Chapter III: Part 3

Bark below base of lateral branches darkened-triangular
in outline; leaves long acuminate and lustrous
above; staminate catkins usually solitary. 2 B. populifolia.

Bark below base of lateral branches not darkened;
leaves ovate and not lustrous above; staminate
catkins usually 2-3. 3 B. papyrifera.

Bark of trunks dark; fruiting aments erect or
nearly so. 4 B. nigra.

=1.= =Betula lùtea= Michaux filius. Birch. Yellow Birch. Plate 32. Medium size trees; bark of small trees and of the branches of old trees smooth, silver or dark gray, freely peeling off in thin strips, becoming on older trees a dark brown, rarely tight, usually fissured into wide plates and rolling back from one edge; the shoots of the year hairy, greenish gray, becoming glabrous or nearly so and reddish-brown by the end of the second year, not aromatic when bruised but when chewed sometimes a faint wintergreen odor can be detected; winter buds pointed, reddish-brown, the lower scales more or less pubescent, generally with a fringe of hairs on the margins; leaves usually appearing in pairs, ovate to ovate-oblong, 4-14 cm. long, taper-pointed, oblique and wedge-shape, rounded or slightly cordate at the base, sharply and rather coarsely serrate, hairy on both sides when they appear, becoming at maturity glabrous or nearly so above, and remaining more or less pubescent below, especially on the veins, both surfaces with few to numerous resinous dots; petioles permanently hairy, generally 5-13 mm. long; flowers appear in May; staminate spikes in clusters at the ends of the branches, about 6 cm. long, scales broadly ovate, blunt, fringed with hairs, green-tipped with a margin of reddish-brown; pistillate spikes solitary in the axils of the leaves, mature spikes 2.5-5 cm. long, generally 2.5-3 cm. long, commonly about half as thick as long, recurved to ascending, commonly about horizontal, sessile or on short stalks; scales very variable, 5-11 mm. long, generally 7-8 mm. long, sometimes as wide as long but generally about one-fourth longer than wide, densely pubescent on the back, or rarely glabrous on the back, ciliate, glabrous or nearly so on the inside, commonly with a few brown or black glands on the margin, commonly lobed to more than one-third of their length, lobes ascending or divaricate, the lateral generally the larger and almost as long as the narrower middle lobe; nuts divested of the wings, slightly obovate, about 3 mm. long, wings about two-thirds as wide as the nut and usually with a fringe of hairs at the blunt apex.

BETULA LUTEA Michaux filius. Yellow Birch. (× 1/2.)]

=Distribution.=--The distribution of this species is variously given as from Newfoundland west to Manitoba and south in the Alleghenies to Georgia. It is now definitely known that the species of _Betula_ hybridize which may account for the peculiar forms often encountered. That there are geographic races or Mendelian segregates of this species is evidenced by the different interpretations given this species by different authors. _Betula alleghanensis_ Britton appears to be one of them. The descriptive difference between _Betula lenta_ and _Betula lutea_ is not clear, which has resulted in many authors crediting _Betula lenta_ to Indiana and the area west of Indiana.

The preceding description does not agree with that of _Betula lutea_ exactly, and has been drawn to cover the specimens at hand from Indiana which the author has from Allen, Crawford, Lagrange, Lake, Marshall, Porter and Steuben Counties. It has recently been reported from White County by Heimlich.[29] He says: "Specimens were taken from two trees about two miles south of Buffalo near the water's edge of the river." The writer has visited this locality and found here, and also on the island above the bridge a little farther down the river, _Betula nigra_, but could not find _Betula lutea_. Since Heimlich did not report _Betula nigra_, which unmistakably occurs here, I assume he has confused the two species. It is very local in its distribution, and appears to be confined to swamps, borders of lakes, and streams in the extreme northern part of the State. It has not been seen south of the northern end of the State, except a few small trees found clinging to the walls of the cliffs of a ravine about one mile east of Taswell in Crawford County. The walls of this ravine are about 25 meters high; associated with it were a few trees of hemlock, and on the top of the cliffs, laurel (_Kalmia latifolia_).

Large trees of this species in Indiana are usually from 4-6 dm. in diameter and about 15 m. high. The number in any one station is usually few, although there were formerly patches where it was plentiful. Van Gorder[30] reports for Noble County _Betula lenta_ which should be transferred to this species, and he says: "There is a marsh of several acres of birch in Section 15 of York Township." The largest area now known is that contained in the large tamarack swamp near Mineral Springs in Porter County. In this swamp are found tamarack and white cedar. It was in this swamp that the writer found a peculiar form of birch which has been determined as _Betula Sandbergi_. Since this species[31] is recognized as a hybrid of _Betula papyrifera_ and _Betula pumila_ variety _glandulifera_, and the last parent of this hybrid is not found in the vicinity, a discussion of this form is not presented. In the immediate vicinity are found only _Betula lutea_ and _Betula pumila_. _Betula papyrifera_ is found about a mile distant to the south. It is assumed that this form is a cross between _Betula lutea_ and _Betula pumila_.

=2.= =Betula populifòlia= Marshall. Gray or White Birch. Plate 33. A small tree; bark a chalky-white, not separating into thin layers, inner bark orange, on the trunks of old trees nearly black; shoots at first covered with numerous glands, becoming smooth and yellowish or reddish-brown; leaves generally long-deltoid, average blades 3-6 cm. long, usually long taper-pointed, truncate or nearly so at the base, irregularly double-serrate, slightly pubescent on the veins when young, soon becoming glabrous; fertile catkins 1.5-3 cm. long and about 7 mm. in diameter; bracts of eastern trees differ from those of Indiana trees which are about 3-4 mm. long, lobed to about 1/3 of the distance from the apex, lateral lobes the largest and strongly divaricate, puberulent on the back; seed strongly notched at the apex; nut slightly obovoid; wings much broader than the nut.

