Chapter IV: Cave-Men.1

Other sources of Information—History of Cave Exploration—The
formation of Caves—Exploration in Kent’s Cavern—Evidence of two
different races—The higher culture of the later race—Evidence of
prolonged time—Exploration of Robin Hood Cave—Explorations in
Valley of the River Meuse—M. Dupont’s conclusions—Explorations in
the Valley of the Dordogne—The Station at Schussenreid—Cavemen
not found south of the Alps— Habitations of the Cave-men—Cave-men
were Hunters—Methods of Cooking—Destitute of the Potter’s
art—Their Weapons—Clothing—Their skill in Drawing—Evidence of a
Government—Of Religious belief—Race of the Cave-men—Distinct from
the men of the Drift—Probable Connection with the Eskimos.

We have been delving, among the sands of ancient river bottoms
for a proof of man’s existence in far remote times. Slight and
unsatisfactory as they may be to some, they are the materials
with which we reconstruct a wondrous story of life and times
removed from us by many a cycle of years.

Men have frequently resorted to the caverns of the earth for
protection. In places we find caves that served this purpose
during the Paleolithic Age. The men of the Drift, however, do not
appear to have used them, save as temporary places of refuge,
perhaps as a protection from bands of savage enemies, or from
unusually inclement weather. But yet most surprising results have
attended the exploration of caves in England, France, and
Belgium. We find in those gloomy places that the men of the Drift
were not the only tribes of men inhabiting Europe during the
Glacial Age. In fact, living at later date than the Drift tribes,
but still belonging to the Paleolithic Age, were tribes of people
who appear to have utilized caverns and grottoes as places of
permanent resort, and, judging from their remains, they had made
considerable advance in the arts of living as compared with the
tribes of the Drift.

But before pointing out the grounds upon which these conclusions
rest, it may be well to give a slight review of the history of
cave research. The dread and awe which kept people away from
caves during the Middle Ages preserved their contents for later
discoverers. In the seventeenth century, some adventurous spirits
began to search in them for what they called Unicorn horns, which
were deemed a most efficacious remedy for various diseases. This
search served the good purpose of bringing to light various
fossil bones of animals, and calling the attention of scientific
men to the same.

The cave of Gailenreuth, in Bavaria, was explored by Dr. Goldfuss
in 1810. He came to the conclusion that the bones of bears and
other extinct animals were proofs of the former presence of the
animals themselves. Dr. Buckland, a celebrated English writer,
visited the cave in 1816, and became much interested in the work;
so much so that when Kirkdale Cavern, in England, was discovered
in 1821, he at once repaired to the spot and made a careful
exploration. The results satisfied him that hyenas and other
extinct animals had once lived in England. He followed up his
explorations in a number of cases, and published a work on this
subject in 1822, which marks the commencement of a new era in
cave research.

In 1825 Kent’s Cavern, near Torquay, was discovered, and Rev. J.
McEnry made partial explorations in it. He discovered flint
implements and perceived they might be a proof of the presence of
man with these extinct animals. Dr. Buckland had not found these
relics, or else had passed them by as of no importance, for he
refused to entertain the theory that man and the extinct animals
had been contemporaneous. Explorations made in France in 1827-8
had furnished such strong evidence on this point that it was
deemed established by some scholars, but being opposed to the
prevailing belief, nothing came of it.

Gailenreuth.

In 1829 Schmerling commenced his investigations in the caves of
the valley of the Meuse. For years he continued his work under
many difficulties. Sir Charles Lyell tells us he was let down day
after day to the opening of the Engis Cave by a rope tied to a
tree. Arriving there he crawled on all fours through a narrow
passage way to the enlarged chamber, where, standing in mud and
water, he superintended the investigations. He examined over
forty of those caves, and published his results in 1833. He
clearly showed that man must have been living along with various
animals now extinct in Belgium. But, as before remarked, it was
deemed sufficient answer to this careful explorer to point out
that his results were opposed to the accepted chronology, and so
they were passed by. When the time at last came, and their true
worth was recognized, Schmerling himself had passed away.

We have already seen what great results followed the exploration
of DePerthes in the river gravels. When it had been clearly
established that man and extinct animals hid coexisted in Europe,
the results of cave explorations were eagerly recalled, and
governments vied with royal societies and private individuals in
continuing the researches. The results are that a rich store of
facts has been gathered from those gloomy resorts, illustrative
of the later stages of Paleolithic art.

A word as to the formation of caves, grottoes, caverns, and rock
shelters. These vary greatly in size, some being so small as to
furnish protection to but few individuals; others, especially
caves, so large that whole tribes might have found a place of
resort within their chambers. They are found in all limestone
countries. The formation of caves is now recognized as due to
natural causes acting slowly through many years. Limestone rock
is very hard and durable, but chemistry teaches us that water
charged with carbonic acid gas will readily dissolve it.
Rain-water falling from the clouds is sure to come in contact
with masses of decaying vegetable matter, which we know is
constantly giving off quantities of this gas. Laden with this the
water sinks into the ground, and, if it comes in contact with
limestone, readily washes some of it away in solution. But beds
of limestone rock are noted for containing great fissures through
which subterranean waters penetrate far into the ground. We can
readily see how this percolating water would dissolve and wear
away the surface of the rocks along such a fissure, and in
process of time we would have the phenomenon of a stream of water
flowing under ground.

Owing to a great many causes—such, for instance, as the meeting
of another fissure—we would expect that portions of this
underground way would become enlarged to spacious halls. In some
such a way as this it is now understood that all caves have
originated.

