Chapter I: The Common Chimpanzee. Anthropopithecus Troglodytes (1)

_Homo sylvestris_ (Ourang-outang), Tyson & Cowper, Phil. Trans., xxi., p.
338 (1699); Tulpius, Observ. Anat., p. 270, pl. 14 (1641).

_Homo troglodytes_, Linn., Syst. Nat., i., p. 32 (1766; pt.).

_Simia troglodytes_, Gm., Syst. Nat., p. 26 (1788); Blumenb., Handb., x.,
p. 73 (1803); Owen, Tr. Z. S. I., p. 344, pls. 48, 50-52, 55, 56 (1835);
ii., p. 169 (1841); Schl., Mus. Pays-Bas, vii., p. 8 (1876).

_Troglodytes niger_, Geoffr., Ann. Mus., xix., p. 87 (1812); Desmar.,
Mammolog., p. 49 (1820); Lesson, Spec. Mamm., p. 37 (1840); var.
_Marungensis_, Owen, Tr. Z. S., v., p. 3, pls. i.-ix.; p. 279, pl. xlix.
(1866); Noalk, Zool. Jahrb., ii., p. 291 (1887).

_Pseudanthropos (Troglodytes) leucoprymnus_, Less., Ill., Prod. Syst.
Mamm., pl. 12 (1811); Reichenb., Naturg. Affen., p. 191 (1862).

_Pithecus leucopryma_, Less., Ill. Zool., pl. 31 (1836; young).

_Satyrus lagaros_, Meyen, Arch. f. Naturg., p. 282 (1856).

_Mimetes troglodytes_, Gray, Cat. Monkeys Brit. Mus., p. 6 (1870).

_Troglodytes vellerosus_, Gray, P. Z. S., 1862, p. 181; id., Cat. Monkeys
Brit. Mus., Append., p. 127.

_Troglodytes schweinfurthi_, Gigl., Studii Craniol. sui Cimpanzé iii., p.
56 (1872).

_Troglodytes aubryi_, Grat. et Alix, Nouv. Arch. Mus., ii., p. 1, pls. 1,
9 (1866).

{195}_Troglodytes tchego_, Duvernoy, Arch. Mus., viii., p. 8 (1855).

_Anthropopithecus troglodytes_, Flower & Lydekker, Mamm., p. 736, fig.
357 (1891).

CHARACTERS.--Face, ears, hands, and feet dark-reddish flesh-colour, or more rarely of a blackish-brown colour; in general the colour of the hair is wholly black, except on the upper and lower lips, where it is white and very short, and in the region of the buttocks, where it is washed with reddish-brown.

Hair on the body straight and silky, with coarser hair interspersed; on the top of the head it lies smoothly to each side, away from a median line; round the face it forms bushy whiskers, extending down into a slight beard; it encroaches on the brow, leaving only a triangular central space naked; on the upper and lower lips are short, bristly hairs; the rest of the face naked and much wrinkled; on the shoulders, the back, and the hips, the hair is longer than elsewhere; the back of the hands and feet are thinly haired, the fingers and toes nude. The margin of the ears is often folded in for the greater part of its length.

The skin of the body is of a peculiar light, yet muddy, flesh-colour, sometimes verging on brown. Brownish or black spots on many parts of the body seem to vary in different individuals.

The expression of the face is grave, but less melancholy and pre-occupied than in the Orangs.

The weight of the brain in _A. troglodytes_ varies from 6½ to 6-3/5 ounces.

This celebrated Man-like Ape has been known, by vague report at least, for nearly three hundred years. The earliest clear account of its existence, however, is derived from the "Strange {196}Adventures of Andrew Battell, of Leigh in Essex, sent by the Portugals prisoner to Angola, who lived there and in the adioining regions neere eighteene yeares." It was first published in 1613 in "Purchas his Pilgrimage," and later more fully in 1625, in "Purchas his Pilgrimes."[3] Here it is related that in the Province of Mayombe, "which is nineteen leagues from Longo along the Coast, the woods are so covered with baboones, monkies, apes, and parrots that it will fear any man to travaile in them alone. Here are also two kinds of monsters, which are common in these woods, and very dangerous. The greatest of these two monsters is called Pongo, in their language, and the lesser is called Engeco." The Pongo turned out to be the Gorilla, the description given by the old prisoner Battell proving to be wonderfully accurate. The lesser monster, the Engeco, is equally certainly the Chimpanzee. The first record of a specimen actually seen in Europe is in 1641, and is noticed by Tulpius in his "Medical Observations," and the earliest scientific description of a Chimpanzee--a young specimen of _A. troglodytes_--is that of the anatomists Tyson and Cowper, published by the Royal Society in 1699. It was, however, not till 1835, that the osteology of a full-grown specimen was described, when Sir Richard Owen's memoir appeared, and shortly after a very detailed account of its habits was given to the world by Dr. Thomas Savage, the missionary to whom we have already referred (p. 184), followed by a further anatomical investigation of its structure by Dr. Wyman, of Boston, U.S.A.