=Distribution.=--Nova Scotia west to southern Ontario and south to Delaware and Pennsylvania. In Indiana it has been reported from Lake, Laporte, Porter, St. Joseph and Tippecanoe Counties. There may be some doubt about the Tippecanoe record, since many of the older records were made from cultivated trees. The numbers of the species in Indiana were always limited. It is not able to meet changed conditions and it has already almost disappeared from our area. I was told that formerly this species was found all about a lake in Laporte County, but it has all died out. Its appearance in Indiana is peculiar since it is not found west of us, or north in Michigan or east in Ohio. This small group of trees near Lake Michigan is three or four hundred miles from the nearest of their kind.

=Remarks.=--This species is called white and gray birch. The largest tree seen in Indiana was about 2 dm. in diameter and 13 m. high.

BETULA POPULIFOLIA Marshall. White or Gray Birch. (× 1/2.)]

BETULA PAPYRIFERA Marshall. Paper or Canoe Birch. (× 1/2.)]

=3.= =Betula papyrífera= Marshall. Paper or Canoe Birch. Plate 34. Rather a small tree; bark thin, creamy white; chalky, dark near the base on old trees, separating in thin papery layers; shoots green, glandular and hairy, becoming glabrous and reddish-brown; leaves ovate or rhombic-ovate, acute to long taper-pointed, truncate, rounded or wedge-shape at the base, average blades 5-8 cm. long, usually irregularly double-serrate, hairy at first, becoming glabrous above or nearly so, remaining more or less pubescent below, especially on the veins and with tufts of hairs in the axils of the veins, minutely glandular on both surfaces, sometimes with only a few glands on the midribs above; fertile catkins 2-4 cm. long and about 6-9 mm. wide, bracts about 4 mm. long, pubescent on both faces, lobed to about one-third the distance from the apex, the lateral lobes the largest, divaricate or slightly recurved; seed deeply notched at apex, nut oval, pubescent at the apex, wings as broad as, or broader than the nut.

=Distribution.=--Alaska to Labrador, south to New York, northern Indiana, Colorado and Washington. In Indiana it has been reported from Lake, Laporte, Marshall and St. Joseph Counties. It has not been found as a native in Ohio. This species is another example of a northern form finding its southern limit near Lake Michigan.

=Remarks.=--This species in other parts of the country is known as white, paper and canoe birch. I have not seen specimens more than 2 dm. in diameter in Indiana.

=4.= =Betula nìgra= Linnæus. Black or Red Birch. Plate 35. A medium sized tree; bark on young trees peeling off transversely in thin reddish-brown strips which roll back and usually persist for several years, bark of older trees dark brown, furrowed and separating into short plates or peeling off in strips; young twigs hairy, becoming glabrous and reddish at the end of the season; leaves rhombic-ovate, acute, short and broadly wedge-shaped at the base, blades of ordinary leaves 4-8 cm. long, irregularly toothed, glabrous above and pubescent beneath, rarely entirely glabrous; fertile catkins generally 2-3 cm. long, and usually slightly less than 1 cm. wide; bracts 6-10 mm. long, pubescent, ciliate, lobed to near the middle, the lobes about equal; nuts broadly ovate, broader than its wings, pubescent at the apex; wood light, strong, close-grained, heart wood light brown.

=Distribution.=--Massachusetts west to Minnesota and south to Florida and Texas. In Indiana it is found more or less frequent in the counties bordering the Kankakee River, and as far east as St. Joseph, Marshall and Miami Counties. Along the Kankakee River it is frequently a tree of 6-8 dm. in diameter. This species has not been found in Michigan, northeastern Indiana or northern Ohio. It has never been noted near Lake Michigan, and the nearest point is Cedar Lake in Lake County about 20 miles south of the Lake. It is more or less frequent along certain streams throughout the southwestern part of the State. It is found as far north as Putnam and Marion Counties and eastward as far as Bartholomew, Scott and Clark Counties. There are no records for this species for eastern Indiana or western Ohio. About Hovey Lake in Posey County it reaches its greatest size, where trees up to 8 dm. in diameter and 30 m. high are to be found. In the "flats" in certain parts of Jackson and Scott Counties it becomes a common tree, associated with pin oak and sweet gum.

BETULA NIGRA Linnæus. Black or Red Birch. (× 1/2.)]

=Remarks.=--This is the most abundant birch of Indiana. In fact all other species are too rare to be of economic importance. The fact that other species of birch are so rare in Indiana, is the reason that this species is simply called "Birch." Outside of Indiana it is known as red birch and river birch. The principal use of this wood in this State is for heading.

All of the birches, especially the horticultural forms, are used more or less for ornamental planting. They are beautiful trees but are short lived.

=4. ÁLNUS.= The Alders.

Trees or shrubs; bark astringent; staminate and pistillate catkins begin to develop early in summer and flower the following year early in the spring before the leaves appear; bracts of the fertile catkins thick and woody, obdeltoid with 3-rounded lobes at the apex; nuts obovate, reddish-brown.

Leaves sharply double-serrate, the ends of the primary
veins forming the apex of the larger teeth, glaucous
beneath; nuts with a narrow thick margin 1 A. incana.

Leaves single-serrate, pale beneath; nuts without margins 2 A. rugosa.

=1.= =Alnus incàna= (Linnæus) Muenchhausen. Speckled Alder. Plate 36. Shrubs or small trees; bark generally smooth and a reddish-brown with a tinge of gray, with grayish dots, hence its name; twigs hairy at first, becoming smooth by the end of the season and a golden or reddish-brown with many fine dark specks; leaves broadly-oval, acute or short-pointed at apex, usually broadly rounded at the base, average blades 6.5-11 cm. long, glaucous beneath, hairy on both sides on unfolding, at maturity becoming glabrous above or with a few hairs on the veins, beneath remaining more or less hairy until late in autumn when usually only the veins are hairy; pistillate catkins resembling small cones, 1-1.5 cm. long and usually 7-12 mm. wide, near the ends of the branches, usually in clusters of 2-7.

ALNUS INCANA (Linnæus) Muenchhausen. Speckled Alder. (× 1/2.)]