Owing to many natural causes the river may, after a while, cease
to flow, leaving enlarged portions of its channel behind as a
succession of chambers in a cave. But water would still come
trickling in from the tops and sides, and be continuously
dripping to the floor, where it speedily evaporates. When such is
the case it leaves behind it the limestone it held in solution.
So, in process of time, if the deposition is undisturbed, there
will be formed over the floor of the cave a more or less
continuous layer of limestone matter known as stalagmite. The
same formations on the top and sides of the cave are called
stalactites. In places where the drip is continuous the
stalactite gradually assumes the shape of an immense icicle;
while the stalagmite on the floor of the cave, underneath the
drip, rises in a columnar mass to meet the descending stalactite.
A union of these is not uncommon, and, we have pillars and
columns presenting the strange, fantastic appearance on which
tourists delight to dwell in their notes of travel.

While these accumulations are in all cases very slow, still we
can not measure the time since it commenced by the rate of
present growth, because this rate varies greatly at different
times and places even in the same cave. And we must also remark
that this complete series of changes only occur in a few
localities, the majority of caves being insignificant in size.2

From what has been said as to the formation of caves, we would
expect them to occur in river valleys, and this is the case,
though in some instances there have been such immense changes in
the surface level of the country that we can now find no trace of
rivers near them. This is exactly similar to some gravel
deposits, which, as we have seen, are occasionally found where is
now no running water. The most noted caverns, however, are found
high up on the banks of existing rivers. We can not doubt that
the rivers were the cause of the caves. But having excavated
their beds below the level of the then existing caves, they
ceased to flow in them, and left them to be occupied by savage
animals and the scarcely less savage men. But at times, swollen
by floods, the river would again assert its supremacy and roll
its waters through its old channels.

These floods would not only tear up and rearrange whatever
_débris_ had already accumulated, but would introduce quantities
of sediment and animal remains. In some such a manner as is here
pointed out (though exactly how geologists are not agreed) caves
were invaded, after being long occupied by men or animals, by
floods of water. In many cases the evidence would seem to
indicate that after such a visitation by water the cave and its
water-rolled and water-arranged contents were left to silence,
visited by neither man nor beast. In such instances stalagmitic
coverings would gradually form over the confused _débris,_ and in
some places acquire a thickness of several feet. In some
instances several such floors are found one above the other,
pointing to a prolonged period of usage, and then a quiet stage,
in which the drip of falling water alone broke the silence, and
nature sealed up another chapter of cave biography beneath the
layer of stalagmite.

One of the most important caves of England is Kent’s Cavern,
before mentioned. This cave was carefully explored under the
direction of a committee appointed by the British Association,
and to show the care and thoroughness of the work we need only
state that this work occupied the greater portion of sixteen
years, and hence the results obtained may be regarded as, in a
general way, illustrative of the life of the cave dwellers. “This
cave is about a mile east of Torquay harbor, and is of a sinuous
character, running deeply into a hill of Devonian limestone,
about half a mile distant from the sea. In places it expands into
large chambers, to which various distinctive names have been
given.”3

Let us see what general results have been reached by this
committee. The investigation disclosed several different beds of
stalagmite, cave earth, and breccia. The lowest layer is a
breccia.4 The matrix is sand of a reddish color, containing many
pieces of rock known as red-grit and some pieces of quartz. This
implies the presence of running water, which at times washed in
pieces of red-grit. The surface features must have been quite
different from the present, since now this rock does not form any
part of the hill into which this cave opens.5And this change in
drainage took place before this lowest layer was completed, since
not only bears, but men, commenced to visit the cave. The
presence of bears is shown by numerous bones, and that of man by
his implements.

Spear-head—Lower Breccia, Kent’s Cavern.

We must notice that all the implements found in the breccia are
similar to those of the Drift, being rudely formed and massive.
No doubt these are the remains of Drift men, who, for some cause
or other, temporarily visited the cave, perhaps contending with
the cave bear for its possession. But a time at length arrived
when for some reason neither animals nor man visited the cave.
The slow accumulation of stalagmite went forward until in some
places it had obtained a thickness of twelve feet. Freely
admitting that we can not determine the length of time demanded
for this deposition, yet none can doubt that it requires a very
long time indeed. Says Mr. Geikie: “How many centuries rolled
past while that old pavement was slowly accreting, no one can
say; but that it represents a lapse of ages compared to which the
time embraced by all tradition and written history is but as a
few months, who that is competent to form an opinion can doubt?”
But after this long period of quiet, from some source great
torrents of water came rolling through the cave. We know this to
be so, because in places it broke up this layer of stalagmite and
washed it away, as well as large portions of the breccia below,
and after the floods had ceased, occasionally inundations still
threw down layers of mud and silt. This accumulation is known as
cave earth, and is the layer containing the numerous remains of
the Cave-men. Here the explorers were not only struck with the
large number of implements, but at once noticed that they were of
a higher form and better made. Instead of the rude and massive
implements of the Drift tribes, we have more delicate forms
chipped all around. And we also meet with those that from their
form may have been used as the heads of spears or arrows. Flakes
were also utilized for various purposes. We also find implements,
weapons, and ornaments of bone—a step in advance of Drift
culture. They had “harpoons for spearing fish, eyed needles or
bodkins for stitching skins together, awls perhaps to facilitate
the passage of the slender needle through the tough, thick hides;
pins for fastening the skins they wore, and perforated badgers’
teeth for necklaces or bracelets.”6 Nothing of this kind has yet
been shown as belonging to the men of the Drift.

Flake—Cave-earth,<BR>Kent’s Cavern and Spear-head—, Kent’s
Cavern.

The bones of a large number of animals are also found in the cave
earth. The most abundant is the hyena, and no doubt they dragged
in a great many others; but the agency of man is equally
apparent, as the bones have often been split for the extraction
of marrow. Besides bones of the hyena, we have also those of the
lion, tiger, bear, and reindeer.7

Harpoons, Pin, Awl, and Needle—Kent’s Cavern.