DISTRIBUTION.--This species is found over the greater part of Tropical Central Africa, and its range is co-extensive with that given above for the genus. Loango and the Gaboon, however, {197}are the districts from which this Chimpanzee has chiefly been imported into Europe.

HABITS.--The more characteristic habits of the common Chimpanzee have already been given under the description of the genus.

Its food consists of all sorts of forest fruits, and especially of the young shoots of the _Scitamineæ_, or ginger-plants.

The Chimpanzee can move the skin of its head, as the Gorilla does, but without causing the erection of the hair, which the Orang and the Gorilla are both able to accomplish. It can also to some considerable extent wrinkle its forehead, if disappointed or pleased, as when refused anything, or if tickled, when in the latter case it also utters a chuckling sound like that of smothered laughter, draws back the corners of its mouth, and wrinkles its eyelids.

The _Soko_ observed by Livingstone in the Manuyema country would seem to be the common Chimpanzee. "According to Livingstone," to quote Mr. H. H. Johnston's note in his excellent "Life" of the great traveller, "these creatures often walk in an erect position, but steady their bodies by placing the hands on the back of the head. He represents this beast as being of great intelligence, and so cunning, that it is difficult to stalk him in front without being seen, and, therefore, when he is killed, it is usually from behind. The Manuyema people frequently string a number of nets round some enclosure in the forest and drive the _Sokos_ into them and spear them. Brought to bay like this, they will frequently turn on their assailants, and will snatch their spears from them, and break them, and perhaps also bite off the ends of the men's fingers. But, as a rule, the Soko is not ferocious. They are said to kidnap children and {198}run up the trees with them, and have to be lured down by bananas. When wounded the creature tries to staunch the blood by stuffing leaves into the wound. It lives in communities of about ten, and is monogamous. The female produces occasionally twins. As parents, they are very affectionate towards their offspring, the father relieving the mother of the burden of her young one in dangerous places. Their food consists of wild fruits. At times the _Sokos_ collect together and drum with their fists on the trunks of hollow trees, and accompany this performance with loud yells and screams."

"According to the statements of the Niam-niam themselves," says Schweinfurth, "the chase of the Chimpanzee requires a party of twenty or thirty resolute hunters, who have to ascend the trees, which are some eighty feet high, and to clamber after the agile and crafty brutes until they can drive them into the snares prepared beforehand. Once entangled in a net the beasts are without much further difficulty killed by means of spears. However, in some cases, they will defend themselves savagely and with all the fury of despair. Driven by the hunter into a corner, they are said to wrest the lances from the men's hands and to make good use of them against the adversary. Nothing was more to be dreaded than being bitten by their tremendous fangs." The stories as to their carrying off young girls, and constructing nests are pure fabrications, according to Schweinfurth. Its name among the Niam-niam is "Ranya." "The life which the Ranya leads is very much like what is led by the Orang-Utan in Borneo, and is spent almost entirely in the trees, the woods on the river banks being the chief resort of the animals.... Like the Gorillas, they are not found in herds, but either in pairs, or even quite alone, and it is only the young which occasionally may be seen in groups."

PLATE XLI.

{199}II. THE BALD CHIMPANZEE. ANTHROPOPITHECUS CALVUS.

_Troglodytes calvus_, Du Chaillu, Pr. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., vii., p. 296
(1861); id., Travels, pp. 32, 48, 63 (1861); Gray, P. Z. S., 1861, p.
273; Bartlett, P. Z. S., 1885, p. 673, pl. xli.; Beddard, Tr. Z. S.,
xiii., p. 177 (1893); Romanes, P. Z. S., 1889, p. 316.

_Troglodytes kooloo-kamba_, Du Chaillu, Pr. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., vii.,
p. 358 (1861); id., Travels, pp. 39, 49, 50 (1861); Gray, P. Z. S., 1861,
p. 273.

_Mimetes troglodytes_, var. a (_T. calvus_), Gray, Cat. Monkeys Brit.
Mus., p. 6 (1870).

_Anthropopithecus calvus_, Flower & Lydekker, Mammals, p. 736 (1891).

(_Plate XLI._)

CHARACTERS.--This species was first indicated by Du Chaillu on his return from his celebrated journey to the Gaboon, but based on poor skins, which left much doubt as to the species being distinct. Excellently preserved specimens were, however, brought home by Marche and Dr. Compiégne, and some of them passed into the Dublin Museum, but it was not till 1885, when a living specimen, now known to fame as "Sally," was received at the Zoological Gardens in London, and lived there for five years, that the correctness of Du Chaillu, as to the distinctness of his "Kooloo-kamba," _A. calvus_, from _A. troglodytes_, was proved and accepted.