=Distribution.=--Newfoundland to the Saskatchewan, south to New York, northeastern Ohio, northern Indiana and Nebraska. In Indiana it is confined to the northern tier of counties. I have specimens from Elkhart, Lagrange, Lake and Porter Counties. It was reported from Carroll County by Thompson, but in the absence of a verifying specimen I am inclined to think this citation should be referred to _Alnus_ _rugosa_. This species grows in low ground on the borders of streams, borders of swamps and in almost extinct sloughs near Lake Michigan. It is also found along Pigeon River in the eastern part of Lagrange County. In the vicinity of Mineral Springs in Porter County it is locally a common shrub or tree. It has the habit of stooling out, and commonly the several specimens will be deflected from a vertical from 20-45 degrees. The largest specimens are from 1-1.4 dm. in diameter and about 10 m. high.

=Remarks.=--This species could be used to good advantage in ornamental planting in low ground. It grows rapidly, is easily transplanted and its foliage is dense and attractive.

=2.= =Alnus rugòsa= (Du Roi) Sprengel. Smooth Alder. Plate 37. Shrubs with fluted or angled trunks, resembling _Carpinus_; bark thin, smooth or nearly so, reddish-brown, weathering gray; twigs hairy at first, becoming gray or reddish-brown by the end of the season and more or less glabrous and covered with small dark specks; leaves obovate, barely acute or rounded at apex, wedge-shape at base, average blades 6-10 cm. long, hairy on both surfaces while young, becoming smooth or nearly so above, remaining more or less hairy beneath, especially on the veins, under surface of leaves sufficiently glutinous to adhere to paper if pressure be applied, margins set with short callous teeth, about .5-1 mm. long; fertile catkins cone-shape, 10-20 mm. long and about 7 mm. in diameter, borne at the ends of branches in clusters of 2-5.

=Distribution.=--Maine to Minnesota, south to Florida and Texas. In Indiana it is quite local. It has been reported in many of the counties of northern Indiana north of the Wabash River. It has been found in several of the southern counties and as far north as Salt Creek in Monroe County. No reports for the central part of the State. It is absent also in all of the eastern counties of the State, and the western part of Ohio. It is found growing in clumps in wet woods, swamps, cold bogs and along streams. It is usually a tall slender shrub; however, a specimen has been seen that measured 7 cm. in diameter and 5 m. in height.

=Remarks.=--Of no value except for ornamental planting in wet ground.

=FAGÀCEAE.= The Beech Family.

Trees with simple, alternate, petioled leaves; flowers of two kinds; fruit a one-seeded nut. This is the most important family of trees occurring in the State.

ALNUS RUGOSA (Du Roi) Sprengel. Smooth Alder. (× 1/2.)]

Winter buds long and slender, at least 4 times as long as
wide; staminate flowers in globose heads on drooping
peduncles; nuts sharply 3-angled 1 Fagus.

Winter buds not long and slender and less than 4 times as
long as wide; staminate flowers in slender catkins;
nuts not as above.

Staminate catkins erect or spreading; nut flattened on
one side and enclosed in a spiny, woody husk 2 Castanea.

Staminate catkins drooping; nuts not flattened on one
side, seated in a scaly, woody cup 3 Quercus.

=1. FÀGUS.= The Beech.

=Fagus grandifòlia= Ehrhart. Beech. Plate 38. Large tall trees with bark from light to dark gray; twigs densely covered at first with long hairs, soon becoming glabrous and turning to a reddish-brown; terminal winter buds about 2 cm. long; leaves ovate to ovate-oblong, long taper-pointed to merely acute, wedge-shape to cordate at base, regularly and usually minutely serrate, average blades 7-12 cm. long, silky when young, becoming at maturity glabrous above and nearly so beneath except on the veins; flowers appear in May; fruit a bur, supported on a club-shaped pubescent peduncle about 1.5 cm. long, covered with short recurved prickles, densely rufous-pubescent, its 4-valves enclosing the two triangular brown nuts; nuts edible; wood very hard, strong, usually tough, difficult to season, close-grained, takes a high polish, sap wood white, heart wood reddish.

=Distribution.=--Nova Scotia, southern Ontario to Wisconsin, south to the Gulf States and Texas. It is found in every county of the State, although it is local in the prairie and dry sandy regions of the northwestern part of the State. It is a frequent to a very common tree on the high ground in many parts of the State. If the high ground and hills of the State are not forested with white and black oak, beech is almost certain to be the prevailing species. Wherever beech is found it is usually a frequent to a common tree, and it is not uncommon to see areas which are almost a pure stand of this species. It is also a frequent to a common tree in southern Indiana in what is called the "flats." Here it is associated with sweet gum and pin oak. On the slopes of hills of the southern counties it is associated with a great variety of trees. In the central part of the State its most frequent associate is the sugar maple. In the northern counties it has a wider range of associates, including white oak, ash, slippery elm, buckeye, ironwood, etc. It should be added that tulip is a constant associate except in the "flats." In point of number it ranks as first of Indiana trees.

FAGUS GRANDIFOLIA Ehrhart. Beech. (× 1/2.)]

=Remarks.=--Specimens with the habit of retaining their branches which lop downward, usually have thicker sap wood and are harder to split. This form is popularly styled the white beech. The form with smooth tall trunks with upright branches usually has more heart wood, splits more easily and is popularly distinguished as red beech. The term yellow beech is variously applied. This species is a large tree in all parts of the State, although the largest specimens are found in the southeastern part of the State. In the virgin forests trees almost 1 m. in diameter and 30 m. high were frequent.

Beech was formerly used only for fuel, but in the last few decades it has been cut and used for many purposes, and the supply is fast diminishing. The beauty of this tree both in summer and winter, sunshine or storm makes it one of the most desirable for shade tree planting, but I have failed to find where it has been successfully used. It is one of the few trees that does not take to domestication. When the original forest is reduced to a remnant of beech, as a rule, the remaining beech will soon begin to die at the top. It is difficult to transplant. When planted the hole should be filled with earth obtained from under a living tree, in order to introduce the mycorrhiza that is necessary to the growth of the tree.