With these animals man, from time to time, disputed possession of
the cave. At one place on the surface of the cave earth is found
what is known as the “black band.” This is nothing more or less
than the fire-place of these old tribes. Here we find fragments
of partially consumed wood, bones showing the action of fire—in
short, every thing indicating a prolonged occupancy by man.

No one can doubt but that this deposit of cave earth itself
requires a prolonged time for its accumulation.8 But this period,
however prolonged, at length comes to an end. From some cause,
both animals and man again abandoned the cave. Another vast cycle
of years rolls away—a time expressed in thousands of years—during
which nature again spread over the entombed remains a layer of
stalagmite, in some places equal in thickness to the first
formation. Above this layer we come to a bed of mold containing
remains of the later Stone Age, of the Bronze, and even of the
Iron Age. Below the first layer of stalagmite—the completed
biography of Paleolithic times; above, the unfinished book of the
present. Such are the eloquent results obtained by the thorough
exploration of one cave. The results of all the other
explorations, in a general way, confirm these. Mr. Dawkins
explored a group of caverns in Derbyshire, England. These caverns
and fissures are situated in what is known as Cresswell Crags,
the precipitous sides of a ravine through which flows a stream of
water dividing the counties of Derby and Nottingham.

This cut represents the different strata in Robin Hood cave. It
will be seen that, at one place, the stalactite has united with
the stalagmite below. It is not necessary to go into the details
of this exploration. All the relics of man found in _d, c,_ and
the lower portions of _b,_ are the rude and massive forms
peculiar to the River Drift tribes. But the relics found in the
breccia _a,_ and the upper portion of the cave earth _b,_ denote
a sudden advance in culture. The rude tools of the lower strata
are replaced by more highly finished ones of flint.

Robin Hood Cave.

The most important discovery was that of a small fragment of rib,
with its polished surface ornamented with the incised figure of a
horse. The peculiar value of this discovery is, that it serves to
connect the Cave-men of England with those of the continent who,
as we shall afterward see, excelled in artistic work of this
kind.

In another cave of this series, in association with similar
flints, were found the following bone implements. We can only
conjecture the use of the notched bone. The pieces of reindeer
horn, terminating in a scoop, may have served as a spoon to
extract marrow.

Horse Incised on Piece of Rib.

We must not fail to notice that the more highly finished relics
of the Cave-men are found in strata overlying those of the River
Drift; and, in the case of Kent’s Cavern, these two sets of
implements are separated by a layer of stalagmite requiring a
very prolonged time for its formation. This would imply that the
Cave-men came into England long after the tribes of the River
Drift; and, judging from the relics themselves, they must have
been a distinct people. We must recall how completely the climate
and animals in England varied during the Glacial Age. We have
also seen how closely connected the River Drift tribes were with
the animals of the warm temperate regions. Coming at a later
date, totally distinct from them in culture are those
Cave-men—perhaps they may prove to be associated with the Arctic
animals. But, before speculating on this point, we must learn the
results attending the exploration of the caves of Belgium,
France, and other countries on the continent of Europe.

Bone Implements—Cresswell Crags.

In the valley of the river Meuse (Belgium), and its tributaries,
have been found a number of caves and rock-shelters. It was in
the caves of the Meuse that Schmerling made his explorations.
When the real value of his work was recognized, the Belgian
government had a thorough exploration made by M. Dupont, director
of the Royal Museum in Brussels. This gentleman scientifically
examined forty-three of these resorts. His opinions, therefore,
are deserving of great weight; but, unfortunately, they are not
accepted by all. These caves vary greatly in size—many being mere
rock-shelters. From their position, we are at once struck with
the prolonged period of time necessary to explain their
formation. They are found at very different heights along the
river’s bank. In one case two caves are so situated that the
river must have sunk its bed nearly two hundred feet between the
time of their formation.9

M. Dupont thinks the evidence very clearly points to the presence
of two distinct stages in cave life—one of which he calls the
Mammoth period, and the other, which is more recent, the
Reindeer. It is, however, known that the mammoth lived all
through the Reindeer epoch, if not to later times; so the names
bestowed on these periods do not seem very appropriate. We can
readily see, however, that, while the names might be wrong, the
two periods might be reality. In many cases, the same cave
contained remains of both stages, separated by layers of cave
earth, and it is noticed that, in such cases, those of the
Reindeer stage are invariably of a later date. In general terms,
M. Dupont finds that the implements of the Mammoth period are of
a rude make, consisting of a poor kind of flint, and poorly
finished. But, in beds of the Reindeer epoch, the flint
implements consist, principally, of well-shaped blades and
flakes—with numerous bodkins, or awls—javelins, or arrow-heads
—besides articles of bone and horn such as harpoons, and teeth of
various animals drilled as if suspended for ornaments. Their
workmanship indicates decidedly more skill than that of the
implements obtained from the lower levels. But the most
remarkable finds of the Reindeer epoch consist of portions of
reindeer horn, showing etchings or engravings which have been
traced by some sharp point, no doubt by a flint implement. One
small bit of horn has been cut or scraped so as to present the
rude outline of a human figure.

So far the evidence seems to bear out the same conclusions as do
those of the British caves, though it also shows that the men of
the Drift inhabited caves quite extensively. We must remember,
however, that the greatest wealth of cave relics belongs to the
so-called Cave-men, but that savage tribes have always resorted
to caves as a place for occasional habitation.10

It is in France that we find the greatest wealth of relics of
Cave-men. Sir John Lubbock has left us a description of the
valley of the Vezère, where these caverns occur. The Vezère is a
small tributary of the Dordogne. “The rivers of the Dordogne run
in deep valleys cut through calcareous strata: and while the
sides of the valley in chalk districts are generally sloping, in
this case, owing probably to the hardness of the rock, they are
frequently vertical. Small caves and grottoes frequently occur:
besides which, as the different strata possess unequal power of
resistance against atmospheric influence, the face of the rock
is, as it were, scooped out in many places, and thus
‘rock-shelters’ are produced. In very ancient times these caves
and rock-shelters were inhabited by men, who have left behind
them abundant evidence of their presence.