Similar to _A. troglodytes_, but distinguished from it by the face, hands, and feet being quite black, or brownish-black, instead of pale flesh-colour; the front, top, and sides of the head and face are nearly naked, having only a few short hairs on the head, which is quite destitute of any signs of the parting so {200}conspicuous in _A. troglodytes_. The hair is blacker than in the latter species, and extends only for a short distance in front of the level of the ears, and on the sides of the face; the temporal region and cheeks show a scanty growth; on the chin and upper lip a sparse crop of short hairs, chiefly white; long scattered black eyebrows, which do not meet in the mid-line, spring from the supra-orbital ridges. The ears are as large as in _A. troglodytes_, very flat, but stand out more prominently from the side of the head; their margin is nude, and there is no lobule. The hands are haired across the knuckles, and again (after a naked band) on the back of the hand and arm; the foot is haired down to the first joints of the toes; the nails and fingers are very human in appearance.

Face very prognathous; the nasal bones ridged in the mid-line; the foot less like a human hand than even in the Orang. "Sally's" brain weighed 8-3/5 ounces.

The expression of the face, the expanded nostrils, the thicker lips, especially the lower lip, and the more elevated skull, all distinguish _A. calvus_ from _A. troglodytes_; in its muscular anatomy and in its brain it also shows points of difference.

DISTRIBUTION.--The interior of Gaboon, in Western Africa.

HABITS.--The Bald Chimpanzee showed in captivity a disposition to live on animal food, which the Common Chimpanzee never does. "Sally" had also the singular habit of producing pellets, resembling the castings thrown up by Raptorial birds; they were composed of feathers (of the birds she had eaten) and other indigestible substances taken with her food. Moreover, "Sally," as this Chimpanzee, now famous in the annals of zoology, was named, was an expert rat-catcher, and caught and killed many rats that entered her cage. "Her intelligence was {201}far above that of the ordinary Chimpanzee. With but little trouble she could be taught to do many things that require the exercise of considerable thought and understanding." (_Bartlett._) In general habits _A. calvus_ differs, so far as known, in no respect from _A. troglodytes_.

It was on this Ape that the late Dr. G. J. Romanes, attracted by its high intelligence, made his interesting psychological experiments, which are related in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society for 1889. "Her intelligence was conspicuously displayed by the remarkable degree in which she was able to understand the meaning of spoken language--a degree fully equal to that presented by an infant a few months before emerging from infancy, and, therefore, higher than that which is presented by any brute, so far at least as I have met with any evidence to show. Having enlisted the intelligent co-operation of the keepers, I requested them to ask the Ape repeatedly for one straw, two straws, or three straws. These she was to pick up and hand out from among the litter of her cage. No constant order was to be observed in making these requests, but whenever she handed a number not asked for, her offer was to be refused, while if she gave the proper number her offer was to be accepted, and she was to receive a piece of fruit as payment. In this way the Ape was eventually taught to associate these three numbers with their names.... As soon as the animal understood what was required, and had learnt to associate these three numbers with their names, she never failed to give the number of straws asked for. Her education was then extended in a similar manner from three to four and four to five straws." "Sally" rarely made mistakes up to that number, but above five and up to ten, to which one of the keepers endeavoured to advance her education, the result is uncertain. {202}"It is evident that she understands the words seven, eight, nine, and ten, to betoken numbers higher than those below them, and when she was asked for any of these numbers above six, she always gave some number over six and under ten. She sometimes doubled over a straw to make it present two ends, and was supposed to hasten, with the small stock of patience she possessed, the attainment of her task." Dr. Romanes was disposed to think that the uncertainty which attended her dealing with the numbers six and seven was due to her losing patience rather than to her losing count. It was at all events evident that "Sally" could count accurately up to five. Dr. Romanes tried to teach her colours in the same way, but the result was so uniformly negative that he was disposed to think that she was colour-blind, as she was taught to distinguish between white straws and the straws of any other colour, but she could not be taught to go further.

In 1875 a female Ape, which received the name of "Mafuca," was received from the Loango coast at the Dresden Zoological Gardens. "This," says Dr. Hartmann, "was a wild unmanageable creature, 120 cm. in height, reminding us in many respects of the Gorilla. The face was prognathous [more so than in _A. troglodytes_]; the ears were comparatively small, placed high on the skull, and projecting outwards; the supra-orbital arch was strongly developed, and the end of the nose was broad, and there were rolls of fat on the cheeks. The creature was, moreover, strongly built, and the region of the hips and the belly was contracted, while the hands and feet were large and powerful. The general physiognomical resemblance between Mafuca and a female Gorilla [whose dead body I had examined] was very great." It was suggested that the creature might be a cross between a Chimpanzee and a Gorilla, as the traveller {203}Koppenfels had affirmed he had shot such cross-bred animals. It is still an undecided question to what species it belonged.

Of the four genera of the _Simiidæ_, "the Gibbons are obviously most remote from Man, and nearest to the _Cynopithecini_ (_Cercopithecidæ_).

"The Orangs come nearest to Man in the number of the ribs, the form of the cerebral hemispheres, the diminution of the occipito-temporal sulcus [groove] of the brain, and the ossified styloid process; but they differ from him much more widely in other respects, and especially in the limbs, than the Gorilla and the Chimpanzee do.

"The Gorilla is more Man-like in the proportions of the leg to the body, and of the foot to the hand; further, in the size of the heel, the curvature of the spine, the form of the pelvis, and the absolute capacity of the cranium.