=2. CASTÀNEA.= The Chestnut.

=Castanea dentàta= (Marshall) Borkhausen. Chestnut. Plate 39. Large trees with deeply fissured bark, smooth on young trees; young twigs more or less hairy, soon becoming glabrous and a reddish-brown; leaves lanceolate, average blades 13-22 cm. long, taper-pointed, wedge-shape or obtuse at the base, coarsely serrate, teeth usually incurved, at maturity glabrous on both sides; flowers appear after the leaves in the latter part of June or early in July, the staminate catkins from the axils of the leaves of the year's growth, 1.5-3 dm. long, pistillate flowers in heads on short stalks in the axils of the leaves, usually on the branch beyond the greater part of the staminate catkins; fruit a globular spiny bur 5-7 cm. in diameter which contains the nuts; nuts usually 1-3, rarely 5, flattened on one side, edible; wood light, soft, not strong, checks and warps on seasoning, yellowish-brown, durable in contact with the ground.

CASTANEA DENTATA (Marshall) Borkhausen. Chestnut. (× 1/2.)]

=Distribution.=--Maine, southern Ontario, Michigan, south to Delaware and in the mountains to Alabama, and west to Arkansas. In Indiana it is found locally in the south central counties. The most northern station where I have seen trees that are native to a certainty is in Morgan County a short distance north of Martinsville. There are a few trees on the south bank of White River in Mound Park about 2 miles east of Anderson. This site was formerly an Indian village, and the trees may have been introduced here. The late A. C. Benedict formerly of the State Geological Survey, told me he saw a colony in 1878 in Fayette County on the farm of Dr. B. Ball, about 3 miles west of Connersville on the east side of Little Williams Creek. The trees were at least 6 dm. in diameter. The western line of distribution would be a line drawn from Martinsville to a point a few miles west of Shoals and south to Tell City.

=Remarks.=--The greatest numbers of this species are found on the outcrops of the knobstone in Clark, Floyd, Harrison, Jackson, Lawrence, Martin, Orange and Washington Counties. It grows on high ground, associated with white and black oak, beech, etc. The species in all of our area grows to be a large tree. In the Ind. Geol. Rept. 1874:70:1875 there is a reference to a "stump in Jackson County that was 9 ft. and 2 in. in diameter." This species is rather gregarious in habit, and rarely are isolated trees found. It is quite local in its distribution, but where found it is usually a common tree. The bark was much used in tanning, and the timber for poles, ties and posts. The demand for this species has led to heavy cutting, so that the present supply is practically limited to inferior or small trees. The nut crop in this State is usually badly infested by the weevil.

This species is easily propagated by seed or seedlings. It is recommended for forest planting in all parts of its natural range and other parts of the State where the soil is very sandy and free from limestone. This species never attains to an old age when growing close to the limestone. It grows rapidly and requires little pruning. The only objection to planting it for forestry purposes is that it might be infested by the chestnut bark disease which is fatal to this tree. This disease is far to the east of us, and there are wide barriers to its western migration. Since a chestnut grove would soon grow into post and pole size, in the event the grove would be killed by the bark disease, the crop could be harvested and the loss would be more of the nature of a disappointment than a financial one. If planted in a cleared area the seedlings should be spaced about 5 × 5 feet if no cultivation can be done. If the trees can be cultivated, plant 7 × 7 or 8 × 8 feet and grow corn for one or two years between the rows.

=3. QUÉRCUS.= The Oaks.

The leaves of Indiana oaks are deciduous; flowers appear in April or May, very small, the staminate on slender pendulous catkins, the pistillate solitary or in clusters in scaly bud-like cups; fruit an acorn which takes one or two years to mature, ripening in September or October. The species that mature their fruit the first year are popularly and commercially classed as "white oaks." Those that mature their fruit the second year are classed as "red, black or bristle-tipped oaks."

The oaks are the largest genus of Indiana trees, and commercially are the most important of all trees of the State. They are the longest lived of all the trees that occur in the State, and while they have numerous insect enemies none of them prove fatal to it, except a certain gall insect.

Note:--In collecting leaf specimens of oaks for identification it should be borne in mind that the foliage is quite variable. The leaves of seedlings, coppice shoots and of vigorous shoots of old trees sometimes vary considerably in size, form and leaf-margins. Also leaves of old trees that grow in the shade usually have the margins more nearly entire than the typical leaves. For example leaves may be found on the lower and interior branches of a pin oak which are not lobed to beyond the middle, which throws them into the red oak group.

Bark gray, (except in No. 5) more or less scaly; mature leaves
never with bristle tips; fruit maturing the first year.

Mature leaves smooth beneath. 1 Q. alba.

Mature leaves pubescent beneath.

Primary veins beneath show regular pinnate venation.

Some of the primary veins beneath end in a
sinus. 2 Q. bicolor.

All primary veins beneath end in teeth of the margin.

Tips of leaves of fruiting branches sharp-pointed,
usually forming an acute angle; fruit
sessile or nearly so. 3 Q. Muhlenbergii.

Tips of leaves of fruiting branches rounded or if
sharp-pointed, it rarely forms an acute angle;
fruit peduncled.

Petioles green and woolly pubescent beneath
(rarely almost glabrous); under surface
of leaves velvety to the touch; bark gray,
scaly, of the white oak type; trees of low
ground. 4 Q. Michauxii.

Petioles yellowish and smooth beneath, or rarely
somewhat pubescent; under surface of leaves
not velvety to the touch; bark dark, and
tight, of the red oak type; trees of high
ground (in Indiana confined to the
"knobstone" area). 5 Q. Prinus.

Primary veins beneath show irregular venation.

Last year's growth pubescent; acorns generally
less than 12 mm. in diameter. 6 Q. stellata.

Last year's growth glabrous or nearly so; acorns more
than 12 mm. in diameter.