“But as civilization advanced, man, no longer content with the
natural but inconvenient abode thus offered to him, excavated
chambers for himself, and in places the whole face of the rock is
honey-combed with doors and windows, leading into suits of rooms,
often in tiers one over the other, so as to suggest the idea of a
French Petra. Down to a comparatively recent period, as, for
instance, in the troublous times of the Middle Ages, many of
these, no doubt, served as very efficient fortifications, and
even now some of them are in use as store-houses, and for other
purposes, as, for instance, at Brantome, where there is an old
chapel cut in solid rock.

“Apart from the scientific interest, it was impossible not to
enjoy the beauty of the scene which passed before our eyes, as we
dropped down the Vezère. As the river visited sometimes one side
of the valley, sometimes the other, so we had at one moment rich
meadow lands on each side, or found ourselves close to the
perpendicular and almost overhanging cliff. Here and there we
came upon some picturesque old castle, and though the trees were
not in full leaf, the rocks were, in many places, green with box
and ivy and evergreen oak, which harmonized well with the rich
yellow brown of the stone itself.”11

Thus it will be seen this valley has been a favorite resort for
people at widely different times, and amongst others, the cave
dwellers of the Paleolithic Age. As in the caves of Belgium, some
of them are at a considerable height above the stream, while
others are but little above the present flood line. Mr. Dawkins
refers us to the results of the exploration of a French scientist
in one of the grottoes of this section, which seem to be exactly
similar to the results obtained from the caves of Cresswell Crags
and Kent’s Cavern. The implements obtained from the two lower
strata are rough choppers and rude flakes of jasper and other
simple forms. Above these beds was a stratum of black earth,
underneath a sheet of stalagmite. Here were found implements of a
far higher type: those of flints, consisting of flakes, saws, and
scrapers, with finely chipped heads and arrow-heads, and awls and
arrow-heads of bone and antler.12 Now these results can only be
interpreted as were those in the English caverns. The lower and
ruder implements belong to the men of the Drift; the later and
more polished ones to the Cave-men.

Bone Implements, Dordogne Caves.

Most of the relics obtained from these caverns belong to the
Cave-men proper. However, the implements from one of them, known
as Le Moustier, are of a rude type, and may belong to those of
the Drift. But most of them are of superior make and finish.
These specimens are all from caves in this vicinity.13

We have seen that the men of the Drift were very widely scattered
over the earth. We find, however, that the Cave-men had a much
more limited range. Dr. Fraas has shown their presence in
Germany. At Schussenreid, in Bavaria, was found an open air
station of these people. It was evidently a camping-ground, one
of the few places where proofs of their presence have been
discovered outside of caves. Here we found the usual _débris,_
consisting of broken bones, charcoal, blackened hearth-stone, and
implements of flint and horn. We must stop a minute to notice a
bit of unexpected proof as to the severity of climate then
prevailing in Europe. This deposit was covered up with sand, and
on this sand were the remains of moss, sufficiently perfect to
determine the kind. We are assured that it is composed of species
now found only in Alpine regions, near or above the snow-line,
and in such northern countries as Greenland and Spitzbergen.14
Dr. Fraas also proved their presence in several caves in Suabia.
One known as the Hohlefels Cave was very rich in these relics.
They have been found in Switzerland, as at Thayengen; but are not
found south of the Alps or the Pyrenees. Men, indeed, inhabited
caves in Italy, but they did not use the implements
characteristic of the Cave-men.15 Mr. Dawkins points out that
this range corresponds very nearly to that of the northern group
of animals, thus differing widely from the men of the River
Drift. In this connection we must notice that the reindeer is the
animal whose remains are most commonly met with in the _débris_
they have left in the caves. This animal surely testifies to a
cold climate. We are thus justified in concluding that the
Cave-men are associated with the Arctic group of animals.16

We must now turn our attention to the culture of the Cave-men. We
must reflect that long ages, with great changes of climate and
life, both animal and vegetable, have rolled away since the
remains of these early races were sealed by the stalagmite
formation in caves. The relics at their best are but scanty
memorials of a people long since passed, and we can not expect,
can not hope, to recover more than a general outline. But this
will be found full of interest, for it is a picture of
Paleolithic life and times existing in Europe long ages before
the pyramids of Egypt were uplifted.

With respect to habitations, we have already seen that he took up
his abode in caves, at least where they were suitable. According
to their depth and the light penetrating them, he either occupied
the whole extent of them, or established himself in the outlet
only. About the center of the cave some slabs of stone, selected
from the hardest rock such as sandstone or slate, were bedded
down in the ground, and formed the hearth for cooking his food.
But in no country are such resorts sufficiently numerous to
shelter a large population; besides, they, are generally at some
distance from the fertile plains, where game would be most
abundant. In such cases they doubtless constructed rude huts of
boughs, skins, or other materials. Such an out-door settlement
was the station at Solutré, France, where has been found an
immense number of bones of horses, reindeers, also, though in
less abundance, those of elephants, aurochs, and great lions.17

Rock Shelter at Bruniquel.

Where no cave presented itself, these people made for themselves
convenient sheltering places under the cover of some great
overhanging rock. In various places in France such resorts have
been discovered. The name of “rock shelters” has been given to
such resorts. In such places, where we may suppose they built
rude huts, are found rich deposits of the bones of mammals,
birds, and fishes, as well implements of bone and horn.

We have frequently referred to the presence of hearths, showing
that they used fire. Like other rude races, it is probable that
they obtained fire by the friction of one piece of wood upon
another. M. Dupont found in one of the Belgium caves a piece of
iron pyrites, from which, with a flint, sparks could be struck.