"The Chimpanzee approaches Man most closely in the character of its cranium, its dentition, and the proportional size of the arms." (_Huxley._)

THE HUMAN RACE. FAMILY HOMINIDÆ.

With this family we reach the culminating point of the zoological tree. It contains but one monotypic genus, HOMO, with its single species, HOMO SAPIENS. Although deriving his specific designation from the unique characteristic of his mental attributes, Man comes under review here alone in his physical aspect as one of the mammalian animals.

"Identical in the physical processes by which he originates--identical in the early stages of his formation--identical in the mode of his nutrition before and after birth, with the animals which lie immediately below him on the {204}scale--Man, if his adult and perfect stature be compared with theirs, exhibits, as might be expected, a marvellous likeness of organisation. He resembles them as they resemble one another--he differs from them as they differ from one another." (_Huxley._) On comparing his external form and internal organisation with that of all the other known zoological forms, he is found to fit no niche in the scale of classification, founded on the same principles of likeness and dissimilitude as applied to them, except in the vicinity of the Gibbons, the Orangs, the Gorillas, and the Chimpanzees, of whose order--the Primates--he forms only an additional though higher Family, solely on his structural characters and entirely apart from those intangible mental attributes which remove him supremely above all other creatures. Unbridged as is the chasm between the Ape and Man, "the structural differences which separate Man from the Gorilla and the Chimpanzee, are not so great as those which separate the greater from the lower Apes." (_Huxley._)

Of the three higher Apes, the Chimpanzees are those which appear to approach Man most closely; but he is distinguished from them and from all the other members of the _Simiidæ_ by his body being supported in the erect position upon the outer edge of a broad, arched, short-toed foot, articulated at right angles to the leg. This foot has a prominent heel and a stout great-toe, longer than all the digits, except the second, but lying parallel and not opposable to them, or capable of being moved away from them, because of the flat unrounded articular surface of the ento-cuneiform bone of the ankle. His back-bone has a strongly-marked, open S-shaped curvature, with its concavity in the lower back, giving it its elasticity and breaking any shock which might be transmitted otherwise to the brain through the jolt of walking in the vertical position. His arms are {205}proportionately much shorter than the legs, and also the spine; the thumb is also longer in proportion than in the Apes, and, as the fingers have all separate movements, the hand is thus better able to be adjusted to minute operations. The head in Man is equipoised on the vertebral column just under the centre of its mass, and is thus easily supported and moved, whereas, in all lower forms of Vertebrates, it is placed further and further from the centre towards the back, with its weight thrown towards the front. In Man the skull cavity, not intruded upon and diminished by the roof of the orbits, is characteristically high and arched, its capacity being twice as great as any Ape's; still the difference in the cranial capacity of different races of Man is much greater absolutely than that between the highest Ape and the lowest Man. (_Huxley._) His facial and jaw-bones are smaller, and project far less, even in the most prognathous of men, than in the Apes; the lower front margin of the under jaw is characteristically human, being produced forward to form the chin. In the human skull there is always a spike-like bone--the styloid process--dependent from and ossified to the ear-bones.

In Man the form of the pelvis--the large osseous block to which the legs are articulated--is very characteristic in its width; its great basin-shaped cavity receives and supports his lower internal organs; to its extensive external surface the muscles for enabling him to retain the erect position are attached, while its width, by separating the thigh-bones, gives to the body a form favourable to stability, which is increased by the wide angle at which the articulating head of the femur is attached to its shaft. "Were he to desire it, Man could not, with convenience, walk on all fours: his short and nearly inflexible foot, and his long thigh, would bring the knee to the ground; his widely separated shoulders and his arms, too far {206}extended from the median line, would ill support the fore-part of his body; the great indented muscle which, in quadrupeds, suspends the trunk between the blade-bones as a girth, is smaller in Man than in any one among them; the head is heavier, on account of the magnitude of the brain, and the smallness of the sinuses or cavities of its bones; and yet the means of supporting it are weaker, for he has neither cervical ligament, nor are the vertebræ so modified as to prevent their flexure forward; he could, therefore, only maintain his head in the same line with the spine, and then, his eyes and mouth being directed towards the ground, he could not see before him." (_Cuvier._)

The breadth of the sacrum is equal to or exceeds its length, and the width of the pelvis exceeds its height, the reverse of what is seen in Apes. The wrist (_carpus_) in Man has no _central bone_; the ankle (_tarsus_) is longer than the metatarsal segment, and that is again longer than the toe-bones, which are more compressed than the finger-bones. In Man the teeth form a continuous series--there is no diastema, which, with the exception of the extinct _Anoplotherium_, is alone true of Man; his canine teeth are never prominent or tusk-like.

