have a portion of the wall
surrounding the ruins on the south side of the supposed temple.
This is the largest of the group of ruins. The walls are seventy
feet high; the area at the top is over five acres. Here, again,
we notice the same mysterious feature already referred to, for
“on the top of this were also discernible the outlines of large
square rooms, filled up, as all the others, even to the topmost
height of seventy feet, with earth or clay.”

Temple Wall.

This cut is given as a fort, meaning thereby a fortress-mound,
such as we have already described. It is said to be situated to
one side of the temple. From this we understand that the wall
seen in the cut is that already mentioned as inclosing the
temple. Another ruined fortress found in this valley is given
earlier.

Fortress, Huatica Valley.

Twenty miles south of Lima, in the valley of the river Lurin, is
an important field of ruins, known as Pachacamac, which is still
the name of a small village in the neighborhood. We give a
general view of the ruins. The principal point of interest, about
it is the ruins of an old temple. Traditionally, this, is one of
the most interesting points in Peru. All the coast tribes were
very superstitious. We have already referred to the celebrated
temple near Lima. The temple at Pachacamac was of still greater
renown. Arriaga, a famous ecclesiastic, took an active part in
extirpating their idolatrous belief. From his accounts, it seems
they were much addicted to fortune-telling. Their gods were made
to give out oracles and their temples became renowned just in
proportion as their priests were shrewd in this matter.

Pachacamac.

Those at Pachacamac were especially skillful, and it is said,
pilgrims resorted to it from all parts of the coast. As a
consequence, it became very rich. The god that was worshiped here
was a fish-god. The name of this god, and the name of this old
town are alike lost to us. When the Incas conquered the coast
people, they imposed the name of one of their own divinities on
this temple, and by that name the place is now known to us.39

The ruins of the supposed temple are seen on the hill in the
background of the picture. A number of writers speak of this hill
in such terms as to imply that it was altogether artificial, like
the famous pyramid at Cholula.

Mr. Squier says that it is largely artificial, but that the
central core is a natural hill. He speaks of rocks cropping out
on the highest part, which seem to be conclusive of the matter.
They built up great terraces around this central core. These
terrace walls are now in such a ruined condition that they can
with difficulty be made out. We introduce this cut as a nearer
view of the ruins of the temple.

View of the Temple.

Some writers assert that the Incas erected on the summit of this
hill a temple of the sun. There are, however, no good proofs of
this assertion. According to Mr. Squier the only ruin of the Inca
type of architecture is a mile and a half distant. Mr. Hutchinson
noticed, on the very top of the hill, evidence of the same
mysterious proceedings to which we have already referred—that is,
great rooms all filled up with clay. He propounds this query:
“Whose hands carried up the enormous quantities of earth that
fill every space and allow no definition of rooms, halls, or,
indeed, of any thing but the clay itself, and the walls cropping
up from amongst them?” We are afraid this query can never be
answered. Mr. Hutchinson found graves to be very plentiful all
over the field of ruins. Quite a number of curiosities have been
found in these graves. We present in this cut some of the same.
We call especial attention to the duck-headed bowl. Compare, this
with the cut given in Chapter X, and we will be struck with the
similarity. Another view of the ruins at Pachacamac is given
earlier in this chapter. As in the case of the ruins of Grand
Chimu, the whole field of ruins was encompassed by a wall,
portions of which Mr. Hutchinson observed on the north,
stretching away from the sea inland. Explorers have found here
true arches. They are said to exist in Northern Peru. We are at a
loss to account for their appearance, for certainly the people
generally were ignorant of their use.

Relics from Graves at Pachacamac.

The valley of the Canete, the next one we meet going south, is a
very large and very fertile valley. It is also full of ruins, but
not differing enough from the others to justify a separate
description. About one hundred miles below Lima we notice three
small islands. These are the Chincha Islands, noticeable on
account of the immense quantities of guano they contain. It seems
that at various depths in this guano deposits are found relics of
man. In our next cut we present some of these objects. The two
small vessels which were probably water jars, were found buried
in the guano at a depth of sixty-two feet. The other figure, a
wooden idol, was found at the depth of thirty-five feet.