Speculations have been indulged as to the probable condition of
man before he obtained a knowledge of fire. If the acquisition of
fire be regarded as one of the results of human endeavor, it must
surely be classed as one of the most valuable discoveries which
mankind has made. We do not believe, however, that we shall ever
discover relics of races or tribes of men so low in the scale as
to be ignorant of the use of fire. Even some of the flints which
M. Bourgeois would refer to the Miocene Age show evidence of its
action.18

The men of the Caves supported life by hunting. But a very small
part of their food supplies could have been drawn from the
vegetable kingdom. When the climate was so severe that Alpine
mosses grew at Schussenreid, acorns and like nuts would be about
all they could procure from that source. The animals hunted by
the Cave-men were principally reindeer, horses, bisons, and,
occasionally mammoths and woolly rhinoceros. But they were not
very choice in this matter, as they readily accepted as food any
animal they could obtain by force or cunning. Wolves and foxes
were not rejected, and in one cave large numbers of the bones of
the common water rat were obtained. We know what animals were
used as food, because we find their bones split for the purpose
of procuring the marrow they contained. This was evidently to
them a nutritious article of diet, since they were careful to
open all the bones containing it, and bones so split are
frequently the only means of detecting the former presence of man
in some bone caves.

We must not forget that at that time the shore of the Atlantic
Ocean, during a large part of the Paleolithic Age, was situated
much farther west than it is now, and so in all probability many
refuse heaps are now underneath the waves. From certain drawings
that are found in some French caves, we know they were used for
hunting both seals and whales.

We can not doubt that the capture of a whale afforded as much
enjoyment to them as it does to a tribe of Eskimos now. Bones of
birds and fishes are found in many instances. The salmon appears
to have been a favorite among fishes. Among the birds are found
some species now only living in cold countries, such as the snowy
owl, willow grouse, and flamingo. This is but another proof that
the climate of Europe was then very cold.

Whale and Seal, Incised on Bone.

The Cave-men were not afraid to attack animals greatly superior
to them in strength. In the Hohlefels Cave in Germany were found
great quantities of the broken and split bones of cave bears, an
animal very similar to the grizzly, and probably its equal in
strength. The reindeer was the main reliance of these tribes. Its
bones are found in great abundance, and it doubtless was to them
all it is to the Lapps of Europe to-day, except, of course, that
it was not domesticated.

Though fire would naturally suggest some rude method of cooking,
we can scarcely find a trace of such operations, and it has been
a matter of conjecture how they proceeded. Sir John Lubbock
thinks they boiled their food, and in the absence of pottery used
wooden or skin vessels, bringing the water to a boiling point by
means of stones heated red hot and thrown into the water. He
points out the presence of peculiarly shaped stones found in some
caves, which he thinks were used for this purpose.19 It is not
supposed they had any articles of pottery during this epoch. This
is quite an important point, because a knowledge of pottery marks
an important epoch in the culture of a people.

Cave Bear, Incised on Slate.

A people possessed of this knowledge have passed from Savagism
into the lower status of Barbarism.20 A piece of pottery is as
little liable to destruction as a piece of bone, and so, had
those people possessed pottery, there is no reason why pieces of
it should not be found in every refuse heap, and amongst the
_débris_ of all caves. But such is not the case; no fragments of
pottery have yet been found which can be referred with confidence
to the epoch of the Cave-men.21

Some speculations have been indulged in as to whether the men of
this age were cannibals or not. It need occasion no surprise if
they were, since ancient writers assert that even during
historical times this practice prevailed in Europe.22 Though not
definitely proven there are many facts difficult of explanation,
except on this supposition. However, it may well be that this,
after all, only amounted to the custom of eating parts of an
enemy killed in battle, as certain modern savages do that we
would not call cannibals.23

It is not necessary to speak at much length of the methods of
hunting. They had bows and arrows, daggers of reindeer horn,
spears tipped with flint or bone, and harpoons. Besides, they
made a formidable club of the lower jaw-bone of the cave-bear
with its canine tooth still left in its place. Fishing with nets
is not supposed to have been known, Harpooning was probably their
favorite way. M. G. DeMortillet thinks they fished as follows:
They fastened a cord to the middle of a small splinter of bone.
This was then baited, and when swallowed by the fish, was very
certain to get caught in the body.24

We know that rude tribes of to-day have many means of snaring
animals. Doubtless similar scenes were enacted on their primeval
hunting-grounds. French books contain illustrations of the men of
this period driving game over precipitous sides. They had no dogs
to assist them in the hunt, and though reindeer were around them
in great abundance, it is not supposed that they thought of
domesticating them.

Man is the only animal which seeks to protect his body from the
Summer’s heat or the cold of Winter by the use of clothing. We
are, unfortunately, not able to present many details of the dress
of man during the early Stone Age. We are, however, quite certain
that when the climate was severe enough to permit such animals as
the musk-sheep and the reindeer to inhabit South-western Europe,
man must have been provided with an abundance of warm clothing,
though doubtless rudely made and fashioned. Many reindeer horns
found in France are cut and hacked at the base in such a way as
to indicate that it was done when removing the skins. We also
know that the rudest of savage tribes are never at a loss for
some process of tanning hides and rendering them fit for use.
From the immense number and variety of scrapers found among the
cave _débris._ we are sure the preparation of clothing occupied
no inconsiderable portion of their time. We also find numerous
awls and splinters of flint and bone, which they doubtless used
in exactly the same manner as similar tools are used by the Lapps
to-day in Europe, that is, to pierce holes in the hides, through
which to pass their rude needle and thread. The needles are made
of reindeer horn, and they were not only smoothly polished, but
the eyes are of such a minute size, and withal so regularly made,
that many at first could not believe they were drilled by the use
of flint alone. This, however, has been shown to be the case by
actual experiments. The thread employed was reindeer tendons, for
bones of these animals are found cut just where they would he cut
in removing these tendons. This cut shows that they protected
their hands by means of long gloves of three or four fingers.25

Glove, Incised on Bear’s Tooth.