The human brain differs from that of the Man-like Apes in regard to its convolutions and their separating grooves, only in minor characters; but in weight, as in capacity, very greatly. The weight of a healthy full-grown human brain never descends below thirty-two ounces, that of the largest Gorilla, far heavier than any Man, never attains to more than twenty. Yet, "the difference in weight of brain between the highest and the lowest Men is far greater relatively and absolutely than between the lowest Man and the highest Ape." (_Huxley._)

Notwithstanding the enormous differences presented between {207}the highest and lowest races of mankind, and widely as they are separated geographically, these dissimilar characters are not considered sufficient to constitute more than one species, since throughout the series one form graduates into another, and all of them are fertile with each other. Although there is but one species of Man, he is distinguishable, however, according to Sir William Flower, into three main races.

A. _The Ethiopian Race._

Under this heading are included all the dark-skinned negroes, with black frizzly hair, long heads (_i.e._, whose breadth is less than four-fifths of its length), moderately broad faces, flat nasal bones, prominent legs, thick everted lips, protruding jaws, and long fore-arms. To this race belong (1) the Negroes, inhabiting Central Africa, of which there are numerous tribes: (_a_) the yellowish-brown Hottentots of the South African plains, and (_b_) the dwarfed straight-faced Bushmen, living outcast among the mountains and rocks, remarkable for their tufted hair, their great fatty buttocks, and the peculiar "click" in their speech; (2) the _Negrillos_, of Central and West Africa, with short heads (_i.e._, whose breadth is greater than four-fifths of its length); (3) the _Melanesians_, composed of the Papuans of New Guinea, New Caledonia, and the Solomon Islands, with strong supra-orbital ridges, and a narrow and prominent nose: the "hyper-typical" mountaineers of Fiji, the Tasmanians, and the Australians, especially of the northern portion of that continent, all belong to this race; (4) the round-headed _Negritos_ of the Andamans, the Philippines, and the Malay Archipelago.

B. _The Mongolian Race._

These are short in stature, have the skin yellow or brown, the hair black and straight, abundant on the head, but sparse {208}elsewhere; the skull low and intermediate between long and broad; the face broad, flat, and with large cheek-bones; the eye-sockets high and round. To this stock belong (1) the Eskimo of Greenland and all the sub-arctic regions of Eurasia and N. America; (2) the Mongols, of whom the Japanese, the nomad Lapps, the Finns, both of mixed Caucasian and Mongol blood, and those descendants of the Mongols, the Magyars and the Turks, form a northern and much modified group, while the Chinese, the Thibetans, the Burmese, and the Siamese constitute a southern, more civilised, group; (3) the Malays of the Malayan Peninsula and Sumatra, in which the Mongolian features are very apparent; (4) the Brown Polynesians, inhabiting Samoa, Tonga, the Eastern Polynesian islands, and New Zealand; (5) the native American races inhabiting the continent from Terra del Fuego in the south, to the sub-arctic regions occupied by the Esquimo.

C. _The Caucasian Race._

Of this stock there are two very distinct groups: (1) the tall, blond, straight, fair-haired, blue-eyed, light-skinned, well-bearded peoples of N. Europe, Scandinavia, Scotland, N. Germany--named _Xanthochroi_ ("yellow-haired" and pale of complexion) by Huxley: these have extended, as a mixed race, also into N. Africa and Afghanistan; and by intermingling with the Mongols have produced the Finns and the Lapps; and (2) the _Melanochroi_ ("black-haired") people, shorter in stature, with long heads, pale skins, prominent noses, but with black wavy hair and beards and dark eyes, who inhabit S. Europe, N. Africa, and S.W. Asia, and are found also in the British islands. They are known as Kelts, Iberians, Romans, Pelasgians and Semites. The Dravidians of India, the Veddahs {209}of Ceylon, and probably the Ainos of Japan and the Maoutze of China belong to the Caucasian stock. The ancient Egyptians, of whom the Kopts and the Fellahs of Egypt of to-day are the descendants, are pure _Melanochroi_. (_Flower._)

EXTINCT ANTHROPOIDEA.

As we have seen above (vol. i., p. 110) the earliest Lemuroids appeared in the Lower Eocene division of the Tertiary period in the New World, and in the Old World in its upper strata; they continued during the whole of the Eocene in the Western Hemisphere, and are last seen in the Lower Miocene of North America.

Fossil Apes, on the other hand, appear first in South America, in the Santa Cruz beds of Patagonia, in strata of Upper Eocene or Oligocene age. In the Old World they come on the scene only during the tropical ages of the Miocene epoch. When the middle and upper strata of the latter period were being deposited in Europe, Anthropoid Apes ranged from the Mediterranean shores to further north than the present northern limit of the Old World Apes.

In the Pliocene age _Anthropoidea_ were living in Southern Asia, around where the Sivalik hills now stand, and in Southern Europe, as at Pikermi and Samos, being represented almost entirely by species of still existing genera, and one living species--the Orang. Chimpanzees had already then become differentiated, and perhaps Man had even appeared, though the evidence is not sufficiently conclusive.

In the Pleistocene, remains of many still living species have been brought to light both in the New and the Old Worlds, and unmistakable osseous remains, as well as abundant evidences {210}of his handiwork, prove the existence of Man at that remote epoch.

FAMILY HAPALIDÆ (Vol. I., p. 129).

GENUS HAPALE (_op. cit._, p. 131).