Leaves sinuate dentate, sometimes lobed near the
base, velvety to the touch beneath; peduncles
of fruit longer than the petioles. 2 Q. bicolor.

Leaves irregularly lobed, harsh or rarely velvety
or smooth to the touch beneath; peduncles of
fruit shorter than the petioles.

Cup of fruit fringed; apex of lobes of leaves
generally rounded; trees of lowland. 7 Q. macrocarpa.

Cup of fruit not fringed; apex of lobes of
leaves generally acute; trees of swamps
in the extreme southwestern counties of
Indiana. 8 Q. lyrata.

Bark dark, tight and furrowed; leaves with bristle
tips; fruit maturing the second year.

Leaves entire 9 Q. imbricaria.

Leaves more or less deeply lobed, the lobes and teeth
conspicuously bristle pointed.

Mature leaves smooth beneath, except tufts of hairs
in the axils.

Leaves lobed to about the middle, the lateral lobes
broadest at the base; cup saucer-shaped; nut
about 1.5-2 cm. in diameter; terminal buds
reddish. 10 Q. rubra.

Leaves lobed to beyond the middle, frequently those
grown in dense shade not so deeply lobed, some or
all of the lateral lobes broadest toward the apex.

Cup saucer-shaped, rarely enclosing the nut for
more than 1/3 its length; trees of the low
lands and swamps.

Leaves glossy above; blades usually 10-12
cm. long; cups usually 1.5 cm. or less
broad; terminal buds chestnut brown. 11 Q. palustris.

Leaves dull above, usually about 15 cm.
long; cups 1.5-2.5 cm. broad, rarely
as narrow as 1.5 cm.; terminal buds
grayish brown. 12 Q. Schneckii.

Cup hemispheric, generally enclosing the nut
for half its length; trees of the uplands.

Inner bark yellowish or orange; kernel of nut
yellowish or orange, and very bitter.

Terminal buds usually 5 mm. or less in
length, ovoid and generally blunt,
reddish-brown; scales of cup closely
appressed; trees local in the extreme
northwest part of the State. 13 Q.
ellipsoidalis.

Terminal buds usually longer than 6 mm.,
usually angled and sharp-pointed;
scales of cup not closely appressed;
trees of all parts of the State 14 Q. velutina.

Inner bark reddish or gray; kernel white
and not very bitter 15 Q. coccinea.

Mature leaves more or less pubescent on the whole
under surface.

Leaves grayish or yellowish pubescent beneath;
scales of cup with a reddish-brown border;
nut enclosed for about 1/3 its length 16 Q. falcata.

Leaves brownish or rusty pubescent beneath, sometimes
appearing grayish; scales of cup without a dark
border; nut enclosed for about half of its length.

Leaves expanded at the apex, and generally with
three lobes; mature twigs generally
scurvy-pubescent 17 Q. marilandica.

Leaves deeply lobed; mature twigs generally
glabrous. 14 Q. velutina.

=1.= =Quercus álba= Linnæus. White Oak. Plate 40. Large trees with gray, fissured bark, flaky on the branches, on the upper part of the trunks of some trees the bark loosens at the fissures and peels back, forming flat strips which remain attached at one side; twigs at first hairy, becoming smooth; leaves mostly obovate in outline, generally 8-20 cm. long on petioles 0.5-2 cm. long, more or less deeply lobed into 5-9 lobes, the lobes ascending and generally blunt and entire, sometimes the lobes have one or two secondary lobes, leaves narrowed and oblique at the base, smooth above, smooth and glaucous beneath; acorns sessile or on stalks up to 2 cm. long; nuts quite variable on different trees as to size and shape, ovoid or oblong, 18-30 mm. long; cup flat on the bottom, tuberculate and encloses about 1/4 of the nut; scales blunt and woolly.

=Distribution.=--Maine, southern Ontario, Minnesota south to Florida and Texas. Found in all parts of Indiana. In point of number it is exceeded only by the beech, although it has a more general distribution. It is adapted to many types of soil, and is found in almost all situations in Indiana except in very wet soils. It is sparingly found in the sand dune area. On the clay soils of the northern part of the State it is a frequent to an abundant tree, and in the southern part of the State it often forms complete stands on the slopes of the hills.

The white oak is one of the largest and possibly the longest lived tree of Indiana. While it is able to adapt itself to many situations, it grows to the largest size in a porous, moist and rich soil.

=Remarks.=--Wood heavy, hard, close-grained, tough, strong and durable. On account of its abundance, and wide range of uses, it has always been the most important timber tree of Indiana.

Formerly the woods were full of white oak 1-1.5 meters (3-5 ft.) in diameter, but today trees of a meter (3 ft.) in diameter with long straight trunks are rare indeed. Michaux who traveled extensively in America 1801-1807, while the whole Mississippi Valley was yet a wilderness, remarks: "The white oak is the most valuable tree in America." He observed the ruthless destruction of this valuable tree, and predicted that the supply would soon be depleted, and that America would be sorry that regulations were not adopted to conserve the supply of this valuable tree. Michaux's prediction has come true, and yet no constructive measures have been provided to insure the Nation an adequate supply of this timber. It should be remembered that it requires two to three hundred years to grow a white oak a meter in diameter, and if we are to have white oak of that size in the next generation the largest of our present stand must be spared for that harvest.

QUERCUS ALBA Linnæus. White Oak. (× 1/2.)

Acorns from different trees to show variation.]

White oak was formerly much used in construction work, but it has become so costly that cheaper woods take its place. At present it is used principally in cooperage, interior finish, wagon and car stock, furniture, agricultural implements, crossties, and veneer. Indiana has the reputation of furnishing the best grade of white oak in the world.