We have thus far been considering those arts which pertain more
directly to living. We have presented some sketches found
engraved on pieces of bone. We first noticed this among the
relics found in one of the Creswell caves in England. It was also
noticed in Belgium. It was among the Cave-men of Southern France
that this artistic trait became highly developed. Among the
reindeer hunters of the Dordogne were artists of no mean ability.
We must pause a minute and mark the bearing of this taste for
art. We have seen many reasons for supposing the men of the caves
much farther advanced in the scale of culture than those of the
Drift, but we have also seen that we can not rank them higher
than the highest grade of savages.

Sir John Lubbock thus speaks of them: “In considering the
probable condition of these ancient Cave-men, we must give them
full credit for their love of art, such as it was; while, on the
other hand, the want of metal, of polished flint implements, and
even of pottery, the ignorance of agriculture, and the apparent
absence of all domestic animals, including even the dog,
certainly imply a very low state of civilization.”26

They were certainly not as far advanced in civilization as the
next race we will describe, yet the Neolithic people had no such
skill as was possessed by the cave-men. This need not surprise
us, because “an artistic feeling is not always the offspring of
civilization, it is rather a gift of nature. It may manifest its
existence in the most barbarous ages, and may make its influence
more deeply felt in nations which are behind in respect to
general progress than in others which are more deeply advanced in
civilization.”27

Reindeer Grazing.

In regard to the objects themselves, a glance at the
illustrations show us that they are quite faithful sketches of
the animals at that time common. As might be expected, sketches
of the reindeer are numerous. This cut is regarded as the highest
example of Paleolithic art, sketched on a piece of horn and found
in Switzerland. The animal is grazing, and the grass on which it
feeds is seen below. We have on a piece of slate the outlines of
a group of reindeer, generally considered as representing a
fight, though it may mean a hunt, and that the hunter has
succeeded in killing a portion of the herd. Some, as we see, are
on the ground.

Group of Reindeers.
Man and Other Animals.

It would be exceedingly interesting could we but find well
executed sketches of the men of this period, but, unfortunately,
with one or two exceptions, no representations, however rude,
have yet been discovered of the human form. Perhaps an
explanation of this fact may be found in the well-known
reluctance of savage tribes to have any engravings taken of
themselves, and we can well imagine that if any one was known to
make drawings of human beings he would be regarded with
suspicious distrust, and it would hardly be a safe accomplishment
to possess. One very curious group represents a man, long and
lean, standing between two horses’ heads, and by the side of a
long serpent or fish, having the appearance of an eel. On the
reverse side of this piece of horn were represented the heads of
two aurochs or bisons. Mr. Dawkins thinks this also represents a
hunting sketch, and that the man is in the act of striking one of
the horses with a spear.

Fish, Incised on Bear’s Tooth and Ibex.

On, a fragment of spear-head found in France several human hands
were engraved, but having only four fingers each. On this point
Mr. Lartet assures us that some savage tribes still depict the
hand without the thumb.28 Representations of birds and reptiles
are very rare; fishes are more common. On a piece of reindeer’s
horn was found this representation of the head and chest of an
ibex. Of special interest to us is a representation of a mammoth
found engraved on a piece of mammoth tusk in one of the Dordogne
caves. We have no doubt that the artist who engraved it was
perfectly familiar with the animal itself.

Mammoth—La Madeline Cave, France.

Their artistic skill was not confined to the execution of
drawings. They frequently carved pieces of reindeer horn into
various animal forms. Our next cut shows us a dagger, the handle
of which is carved to imitate a reindeer. It will be seen how the
artist has adapted the position of the animal to the necessities
of the case. Flowers are very seldom represented; but one
implement from France has a very nice representation of some
flowering plant engraved on it.

Take it all in all, the possession of this artistic instinct is
certainly remarkable—the more so when we remember the rudeness of
his surroundings, and the few and simple means at his command for
work. “A splinter of flint was his sole graving tool; a piece of
reindeer horn, or a flake of slate or ivory, was the only plate
on which primitive man could stamp his reproduction of animated
nature.”29

Reindeer Carved on Dagger Handle.

Some speculations have been indulged in as to whether we have any
traces of a government amongst the Paleolithic people. That they
had some chief or leader is more than probable. In the caves of
France we find a number of fragments of reindeer horn. Generally
speaking, they show evidence of a good deal of care in making
them. They are carved and ornamented with sketches of various
animals, and invariably have one or more holes bored in the base.
The idea has been quite freely advanced, that these are emblems
of authority.30 And some have pointed out, that, though they are
too light for use as weapons, yet, their “frequent occurrence,
and uniformity of type, show that they possess a conventional
significance.”31 Mr. Geikie says that these conjectures “are mere
guess-work.”32 And Mr. Dawkins points out that they are very
similar in design and ornament with an implement of the Eskimos
known as an “arrow-straightener.”33

Whatever may be our conclusions in regard to these ornamented
pieces of reindeer horn, we can not doubt but that their social
instincts found expression in some sort of alliance for the
common good. This is shown by several facts: such, for instance,
as the evidence of trade or barter between localities
considerable distances apart. The inhabitants of Belgium must
have gone to what is now Southern France to procure the flint
they used. They also procured, from the same source, fossil
sea-shells, which they valued highly.34 We also notice the fact,
that certain localities appear to have been used as the place of
manufacture for certain articles, to the exclusion of others. In
other words, the primitive people appear to have learned the
great utility of a division of labor. One of the caves in Belgium
appears to have been used as a place to make flint implements.
Over twenty thousand articles of flint were found in this cave.35
In France, while in one cave the implements were all of the
spear-head type, in a neighboring cave horn was almost the only
article used in the manufacture of implements. We must not,
however, form an exalted idea of their trade—it was simply barter
in a rude state of society.36

Flowers on Reindeer’s Horn.