Of this genus abundant remains of two species have been found in many of the Brazilian caverns of Pleistocene or recent age. These have been referred to two species: HAPALE GRANDIS (Lund), and the still-living H. JACCHUS (Linn.; cf. Vol. I., p. 132).

FAMILY CEBIDÆ (Vol. I., p. 150).

GENUS PROTOPITHECUS.

_Protopithecus_, Lund, Ann. Sc. Nat. (2), xi., p. 230 (1839); Zittel,
Handb. Palæont., iv., p. 705 (1893).

This genus is founded on a very large leg-bone from the Pleistocene bone-caves of Brazil. The species has been described as PROTOPITHECUS BRASILIENSIS, Lund.

GENUS CALLITHRIX (Vol. I., p. 158).

Two species have been described from the Pleistocene bone-caves of Brazil: CALLITHRIX CHLOROCNOMYS, Lund, and C. PRIMÆVA, Lund (= _C. antiqua_, Lund).

GENUS ALOUATTA (Vol. I., p. 192).

Remains of one species, ALOUATTA URSINA (p. 149), has been discovered in the Pleistocene bone-caves of Brazil.

GENUS CEBUS (Vol. I., p. 204).

The Pleistocene bone-caverns of Brazil have preserved three species: one extinct, CEBUS MACROGNATHUS, Lund, and two still living, C. FATUELLUS, Linn., and C. CIRRIFER, Geoffr.

{211}GENUS HOMUNCULUS.

_Homunculus_, Ameghino, Rev. Argent. Hist. Nat., i., pp. 290, 384 (1891).

_Ecphantodon_, Mercenat, Rev. Mus. La Plata, ii., p. 74, pl. ii.; Zittel,
Handb. Palæont., iv., p. 704 (1893).

The dental formula of this genus is I2/2, C1/1, P3/3, M3/3. The diastema, or break, in the dental series is very small; the incisors are chisel-shaped, the outer pair smaller than the inner pair. The canines, which have a small basal cusp behind, are only slightly prominent; the pre-molars have one root, and one low outer cusp, and two higher inner cusps. The molars are quadrangular, with two pairs of cusps, each united obliquely by a ridge; the anterior molar is smaller than the two hinder. The arm-bone (_humerus_) has an ent-epi-condylar foramen. (_Zittel._) The front surface of the line of union of the two halves of the lower jaw is vertical. The terminal joints of the digits have nails. The thumb and the great-toe are opposable. HOMUNCULUS PATAGONICUS, Ameghino (= _Ecphantodon ceboides_, Mercenat), the only known species, is found in the Upper Eocene or Oligocene of Santa Cruz, Patagonia.

GENUS ANTHROPOPS.

_Anthropops_, Ameghino, Rev. Arg. Nat. Hist., i., p. 387 (1891); Zittel,
Handb. Palæont., iv., p. 704 (1893).

This genus is known from only a fragment of a lower jaw containing four small incisors, two strong canines, and anterior and median pre-molars, both one-rooted. One species, ANTHROPOPS PERFECTUS, Ameghino, from the older Tertiary (Upper Eocene or Oligocene) beds of Santa Cruz, Patagonia, is known.

Two genera, _Homocentrus_ (H. ARGENTINUS, Amegh.) and {212}_Eudiastus_ (E. LINGULATUS, Amegh.), described by Ameghino, from the Santa Cruz beds in Patagonia, are not yet sufficiently characterised.

FAMILY CERCOPITHECIDÆ (Vol. I., p. 248).

GENUS PAPIO (_suprà_, p. 253).

Several species of this still living genus have been recovered from strata of the Tertiary epoch: PAPIO SUB-HIMALAYANUS (Meyer), from the Sivalik hills, of Lower Pliocene age; P. FALCONERI (Lydekker), from the Pleistocene bone-caves of Madras, India, and in the superficial deposits of Algeria, North Africa; and P. ATLANTICUS (Thomas).

The Sivalik species was closely related to the existing North-African Baboons.

GENUS OREOPITHECUS.

_Oreopithecus_, Gervais, C. R., p. 1223, lxxiv. (1872); Ristori, Boll.
Com. Geol. (3), i., pp. 178, 226, pls. vii., viii. (1890); Zittel, Handb.
Palæont, iv., p. 705 (1893).

The characters which distinguish this genus are the incisors, which are chisel-shaped above and scoop-shaped below; the large upper and lower canine teeth; the upper pre-molars, which approach in shape to the molars, with the outer cusps higher than the inner, and the inner one strong; the upper molars with two pairs of opposite conical cusps, separated by a longitudinal furrow, and with a strong cingulum; the posterior upper molar smaller than the median; the lower molars smaller than the upper, with two pairs of cusps, and a fifth on their hind border, which in the hindmost tooth is developed into a strong talon. The face is short, and the chin rounded. OREOPITHECUS BAMBOLII, Gervais, is the best known species, and was obtained from the Mid-Miocene lignites of Monte Bamboli, {213}Casteani, and Monte Massi, in Tuscany. It has been placed by some Palæontologists among the _Simiidæ_, and by others in the _Cercopithecidæ_. According to Ristori, the under jaw shows its alliance with _Papio_ and _Cercopithecus_; while the upper jaw more resembles the Anthropoid Apes. It is the largest known fossil Ape, and is excelled in strength only by _Dryopithecus_, Zittel.