Little attention has been given this valuable species either in horticultural or forestal planting. This no doubt is due in a great measure to the slow growth of the tree. It should be used more for shade tree, ornamental and roadside tree planting. There are good reasons why white oak should be much used in reforestation. The cheapest and most successful method of propagating white oak is to plant the seed in the places where the trees are desired to grow. This is best done by planting the acorns as soon as they fall or are mature. The best results will be obtained if the nuts are planted with the small end down, and covered about an inch deep with earth. If the ground is a hard clay soil and the small end of the nut is placed down a half inch of earth on the nut is sufficient. Rodents often destroy the nuts, and if this danger is apprehended it is best to poison the rodents or to stratify the seed, or grow seedlings and plant them when they are one year old. In forestal planting it is suggested that the planting be 4 × 4 feet.

The white oak is quite variable in the lobing of the leaves, and in size and shape of the fruit, and in the length of its peduncle. The variable lobing of the leaves has lead several authors to describe varieties based on this character. The latest is that of Sargent[32] who describes: "The trees with leaves less deeply divided, with broad rounded lobes and usually smaller generally sessile fruit," as =Quercus alba= variety =latiloba=.

=Quercus alba × Muhlenbérgii= (× _Quercus Deami_ Trelease). This rare hybrid was discovered in a woods about 3 miles northwest of Bluffton Indiana by L. A. Williamson and his son E. B. Williamson in 1904.[33]

The tree is still standing and in 1918 bore a heavy crop of seed. A liberal quantity was sent for propagation to the Arnold Arboretum, New York Botanical Gardens, and Missouri Botanical Gardens. The Arboretum succeeded in germinating several seed. The New York Gardens succeeded in getting 5 seedlings. The Missouri Gardens failed to get any to germinate. About a gallon of seeds was planted in the Clark County State forest nursery and all failed.

=2.= =Quercus bícolor Willdenow.= Swamp White Oak. Plate 41. Large trees; leaves on petioles 5-20 mm. long, 8-18 cm. long, obovate, wedge-shaped or narrowly rounded at base, rounded or pointed at the apex, margins coarsely divided with rounded or blunt teeth or somewhat pinnatifid, primary venation beneath somewhat regular, but usually some of the veins end in a sinus of the margin, both surfaces hairy at first, becoming smooth above and remaining velvety pubescent beneath; the upper surface of the leaf a bronze or dark green and the under surface grayish due to the dense tomentum, which in some instances becomes sparse and short, in which case the under surface is a light green; acorns usually in pairs on stalks 2-7 cm. long; nuts ovoid, 2-2.5 cm. long, enclosed for 1/3-1/2 their length in the cup; scales of cup acute to very long acuminate, scurvy pubescent and frequently tuberculate; kernel sweetish.

=Distribution.=--Maine, southern Ontario, southern Minnesota south to Georgia and Arkansas. Found in all parts of Indiana. It is always found in wet places. In most of its range it is associated with the bur oak from which it is not commonly separated. In the northern counties it is usually associated with pin and bur oak, and white elm; in the flats of the southeastern part of the State it is usually associated with cow oak and sweet gum, while in the southwestern counties it is found most commonly with Spanish and pin oak.

=Remarks.=--Commercially the wood is not distinguished from white oak, and the cut is sold for that species.

=3.= =Quercus Muhlenbérgii= Engelmann. Chinquapin Oak. Sweet Oak. Yellow Oak. Chestnut Oak. Plate 42. Large trees; leaves on petioles 1-3 cm. long, blades very variable in size, shape and leaf margins, generally 10-20 cm. long, oblong-lanceolate to broadly obovate, narrowed or rounded and more or less unequal at the base, taper-pointed at the apex, the apex always forming an acute angle, margins coarsely and rather regularly toothed, primary veins beneath regular and straight, and end in a prominent gland in the point of the teeth, teeth more or less incurved, leaves smooth and dark green above, and grayish pubescent beneath; acorns generally sessile, but often on short stalks up to 1 cm. long; nut ovoid to oblong ovoid, 10-18 mm. long, enclosed for 1/4-1/2 its length in a very thin cup; scales of cup ovate, blunt-pointed or merely acute, sometimes tuberculate near the base of the cup, grayish pubescent without; kernel sweet, and the most edible of all of our oaks.

QUERCUS BICOLOR Willdenow. Swamp White Oak. (× 1/2.)]

QUERCUS MUHLENBERGII Engelmann. Chinquapin Oak. (× 1/2.)

Detached acorns and leaves from different trees.]

=Distribution.=--Vermont, southwestern Ontario to Wisconsin and south to Florida and west to Texas. Found in limited numbers in all parts of Indiana, although Hill's record for Lake county is the only record in the block of the 12 northwest counties. It is without a doubt found in every county south of the Wabash River. It is a rare or an infrequent tree in practically all parts of its range. It is generally found on the dry banks of streams, river terrace banks, rocky bluffs of streams, and only rarely in level dry woods. In the southern counties it is sometimes found on clay or rocky ridges. In most of its range it is now so rare that most of the inhabitants do not know the tree.

=Remarks.=--Wood similar to white oak, and with the same uses.

In White County a pioneer was found who knew the tree only by the name of pigeon oak. He said it received this name from the fact that the wild pigeons were fond of the acorns.

The leaves of this tree vary greatly in size, shape, and leaf margins. The fruit also varies on different trees in the shape of the nut, and the depth of the cup. These variations have lead some authors to separate the forms and one histological study[34] seems to support minor differences. It has been observed that the leaves in the top of some trees may be thick, narrow and with long incurved teeth, while the leaves of the lower branches will be strongly obovate, thinner, and the teeth more dentate. In a general study it is best to include the polymorphic forms under one name. The distribution of the shallow and deep cup forms is so general that no regional or habitat areas can be assigned to either of them in Indiana.