Ornamented Reindeer Horn—Use Unknown.

Various opinions have been held as to whether we have any trace
of a religious belief. Theoretically speaking, they had some sort
of a religion, though doubtless very vague and indistinct; for we
know of no nation as far advanced as they were destitute of it.37
It has been pointed out, that the bones of some animals, as the
horse, were very rare, and their absence explained as the result
of superstitious reasons. It has also been conjectured that some
of the perforated bones and teeth of animals found in various
deposits were amulets worn for religious purposes; and some have
gone so far as to infer, that the ornamentations on some of these
so-called amulets represent the sun, and that, consequently,
sun-worship prevailed among the Cave-men. While these various
conjectures are, of course, possible, it is equally certain they
are all “mere guess-work.”

Early explorers describe with considerable degree of confidence
the manner of burial among the Cave-men, and inferred from the
remains found buried with the bodies that they had some notion of
a life beyond the grave—and, accordingly, placed near the body
food and drink to support him on his journey, weapons wherewith
to defend himself, and his favorite implements, so that, arrived
at the land of spirits, he would be well provided for. These
result are not borne out by later investigations. The instance
mentioned most prominently, that of the burial cave at Aurignac,
France, has been shown to have no bearing on the question, as
every thing indicates that the burials were of a much later date.

We have yet a most important question before us—one that is still
engaging the attention of scientific men in Europe. That is the
question of race. Who were these early tribes? Are they in any
way connected with the men of the Drift? Have we any
representations of them now living upon the earth? On these
questions there is quite a diversity of opinion. In various caves
in France and Belgium, skulls and other bones of the human
skeleton have been found. These have been studied with care by
the best scholars in Europe; and B. Carfares has set forth the
results in his various works, in which he connects them, not only
with the men of the River Drift, but with the race of men that
inhabited Europe during the succeeding Neolithic Age, and,
indeed, with men now living in France and Belgium.

There is no question as to the correctness of these inferences
—the only one is, whether the skulls and fragmentary skeletons
are really remains of the Cave-men. This must be made perfectly
clear and unquestioned before we are to accept them. Mr. Darkens
reviews the various cases where skeletons have been found in
caves.38 He points out that, in every instance, very serious
doubts can be raised as to whether they are really remains of the
Cave-men or not.

Until these objections are met, we do not see how the opinion of
B. Carfares (above) can be accepted. But if these instances are
not accepted, then, in all other instances where there is no
doubt, the remains are in such a fragmentary condition that no
conclusion can be made from them. So as far as remains of the
human skeleton are concerned, we can form no conclusions as to
the race to which the Cave-men belonged.

We have already noted, that the Cave-men came into Europe much
later than the men of the Drift, and that their range was very
limited, corresponding, in fact, with that of the northern group
of animals. When the cold of the Glacial Age passed away, the
musk-sheep, reindeer, and other animals, were driven out of
Europe. They are found now only in high northern latitudes, such
as Greenland. Mr. Darkens thinks that there, also, are to be
found the Cave-men of the Paleolithic Age, now known as the
Eskimos. Though not accepted by all authorities, yet some of our
best scholars find much to commend in this theory.

We have undoubted proofs that, in America, the Eskimos formerly
lived much farther south.39 And Dr. Abbot thinks the Paleolithic
implements discovered in New Jersey, bearing such striking
resemblance to those of Europe, are undoubtedly their work.40
Therefore, there is no absurdity in asserting that they once
lived in Western Europe; the more so, when we reflect that the
climate, the animals—in fact, all their surroundings— must have
been similar to those of their present habitats.

When we come to examine the customs and habits of these Eskimos,
we are at once struck with their resemblance to what we have seen
was the probable state of life among the Cave-men. At Solute, for
instance, we have vast refuse heaps of bones of animals. We find
similar heaps around the rude huts of the Eskimos to-day. Captain
Parry describes one as follows: “In every direction round the
huts were lying innumerable bones of walruses and seals, together
with skulls of dogs, bears, and foxes.”41

Other points of comparison strike us when reading Sir John
Lubbock’s account of their habits and customs. For instance:
“Their food, if cooked at all, is broiled or boiled; their
vessels, being of stone or wood, can not, indeed, be put on the
fires, but heated stones are thrown in until the water becomes
hot enough and the food is cooked.” “Their food consists
principally of reindeer, musk-ox, walrus, seals, birds, and
salmon. They will, however, eat any kind of animal food. They are
very fond of fat and marrow, to get at which they pound the bones
with a stone.” “The clothes of the Eskimos are made from the
skins of the reindeer, seals, and birds, sewn together with
sinews. For needles they use the bones of either birds or
fishes.” “The Eskimos have also a great natural ability for
drawing. In many cases they have made rude maps for our officers,
which have turned out to be substantially correct. Many of their
bone implements are covered with sketches.”

Eskimo Art.

In this cut we have a bone drill on which are sketched reindeer,
geese, a braider or flat-bottomed boat, a tent around which
various articles of clothing are hung up to dry, a woman
apparently engaged in the preparation of food, and a hunting
scene.

Now, we know that savage tribes, widely separated by time and
space, will, after all, under the pressure of common necessities,
invent much the same implements and live much the same life. But
still, where every thing seems to coincide, the climate, the
animals, the mode of life proved the same, and especially when
both are seen possessed of a common artistic skill, together with
the known fact that in the Western Continent the Eskimos did
formerly live much farther south; there is surely a strong case
made out, and therefore the probabilities are that the Eskimos
are the representatives of the Cave-men of Europe.42 And yet we
must be cautious on this point; or rather we remember that the
phrase, “predecessors of the Eskimos,” does not imply that they
were in all respects like them. An examination of the rude
sketches of the Cave-men left by themselves seems to indicate
that the whole body was covered with hair. “The hunter in the
Antler from Duluth Cave has a long, pointed beard, and a high
crest of hair on the poll utterly unlike the Eskimo type. The
figures are also those of a slim and long-jointed man.”43

This completes our review of the Paleolithic people, and it only
remains to present some general conclusions. The Glacial or
Pleistocene Age is seen to have been of immense duration, and
characterized by great changes in climate. We have found that two
races of men occupied Europe during this time. The men of the
River Drift are the most ancient.