Relics found buried in Guano Deposits.

We have no very good data on which to rely when we attempt to
estimate the number of years required to bury the water jars to
the depth where found. Thousands of years must have passed.40 The
water jars are not rude forms. No little skill is indicated by
their formation. The wooden idol is not necessarily near as old
as the jars, but no one can doubt but that it dates from long
before the Inca conquest of the valley. Another collection of
small idols, and supposed royal emblems, also found in guano
deposits, but at an unknown depth, is shown earlier in this
chapter.

We have thus far been describing the ruins that occur in the
territory occupied by the coast tribes, a people in many ways
different from the great body of Peruvian people in the interior.
According to traditions, the conquest of the coast tribes took
place about one hundred and fifty years before the Spanish
conquest. The details of this conquest are given with great
precision. We doubt whether any great reliance can be placed upon
them. We might remark that while Garcillasso traces the progress
of the conquest from the south north, Salcamayhua reverses this
order, and makes the victorious Incas march from the north to the
south. One or the other made a mistake in traditions.

Prehistoric Pottery Ware.

The Inca conquest of the coast tribes was a very thorough one.
The names and traditions of the tribes were blotted out. The word
Yunca, by which they are known, is from the Inca language. The
same is true of the names of the coast valleys, and yet, from
what we have already learned of them, we feel sure that they were
very far from the degraded savages Garcillasso would have us
believe they were. The inhabitants of each valley formed a
distinct community under its own chief. De Leon says: “The chief
of each valley had a great house, with adobe pillars and
door-ways, hung with matting, built on extensive terraces.” This
might have been the official house of the tribe.

They were an industrious people, and the evidence is abundant
that they had made considerable advance in cultivation of the
ground. They “set apart every square foot of ground that could be
reached by water for cultivation, and built their dwellings on
the hillsides overlooking their fields and gardens. Their system
of irrigation was as perfect as any that modern science has since
adopted.41 It is an altogether mistaken idea to suppose the Incas
were the authors.

We are not without evidence that they were possessed of
considerable artistic skill. This preceding collection of pottery
ware is not the work of savages. Mr. Markham further tells us
that they made “silver and gold ornaments, mantles, embroidered
with gold and silver bezants, robes of feathers, cotton cloth of
fine texture, etc.” We have already referred to the tasteful
decorations of the walls of Grand Chimu. “Figures of colored
birds and animals are said to have been painted on the walls of
temples and palaces.” At Pachacamac the remains of this color are
still seen on a portion of the walls. This cut represents the
head of a silver cylinder found in one of the coast valleys. The
ornamentation is produced by hammering up from below.

Silver Cylinder Head.

We must now leave the coast regions and investigate some ruins in
the interior. We have already spoken of the Lake Titicaca region.
Not far from the southern border of that lake we notice a place
marked Tiahuanuco. Here occur a very interesting group of ruins.
They consist of “rows of erect stones, some of them rough, or but
rudely shaped by art, others accurately cut and fitted in walls
of admirable workmanship; long sections of foundations, with
piers and portions of stairways; blocks of stone, with mouldings,
cornices, and niches cut with geometrical precision, vast masses
of sandstone, trachyte, and basalt, but partially hewn, and great
monolithic doorways, bearing symbolical ornaments in relief,
besides innumerable smaller rectangular and symmetrically shaped
stones rise on every hand, or lie scattered in confusion over the
plain.”42 In fact, all explorers are loud in their praise of the
beautifully cut stones found in the ruins.

Terrace Wall, Tiahuanuco.

We have seen in our review how general has been the desire to
raise foundations, sometimes of great extent, on which to place
buildings. This is true of the ruins under consideration. Here
the pyramid or foundation was faced with stone work. In this
illustration we have a view of such a wall yet remaining in
place. The labor expended on such a wall was very great. We
notice in the cut three large standing stones. These are ranged
along at regular intervals between. No mortar was used in the
construction of the wall. If we examine the large standing stone
carefully we will notice on the side a sort of projecting
shoulder. The stones of the wall that come in contact with this
standing stone are cut to fit this shoulder.