=4.= =Quercus Michaúxii= Nuttall (_Quercus Prinus_ Sargent). Cow Oak. Basket Oak. Plate 43. Large trees; leaves on petioles 1-3 cm. long, generally 1-2 dm. long, obovate, narrowed or narrowly rounded at the base, short taper-pointed, the apex generally blunt, the margins coarsely toothed, the teeth broad and rounded or more rarely acute, shaded leaves sometimes with margins merely undulate, hairy on both surfaces when young, becoming at maturity a dark yellow green and glabrous above, sometimes remaining somewhat pubescent along the midrib and the principal veins, leaves grayish and woolly pubescent beneath; acorns solitary or in pairs, sessile or on very short stalks, up to almost a cm. in length; nuts ovoid or oval with a broad base, enclosed for about 1/3 their length by the cup, the cups thick and generally 2-3 cm. broad; scales ovate, acute, rather blunt-pointed and more or less tuberculate near the base of the cup, tomentose on the back; kernel sweet.

QUERCUS MICHAUXII Nuttall. Cow or Basket Oak. (× 1/2.)]

=Distribution.=--Delaware, southern Indiana, Missouri, south to Florida and west to Texas. In Indiana it is believed that its distribution is pretty well known and well defined. It is an inhabitant of low wet woods, although large trees may be found in fairly dry woods which have been made dry by drainage. In discussing the distribution it must be remembered that this species was reported as _Quercus Prinus_ before the sixth edition of Gray's Manual which was published in 1890. Gorby's[35] reference to Miami County should be ignored, because he compiled his list of trees from a list of common names to which he appended the scientific names. His list includes several species which are not native, and his water willow (_Dianthera americana_) is an herbaceous plant. Wilson's[36] report for Hamilton County I believe also to be an error. Wilson preserved no specimen. Since Hamilton County has no cow oak habitat, and Wilson was not acquainted with the species, I think this reference should be transferred to the broad-leaf form of _Quercus Muhlenbergii_. The author has collected and distributed authentic specimens from a point 2-1/2 miles southwest of Napoleon in Ripley County. This species is reported by Meyncke for Franklin County as scarce, and by Collins for Dearborn County. Since the habitat of the species is found in these counties, it is fair to admit them into the range of the species. This species is a frequent to a very common tree in the flats of Clark, Scott, Jefferson, Jackson, Jennings, and Ripley Counties, where it is usually associated with beech and sweet gum. It is now known to range as far north as the northern parts of Jackson, Jennings and Ripley Counties. It is an infrequent tree of the Lower Wabash Valley as far north as southern Knox County and no doubt followed eastward along White River. It follows the Ohio River eastward at least to a point six miles east of Grandview in Spencer County. It no doubt was an occasional tree along the Ohio River up to Dearborn County. It has also been reported by Aiken for Hamilton County, Ohio. In the Lower Wabash Valley it is associated with Spanish and pin oak.

=Remarks.=--Wood and uses similar to white oak. In the flats of southeastern Indiana it is generally called white oak, and in some places it is known as bur oak. It grows very rapidly and to a large size. A tree was measured in 1919 in the Klein woods about 4 miles north of North Vernon that was 3.57 meters (11 feet, 7 inches) in circumference, breast high, and was estimated to be 15 m. (50 feet) to the first branch.

This species when grown in the open forms a large oval head, and in moist soil would make one of the best shade and roadside trees to be had. It is not known how it would adapt itself to high ground, but it is believed this species is worthy a trial as a shade tree. It is apparently hardy in the northern counties.

=Quercus Bèadlei= Trelease. (_Quercus alba × Michauxii_). This hybrid between the white and cow oak was found by the writer in 1913 in the White River bottoms 3 miles east of Medora in Jackson County.

The tree measured 3.54 meters (139 inches) in circumference breast high. Specimens were distributed under No. 19,037, and the determination was made by William Trelease, our leading authority on oaks.

=5.= =Quercus Prìnus= Linnæus. (_Quercus montana_ Willdenow of some recent authors). Chestnut Oak. Plate 44. Medium to large sized tree; bark dark, tight, deeply fissured, the furrows wide, and the ridges continuous; leaves on petioles 1-3 cm. long, 1-2 dm. long, obovate to lanceolate, those growing in the shade usually the widest, rounded at the base, usually narrowly so or even wedge-shaped, short or long taper-pointed at the apex, the apex blunt, margins coarsely and nearly regularly crenate-toothed, the teeth broad and rounded, dark green above at maturity, a lighter and usually a yellow or grayish green beneath, only slightly hairy above when young, soon becoming entirely glabrate, very pubescent beneath when young and usually remaining so until maturity; petioles, midrib and primary veins beneath are usually conspicuously yellow, which is a distinctive character of this species; acorns solitary or in pairs, on short stalks usually about 1 cm. long, sometimes sessile; nuts large ovoid or oblong-ovoid, 2-3 cm. long, enclosed generally for about 1/3 their length in a thin cup; scales with triangular blunt tips, generally somewhat tuberculate and pubescent on the back; kernel sweet.

=Distribution.=--Maine, northern shore of Lake Erie, to west central Indiana and south to northern Georgia and Alabama. In Indiana its distribution is limited to the knobstone and sandstone area of the State. Its distribution has been fairly well mapped. Two large trees on the edge of the top of the bluff of the Ohio River at Marble Hill which is located in the south corner of Jefferson County is the eastern limit of its range. It crowns some of the ridges, sometimes extending down the adjacent slopes a short distance, from Floyd County north to the south side of Salt Creek in Brown County. Its range then extends west to the east side of Monroe County, thence southwestward to the west side of Martin County, thence south to the Ohio River. Where it is found it is generally such a common tree that the areas are commonly called chestnut oak ridges and are regarded as our poorest and most stony land. In Floyd and Clark counties it is usually associated with scrub pine. In the remainder of its range it is generally associated with black jack post and black oaks. In our area this species is never found closely associated with limestone, and reports of this species being found on limestone areas should be referred to _Quercus Muhlenbergii_.

QUERCUS PRINUS Linnæus. Chestnut Oak. (× 1/2.)

Acorns and loose leaves from different trees.]