We have seen that they can be traced over wide-extended areas.
They seem to have invaded Europe, along with the great invasion
of animals from Asia, constituting the temperate group of
animals; and with those animals they probably shifted back and
forth, as the cold of the Glacial Age increased or waned. These
people seem to have completely vanished. At a later date, when
the cold of the Glacial Age was once more severe, associated with
animals now living only in high northern latitudes, came the
Cave-men, whose discussion has formed the subject of this
chapter.

It will be seen how much we owe to patient investigators. The
results are, indeed, bewildering. They make us acquainted with a
people the very existence of whom was not known a few years back.
Though the whole life of those ancient races seemed hopelessly
lost in the night of time, the gloom is irradiated by the light
of modern science, which lays before our astonished vision the
remains of arts and industries of the primitive tribes that
occupied Europe during the morning-time of human life.

The Mammoth. REFERENCES

The manuscript of this chapter was submitted to Prof. B. B.
Wright, of Overlain, for criticism.

On the formation of caves consult Geikie’s “Prehistoric
Europe,” p. 71; also Evans’s “Ancient Stone Implements,” p.
429.

Evans’s “Ancient Stone Implements,” p. 445.

Pronounced Bret’-chá, a rock composed of fragments of older
rock, united by a cement.

Geikie’s “Prehistoric Europe,” p. 92.

Pengelly, quoted by Geikie, “Prehistoric Europe,” p. 93.

Evans’s “Ancient Stone Implements,” p. 462.

Evans’s “Ancient Stone Implement,” p. 463.

Geikie’s “Prehistoric Europe,” p. 102.

Mr. Dawkins (“Early Man in Britain,” p. 203) does not consider
M. Dupont justified in dividing the remains found in the
caverns of Belgium into two epochs. He considers them to be the
remains of the same people, some tribes being, perhaps, farther
advanced than others. Mr. Dawkins is, of course, high
authority, but we think his argument could also be applied to
prove there was no real difference between the men of the River
Drift and the so-called Cave-men. This, in fact, is the opinion
of many, including Mr. Evans, who is exceptionally well
qualified to judge of these remains. We think, however, in view
of the evidence adduced by Mr. Pengelly, Mr. Geikie, Mr.
Dawkins, and others, few will venture to doubt that there is a
wide difference between the men of the River Drift and those of
the Caves.

“Prehistoric Times,” p. 330.

“Early Man in Britain,” p. 198.

French writers make four divisions of these caves, according to
the degree of finish, which the specimens show. Mr. Dawkins
does not think the difference in the implements sufficient to
justify this view. With the possible exception of Le Moustier,
as stated above, we think his view correct, which is also the
opinion of Mr. Evans. (“Ancient Stone Implements,” p. 439.)

Rau’s “Early Man in Europe,” p. 88.

Dawkins’s “Early Man in Britain,” p. 205.

Ibid., p.

It is, however, thought that the station was used as a
camping-ground by very different people, at widely different
times.

Lubbock’s “Prehistoric Times,” p. 434.

“Prehistoric Times,” p. 335.

Morgan’s “Ancient Society,” p. 12.

Lubbock’s “Prehistoric Times,” p. 338. J. C. Southall, in his
valuable work, “Recent Origin of Man,” p. 195, _et seq.,_
argues that pottery was known at this time, and cites instances
where it is stated to have been found. This is the opinion of
Figuier also. (“Primitive Man,” p. 54.) But Mr. Dawkins points
out that these pieces of pottery are clearly of a Neolithic
style, and does not think it proven that they are of
Paleolithic age. Mr. Geikie also denies that there is any proof
that they were acquainted with the potter’s art. (“Prehistoric
Europe,” p. 18.) So the highest place in the scale of
civilization we can assign these people to is that of Upper
Savageism.

Rau’s “Early Man in Europe,” p. 79;

Geikie’s “Prehistoric Europe,” p. 22.

Figuier’s “Primitive Man,” p. 90.

Dawkins’s “Early Man in Britain,” p. 210.

“Prehistoric Times,” p. 341.

Figuier’s “Primitive Man,” p. 105.

Figuier’s “Primitive Man,” p. 111.

Figuier’s “Primitive Man,” p. 105.

Figuier’s “Primitive Man,” p. 102.

Rau’s “Early Man in Europe,” p. 73.

“Prehistoric Europe,” p. 18.

Dawkins’s “Early Man in Britain,” p. 237.

Figuier’s “Primitive Man,” p. 117.

Ibid., p. 118.

Ibid., pp. 94 and 95.

This, as Sir John Lubbock points out, depends on our meaning of
the word “religion.” (“Prehistoric Times,” p. 589.)

“The principal instance are Cro-Magnon, Frontal, and Furforz,
in Belgium; Aurignac, Bruniquel, and Mentone, in France.”
“Cave-Hunting,” chap. vii.

“Contributions to N. A. Ethnology,” vol. i, p. 102; “U.S.
Geographical Survey West of the 100th Meridian,” vol. vii, p.
12; Abbott’s “Primitive Industry,” p. 517.

“Primitive Industry,” 518.

Quoted by Lubbock,”Prehistoric Times,” p. 507.

Dawkins’s “Early Man in Britain,” p. 242.

Prof. Grant Allen, _Popular Science Monthly,_ November, 1882,
p. 99.