Method of Joining Stone, Tiahuanuco.

The remaining stones in the wall were held in place by a peculiar
arrangement, illustrated in this cut. Round holes were drilled in
the bottom and top of each stone. There is reason to suppose that
bronze pins fitted into these holes. Furthermore, each stone was
cut with alternate grooves and projections, so as to fit
immovably into each other.

One case was observed where either the will has entirely
disappeared, or else it was left unfinished, and so we have a row
of these standing stones, as seen in this illustration. This has
been called the American Stonehenge name is inappropriate,
because we have no reason to suppose the plans of the builders of
the two structures were at all similar.

Pillars of Stone, Tiahuanuco.

The most celebrated feature of these ruins is the presence of
huge gateways, each one cut out of a solid mass of stone. We give
a view of the most noteworthy of these gateways. It is now
broken, tradition says, by a stroke of lightning.43 The upper
portion is covered with carvings.

Gateway, at Tiahuanuco.

North of Tiahuanuco is Lake Titicaca. This was the sacred lake of
the Incas. We have already referred to the probable origin of
this feeling. Near the southern end of this lake, on the western
side, is the peninsula of Copacabana. Separated by a narrow
strait from the northern extremity of this peninsula is the
sacred island, Titicaca. According to traditions, the Incas
sought, in all ways, to beautify this island. They built temples,
and laid out gardens. The hills were leveled as much as possible,
terraced, and then covered with earth brought from afar.
According to the statements of early writers, pilgrims were not
permitted to land on its sacred soil until they had undergone
certain preliminary fasts and purifications on the main-land.
Landing on the island, they traversed a terrace, and by a narrow
passage way they were conducted between two large buildings,
where other ceremonies were performed.

The most sacred spot in all the island was a rock in the northern
part. Only priests of especial sanctity were allowed near it. The
rock to-day presents but the appearance of a weather-worn mass of
red sandstone. It is traditionally represented as having been
plated all over with gold and silver, and covered, except on
solemn occasions with a mantle of rich color and material. Here
the sun was believed to have first risen to dispel the primal
darkness. To this day the Indians regard it with superstitious
veneration. The traveler’s guide, when he comes in sight of it,
removes his hat, and reverently bows to it, and mutters to
himself a few words of mystic import.44

Ruins on the Island of Titicaca.

The whole appearance of the island shows how highly it was
regarded. In one place the remains of a drinking fountain were
noticed. Streams from some unknown source were still bringing to
it their limpid burden. Perhaps as noticeable a ruin as any is
represented in this cut. It is called the Palace. It is in a
sheltered nook. The lake washes the very foot of the foundation
on which it stands. It is two-storied. In the lower story were
twelve rooms, so connected with each other that but four of them
communicated by doors with the outside. The others were certainly
dark and illy ventilated. The second story was entered by means
of the terrace in the rear. The same statement may be made in
regard to its rooms; they did not, however, at all correspond in
arrangement with the rooms below. The Island of Coati, but a
short distance to the south-east, was sacred to the moon. It has
also a number of ruins. The approach to this was guarded by a
number of terraces.

Ruins, Island of Coati.

We will describe one more class of ruins found abundantly in the
Collao region. These are burial towers, or chulpas. A view of one
is here presented. The chulpas are common in the Titicaca basin,
and usually occur in groups, and almost always in positions from
which a large extent of country can be viewed. The great mass of
a chulpa is solid, but within is a dome-shaped chamber, into
which the opening seen in the cut leads. Sometimes the chulpas
are round, and in some the masonry is of that variety we have
already mentioned, called the Cyclopean. Another view of burial
towers is given earlier in this chapter.

Burial Tower.