GENUS MACACUS (_suprà_, p. 1).

Species belonging to this still living genus, occurred in Asia and in Europe in the age--the Pliocene--which immediately preceded the Great Ice age, as well as in the Pleistocene epoch itself. MACACUS SIVALENSIS is the oldest fossil of the genus, and was described by Mr. Lydekker from the Sivalik beds of the Punjaub. M. PRISCUS is known from the Pliocene of Montpellier, in France; M. FLORENTINUS, Cocchi (the same as _Aulaxinuus florentinus_ of Cocchi, and _M. ausonianus_ of Forsyth Major), from the Upper Pliocene beds in the valley of the Arno. M. SUEVICUS (Hedinger), which has been described from a well-preserved palate-bone, having all the molar, and two of the pre-molar teeth present, was found at Heppenlochs, in Würtemberg. M. TRARENSIS (Pomel) is found in Algeria, in beds of the Ice age; while, in holes on the rock of Gibraltar, remains of the same species as is now living there--_M. inuus_--were discovered by Mr. Calderon in 1879. From another crevasse at Monstaines, in the Haute Garonne, M. Harlé obtained a fragment of a lower jaw of a species of _Macacus_, associated with the bones of Mammals of the Ice age. (_Zittel._) Of the same antiquity is a jaw found, according to Mr. Lydekker, near the village of Grays, in Essex, a fact which indicates a very great difference in the climate of that part of England from that of the present day.

{214}GENUS DOLICHOPITHECUS.

_Dolichopithecus_, Depéret, Mem. Soc. Geol. Fr., Palæont., i., p. 11
(1890); Zittel, Handb. Palæont., iv., p. 707 (1893).

Allied to _Semnopithecus_, but having the muzzle longer and the limbs shorter and stouter. The genus has been based on three crania, several teeth, and a number of the bones of the skeleton, belonging to the species DOLICHOPITHECUS RUSCINENSIS, Depéret, from the Pliocene strata of Perpignan, in France. (_Zittel._)

GENUS MESOPITHECUS.

_Mesopithecus_, Wagner, Abh. K. Bayer, Ak. (1) iii., p. 154; vii., abth.,
ii., p. 9; Zittel, Handb. Palæont., iv., p. 706 (1893).

This genus is based on a skull and teeth, which indicate an alliance with _Semnopithecus_, while the skeleton more resembles that of _Macacus Inuus_ (the Barbary Ape). The male had much longer and more powerful canines than the female. MESOPITHECUS PENTELICI, Wagner, the typical species, was founded on a fragment originally brought by a soldier in 1838 from Pikermi to Munich. Since then the whole skeleton has been recovered, and this is now one of the best-known species of the fossil _Anthropoidea_. It lived in Pliocene times, apparently in troops in the forests of the Pikermi plains, which at that date extended far into what is now the Mediterranean Sea. Remains of the same species have been discovered near Baltavar, in Hungary.

GENUS COLOBUS (_suprà_, p. 85).

In the Mid-Miocene forests of Europe this genus was represented by a species described by Professor Fraas as COLOBUS GRANDÆVUS, from Steinheim, in Würtemburg.

{215}GENUS SEMNOPITHECUS (_suprà_, p. 100).

Among the forests in which bamboos, liquidambars, tulip-trees, magnolias, laurels, and pomegranates flourished in Upper Pliocene days, in the middle of Europe, there lived troops of Langurs, closely allied to those of our own time. SEMNOPITHECUS MONSPESSULANUS, Gervais, has been recovered from the strata of that age, at Montpellier, and near Casino in Tuscany. S. PALÆINDICUS (Lydekker) inhabited the forests in the region where the Sivalik hills now rise at the foot of the Himalayas, while S. ENTELLUS roamed over that region in the Pleistocene age, as its actual descendants do to-day.

FAMILY SIMIIDÆ (_suprà_, p. 143).

GENUS PLIOPITHECUS.

_Pliopithecus_, Gervais, C. R., xliii., p. 221 (1856); id., Zool. et Pal.
Franc., p. 8 (1859); Forsyth Major, Atti. Soc. Ital. Sc. Nat., xv., p. 82
(1872); Zittel, Handb. Palæont., p. 708 (1893).

_Protopithecus_, Ed. Lartet (nec Lund), Ann. Dep. Gers., 1851, p. 11.

This genus is very nearly allied to _Hylobates_, but differs from it in the form and proportions of its teeth. The genus is based on a lower jaw found in the Mid-Miocene of Central Europe. The incisors are small and long; the canines strong and but little taller than the incisors; the pre-molars are low, the anterior having one cusp, and the next two cusps; the molars have two pairs of opposite short, thick, conical cusps, with an additional one on the hind border, which enlarges into a talon in the hindmost of the set. The type species, PLIOPITHECUS ANTIQUUS, which very closely resembles the Gibbons, lived in the luxuriant forests of Sansan (Gers), and a variety of {216}it, described as P. CHANTREI, Depéret, inhabited the woods round Mont Ceindre. Remains of the same animals have been obtained in the Brown-coal beds of Elgg, in Switzerland and Göriach, in Steyermark.