=Remarks.=--Wood similar and uses generally the same as white oak. The tree usually grows in such poor situations that it never acquires a large diameter, and it is only when a tree is found in a cove or in richer and deeper soil that it grows to a large size. The amount of this species is very limited and it is therefore of no especial economic importance as a source of timber supply. The bark is rich in tannin. The crests of chestnut oak ridges are often cut bare of this species. The trunks are made into crossties, and the larger branches are peeled for their bark. The nuts germinate on top of the ground as soon as they fall, or even before they fall. Usually a large percentage germinate. The tree grows rapidly where soil conditions are at all favorable. It is believed that this species should be used to reforest the chestnut oak ridges of the State, and possibly it would be one of the best to employ on the slopes of other poor ridges.

=6.= =Quercus stellàta= Wangenheim. Post Oak. Plate 45. Medium to large trees; bark resembles that of the white oak except on old trees the fissures are deeper when compared with a white oak of equal size, and the ridges are usually broken into shorter lengths; twigs stout, yellowish-brown at first, remaining this color more or less to the end of the season, at first densely covered with hairs which remain throughout the season, and usually one year old branchlets are more or less tomentose; leaves on hairy petioles 0.3-3 cm. long, generally about 1 cm. long; leaves obovate in outline, commonly 1-2 dm. long and about 2/3 as wide, and generally lobed into five principal lobes which are disposed as follows: the two basal are formed by two deep sinuses just below the middle of the leaf which cut off a large roughly triangular portion, one angle of which forms the base, the top two angles prolonged on each side into a rounded lobe which may be long or short; the terminal lobe is produced by two deep sinuses which constrict the blade at about 1/4-1/3 its length from the apex; the two basal and two terminal sinuses form the two lateral lobes which in size are equal to about one half of the leaf area; the lateral lobes are generally ascending with the terminal portion usually indented with a shallow sinus which produces two short lobes; the terminal lobe of the leaf commonly has two or three shallow secondary lobes; all the lobes of the leaf are rounded; base of leaf narrowed or rounded; leaves very thick at maturity, when they first appear both surfaces are densely covered with a yellowish pubescence, at maturity the upper surface is a dark glossy green, and smooth or nearly so, except some leaves retain fascicles of hairs, and the midrib and principal veins may be more or less rough pubescent, the under surface at maturity is a gray-green, and remains more or less densely covered with fascicles of hairs; acorns single or in clusters, sessile or nearly so; nuts small, ovoid 10-15 mm. long and 6-10 mm. wide, inclosed for about 1/2 their length in the cup; scales ovate, gray or reddish brown, tomentose on the back, blunt except those near the top of the cup which are sometimes acute; kernel sweet.

QUERCUS STELLATA Wangenheim. Post Oak. (× 1/2.)

Acorns from different trees.]

=Distribution.=--Massachusetts, Indiana, south to Florida, and west to Oklahoma and Texas. In Indiana it is confined to the southwestern part of the State. In our area it is found on the crest of ridges in the knob area where it is generally associated with black, and black jack oaks, hence in our poorest and thinnest soils. West of the knob area it takes up different habitats. From Vigo County southward it is found on sand ridges associated with black and black jack oaks. West of the knob area it is frequently found in black oak woods and in Warrick County about two miles southwest of Tennyson it is a frequent tree in the Little Pigeon Creek bottoms which are a hard light clay soil. Here it is associated with pin oak and cork elm (_Ulmus alata_). In the Lower Wabash Valley, especially in Point Township of Posey County in the hard clay of this area it is a frequent to a common tree, associated with Spanish, pin, swamp, white and shingle oaks, and sweet gum. In this area it grows to be a large tree.

This species has been reported for Hamilton County by Wilson, but I regard this reference a wrong identification which will relieve Hamilton County of the reputation of having "post oak" land. It was reported, also, by Gorby for Miami County. Since Gorby's list is wholly unreliable, it is best to drop this reference. Higley and Raddin[37] reported a single tree near Whiting. Nieuwland[38] reported this species from near Mineral Springs in Porter County, the report being based on his number 10,207 which I have not seen. There is no reason to doubt these references, because it is not an unusual thing to find a southern form jump from southern Indiana to a congenial habitat about Lake Michigan.

=Remarks.=--Wood is similar but tougher than white oak, and its uses are the same as white oak. Since in our area the tree is usually medium sized, most of the trees are worked up into crossties. A tree in a black oak woods 4 miles east of Washington in Daviess County measured 2.22 meters (87-1/2 inches) in circumference breast high. This species in some localities is called iron oak, and in Gibson County on the sand dune area it is called sand bur oak.

QUERCUS MACROCARPA Michaux. Bur Oak. (× 1/2.)

Acorns from different trees.

The right two belong to the variety OLIVÆFORMIS.]

=7.= =Quercus macrocàrpa= Michaux. Bur Oak. Plate 46. Large trees; branchlets of young trees generally develop corky wings which are usually absent on mature trees; leaves on petioles 1-2 cm. long, obovate in outline, generally 1-2.5 dm. long, the margins more or less deeply cut so that there are usually 7 lobes, sometimes only 5, or as many as 9 or 11, sometimes the sinuses extend to the midrib, giving the leaf a "skeleton" appearance, the lobes are very irregular in shape and variously arranged, but often appear as if in pairs, lobes rounded and ascending, the larger lobes are sometimes somewhat lobed, the three terminal lobes are usually the largest and considered as a whole would equal in size one half or more of the entire leaf area, the base of the leaf is wedge-shape or narrowly rounded; leaves at maturity are dark green and smooth above, or somewhat pubescent along the midrib, a gray-green and woolly pubescent beneath; acorns usually solitary, sometimes in pairs or clusters of three, sessile or on short stalks, sometimes on stalks as long as 2.5 cm.; nuts very variable in size and shape, ovoid to oblong, often very much depressed at the apex, 2-3 cm. long, enclosed from 1/3 to almost their entire length in the cup which is fringed at the top; cups thick and large, sometimes 4.5 cm. in diameter; scales tomentose on the back and somewhat tuberculate, blunt near the base of the cup, but at and near the top of the cup they become long attenuate and on some trees appear almost bristle like; kernel sweet.