As a mere description of ruins becomes tiresome, we will now pass
to Cuzco, and see of what we can learn of the architecture of the
Incas. The Incas were, of course, a very rich and a very powerful
tribe. All the tribes of ancient Peru had to pay them tribute. We
way therefore suppose that the pueblo of Cuzco was well built,
the houses large, and imposing, and that the official buildings
for worship and tribal business would be commensurate with their
importance as a tribe. Yet we have but very few accounts of these
buildings. Immediately after the conquest, many of the Spanish
leaders settled in Cuzco. They made many changes in the various
edifices, and introduced into them many improvements. At present
in the modern city we still find portions of ancient walls, and
can trace the foundation of various buildings.

Terrace Wall at Cuzco.

The site of the city of Cuzco is very uneven. It stands on the
slopes of three hills, where as many rivulets come together. The
ancient builders had to resort to extensive terracing in order to
secure level surfaces on which to build. These terraces, built in
a substantial manner, and faced with stone, are still standing in
many places. In this illustration we have a view of such a wall.
Observe that the stones are not laid in regular courses, nor is
there any regularity as to their size. This is a good example of
a Cyclopean wall. Some of the stones must weigh several tons, and
they are fitted together with marvelous precision, one stone
having as many as twelve angles.

All accounts agree that the temple of the sun was the grandest
structure in Cuzco. We present an illustration of one end of it.
This end is slightly curving. It is necessary to remark that this
end now forms part of the Church of Santo Domingo. The
fine-looking window and balcony are modern additions to this
ancient building. According to Mr. Squier, the temple was an
oblong building, nearly three hundred feet long, by about fifty
in width. It formed one side of a spacious court. It did not
extend east and west, but rather north-east and south-west. Early
chroniclers affirm that the inner walls of this temple were
covered with gold. Portions of very thin plates of gold exist in
private museums in Cuzco, said to have formed part of this
covering. The end of the temple shown in our illustration was
covered with a great plate of gold intended to represent the sun.
This plate was all in one piece, and spread from wall to wall.

Temple of the Sun.

Only fragments of the ancient buildings of Cuzco now exist. But
enough are at hand to enable us to describe their general
characteristics. As a rule, they were built around a court, the
outer surface presenting the appearance of an unbroken wall.
These walls are excellent specimens of Inca masonry. All
travelers speak in their praise. Mr. Squier says: “The world has
nothing to show in the way of stone-cutting and fitting to
surpass the skill and accuracy displayed in the Inca structures
at Cuzco.” There was but one gateway to the court. This entrance
was broad and lofty. On the lintels, over the doorway, was
frequently carved the figure of a serpent. The apartments were
constructed so as to face the court, and nearly all opened upon
the same. In some cases rooms wore observed, to which access
could be obtained only after passing through several outer rooms.
Some of the walls yet remaining at Cuzco are from thirty-five to
forty feet high. This would indicate houses of two or three
stories.

It is here necessary to state that the structures we have been
describing are considered by most writers as palaces of the Inca
chiefs. Names hive been bestowed upon them—such as the palace of
Huayna Capac. It is asserted that each Inca chief built a
separate palace. The credulous traveler is even pointed to a pile
of ruins said to have been the palace of that mythical personage,
Manco Capac. There is some conflict of authority as to the names
of these palaces. Modern tradition names one of the most imposing
piles as the palace of Inca Rocca, and as such it is described by
Mr. Squier and others. Garcillasso De La Vega says this chief’s
palace was in an altogether different part of the city.45 Those
who call these buildings palaces, think the houses of the
ordinary people have all disappeared. It is evident, however,
that if our views of the state of society among the Incas be
right, that it is a misnomer to call these structures palaces.
Some of them may have been public buildings, devoted to tribal
purposes. But we need not doubt but that this was the type of
communal buildings erected by the natives of Cuzco.

Fortress Walls.

We must describe one more piece of aboriginal work. This is the
celebrated Fortress of Cuzco. As we have stated, the ancient
pueblo, or city@, was built on the slopes of three hills. One of
these, easily defended, was strongly fortified, and thus
converted into a citadel. Though called a hill, it is in reality
a projecting headland. Back of it rise still higher hills. The
portion overhanging the city is very precipitous, in fact, almost
incapable of ascent. There is, however, a pathway up this front,
ascending in places by stone steps. On this front it did not need
very strong fortifications, yet sections of stone wall, serving
for this purpose, are to be seen. They have been mostly thrown
down, and the stones rolled or tumbled down the hill to be
utilized in building. The main defensive works are where the
headland commences, from which point the city is not visible.

Section of Fortress Walls.

In this illustration we have a view of the three massive walls
which defended the citadel. They are really wonderful works. In
order to understand the construction, we will present an
imaginary section of the walls. The walls support terraces, but
they rose above the terraces so as to form a parapet. To prevent
the accumulation of water behind the parapet, channels were cut
through the walls at regular intervals to drain them. The height
of the outer wall is at present twenty-seven feet; the width of
the terrace thirty-five feet. The second wall is eighteen feet
high; the width of its terrace is also eighteen feet. The height
of the third wall is fourteen feet.

Quippos, or Knot Record.

The Incas divided the year into twelve months, but we do not
learn how they kept track of the years. In this respect they were
behind the Mexicans. Neither do we know of any hieroglyphics for
days, or months, or years. In the matter of keeping records, they
must have been far below the Mexicans. Our next illustration is
that of one of their knot records, or quippos. It is a very rude
attempt to assist the memory. To the base cord are attached other
threads of various colors, and tied in various ways. We, of
course, know but very little about them. It is claimed, however,
that a red thread signified a soldier, or war; a yellow one
signified gold; a white one silver, or peace; a green one wheat,
or maize. A single knot is said to have stood for ten; two knots,
twenty; a knot doubly intertwined, one hundred, etc. Also the
position of the knots on the threads was to be considered, their
distance apart, the way the threads were twisted, and many other
details.46 It is manifest, however, that this system of records
is of very little value, and is way below the picture-writing of
the Mexicans.

Take it all in all, the Incas are indeed an interesting people.
We believe, however, their culture has been greatly overrated.
Our object in this chapter has been to give an outline of the
Incas and the tribes subject to them. It is impossible in these
few pages to give more than an outline. Should the reader, by the
perusal of these pages, acquire an interest in the culture of the
Andean people just before the Spanish invasion, and be thereby
induced to continue his investigations, the writer will consider
such a result reward enough, even though the conclusions reached
should be totally opposed to those set forth in this chapter on
Ancient Peru.

REFERENCES

Xeres: “Report on the Discovery of Peru,” Markham’s
translation, Hakluyt Society’s Publication.

Buckle’s “History of Civilization,” chap. ii.

Squier’s “Peru,” p. 9. The Vicuna is a species of the llama.

Squier’s “Peru,” p. 12. The quinoa is a species of plant of the
same genus as our pig-weeds. But it is a larger plant, and its
seeds give a very nutritious meal. The biscacha is about the
size and shape of the rabbit. It belongs to the chinchilla
family. The llama is the only representative of the camel
family on the western hemisphere. There were three species of
this genus in Peru, the llama, alpaca, and vicuna. These
domesticated and constituted what the Spaniards in their first
reports called sheep.

Squier’s “Peru,” p. 12.

Morton’s “Crania Americanæ” pp. 6, 83. Winchell’s
“Pre-Adamites,” p. 388.

H. L. Morgan. “Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the
Human Family,” p. 255; other works by the same author, “House
and House-life of American Aborigines,” and “Ancient Society.”

The Quichuas were a closely related tribe to the Incas, and
their name has been given to the language of Peru. But as the
Incas were the ruling tribe, their name should have been given
to this family of languages.

“The Geographical Distribution of the Tribes of the Inca
Empire,” in “Journal of the Geographical Society,” Vol. XLI, p.
281, _et seq._

“Peru,” p. 571.

Foster’s “Prehistoric Races,” p. 375. The Zuñi Indians have
indeed preserved a tradition of the visit of Coronado three
hundred and fifty years ago, but in such a form that no one not
acquainted with the facts would guess the meaning. “Fifth
Annual Report Archæological Institute,” p. 40.

More than one-third of Mr. Prescott’s quotations are from this
authority.

Morton.

This idea was largely based on the differences of the skulls.
On this point see “Fourth Annual Report Peabody Museum.” Some
authors speak rather vaguely of the ancient race of the
Titicaca basin. We know of no good foundation for such
expressions.

Garcillasso impresses on his readers the idea that the Incas
was the only tribe at all civilized. The Aymara Indians were
certainly as far advanced as the Incas, and even surpassed them
in the art of cutting stone, if we conclude the ruins at
Tiahuanuco to be of Aymara origin. The tribes of the coast
region were certainly not far behind. The Muyscas, of Bogota,
who were never under the dominion of the Incas, were yet
possessed of a high degree of culture.

Markham in Forbes’s “Aymara Indians,” p. 111.

“Peru,” p. 427.

“It was from Cuzco the nearest point to the sun-rising.”
(Markham.)

Their name for the Titicaca basin.

Markham, in Forbes’s “Aymara Indians.”

_American Antiquarian,_ Sept., 1884, p. 295, _et seq._

It is manifest that, during the centuries of slow development
which the Incas underwent, they had a great many chiefs. How
many we shall never know. Garcillasso gives us a list of
fourteen, including Huascar and Atahualpa. Montesino generously
increases this number to one hundred and one. Neither of them
knew any thing positive about it; but this latter number is the
more reasonable of the two. Mr. Markham, who goes at the
problem in another way, thinks there were five historical
Incas, counting Huayna-Capac the last. He surmises that the
first may have flourished two hundred years before the
conquest.

Markham’s Garcillasso’s “Royal Commentaries,” Vol. I, p. 66.

Markham’s translation, p. 151.

Morgan’s “Ancient Society,” p. 100.

Our authority is Christoval Molina, a priest of Cuzco. He made
a report to the bishop, which must have been written some time
between 1570 and 1584, on the “Fables and Rites of the Incas.”
This was translated by Markham, and published by Hakluyt
Society in 1873. He obtained his information by gathering
together a number of aged Indians, including some priests, who
had participated in these ceremonies in the days of the Incas.

This writer, a native Indian, wrote about the same time as
Garcillasso.

“Fables and Rites of the Incas,” p. 105.

“Peruvian Antiquities,” p. 105.

“Peru,” p. 5.

Many such quotations could be given, not only from Garcillasso,
but from Molina, Salcamayhua, and others.

Address before the Historical Society of New Mexico.

We can not help wondering if the Incas did not have two chief
executives. This would make them similar to the Iroquois, and
most of the more southern tribes, such as we have already seen
to be true of the Mexicans. Mr. Bandelier says there is
abundant proof that the Incas had two chiefs—one the
“dispensing Inca,” the other the “speaking head.”
(“Archæological Tour in Mexico,” p. 167, note 6.)

“Travels,” Markham’s Translation, p. 164.

In Forbes’s “Aymara Indians,” p. 109.

Indian architecture from the Sioux lodge to the houses of
Uxmal, Mitla, and Tiahuanuco, is only understood through Indian
social organization.” (Bandelier.)

“Peru,” p. 214.

“Two Years in Peru,” Vol. I, p. 283.

Markham’s “Introduction,” to “Report on the Discovery of Peru.”

“In this case it is nonsense to talk of hundreds.”
(Hutchinson.)

Markham, in Journal of the Royal Geog. Society, Vol. XLI.

Squier’s “Peru,” p. 375.

The dimensions are: Length, thirteen feet five inches; height
above ground, seven feet two inches; thickness, one foot six
inches. (Squier.)

Squier’s “Peru,” p. 336.

Markham, in “Journal of Geog. Soc.,” Vol. XLI.

“Peruvian Antiquities,” p. 110.

The End.