GENUS HYLOBATES (_suprà_, p. 148).

True Gibbons, indistinguishable from those now living in the island, have been found in the caves of Borneo.

A finely preserved limb-bone, from the Eppelsheim beds of the Pliocene age, has also been ascribed to a species of this genus.

GENUS DRYOPITHECUS.

_Dryopithecus_, Lartet, C. R., xliii., p. 221 (1856); id., Mem. Soc.
Geol., Palæon., i., p. 1, pl. 1 (1890); Gaudrey, C. R. Cx., p. 373
(1890); Zittel, Handb. Palæont., iv., p. 709 (1893).

This genus is based on remains from the Mid-Miocene of St. Gaudens (Haute Garonne), which indicate the former existence of an Ape more Man-like than any other. In size it approached the dimensions of the Chimpanzee; the incisors are smaller--an elevated character--and shorter than those in the Gorilla or the Chimpanzee. The canines are, as in the Gorilla, thick, sharp behind, and taller than the cheek-teeth; the anterior pre-molar is large, as in the Gorilla, has one root, and a strong cingulum on the inner side; the posterior pre-molar is longer than broad, is two-cusped, and has a flattened talon. The molar teeth have two pairs of opposite cusps, and a fifth on the hind border, which develops, on the hindmost tooth, into a two-cusped talon. The line of union of the lower jaw is high, {217}projects obliquely forward, and is longer and narrower than in Man. The late appearance of the last molar in the upper jaw was supposed to be a character which was alone common to _Dryopithecus_ and Man; but Dr. Forsyth Major has observed that in _Macacus_ the same late in-coming of the "wisdom tooth" occurs. The type species, DRYOPITHECUS FONTANI, Lartet, which lived in the Mid-Miocene forests of St. Gaudens, though the most Man-like of all the Tertiary Apes, was nevertheless further distant from Man than the Chimpanzees (_Anthropopithecus_). The form of the symphysis of its lower jaw indicates that its snout was considerably lengthened. Certain molar teeth found in the Bohnerz strata from Melchingen and Salmendingen, in Würtemberg, and at one time considered to be human, have now been ascribed to _D. fontani_.

GENUS SIMIA (_suprà_, p. 170).

To this genus has been referred a molar tooth found in the Pliocene Strata of the Sivalik hills in India. It is considered to belong to an Orang-Utan, SIMIA SATYRUS.

GENUS ANTHROPOPITHECUS (_suprà_, p. 188).

A fragmentary jaw, also from the Pliocene beds in the Sivalik hills, has been described as ANTHROPOPITHECUS SIVALENSIS by Lydekker, who at first placed it in a new genus, _Palæopithecus_, but has more recently determined it to belong really to this now exclusively African genus. The relative smallness of the premolars distinguish it from the Orang. Should this determination be confirmed, the presence of a true Chimpanzee in Asia will be a fact of the highest interest in the geographical distribution of the _Simiidæ_.

{218}FAMILY HOMINIDÆ (_suprà_, p. 203).

GENUS HOMO (_suprà_, _p. 203_).

Although, as has been stated above, the _Primates_, represented by lowly Lemuroids evincing relationship with the ancestors of the hoofed animals (_Ungulata_), first appeared in Eocene times, it would be a hopeless quest, as Professor Boyd-Dawkins points out, to seek for a highly specialised Man in a fauna where no living genus of Mammals was present.

The earliest appearance of Man on the globe has been considered by Dr. Hamy and M. de Mortillet to be in France in the middle of the Miocene age. They base their belief on flint fragments supposed to be artificially made, and on a cut upon the bone of an extinct Manatee considered to be of human handiwork. The evidence is, however, doubtful and unsatisfactory. In this age appeared such Anthropoids as _Pliopithecus_ and the highly-developed _Dryopithecus_ (p. 216), when the climate was tropical in mid-Europe, and warm and genial even within 8° 15[prime] of the North Pole. Professor Boyd-Dawkins believes that notwithstanding the favourable climate and the existence of so highly-developed an Ape as _Dryopithecus_, "were any Man-like animal living in the Miocene age, he might reasonably be expected to be not Man, but intermediate between Man and something else."

The Pliocene, _i.e._, that portion of the Tertiary period in which the _genera_ of mammals are mostly the same as those now living--only one _species_ is known to be identical,--is the next horizon in which human remains have been asserted to have been found. The evidence is based on a skull found in a railway cutting in France after a landslip, and on a supposed artificially incised bone; but both these data require confirmation. Senhor Ribeiro has, however, obtained in Portugal implements {219}said to be of undoubted human manufacture in strata of this age, 1,200 feet below the surface; and it has been claimed by Professor Whitney that, in California, a skull, as well as a mortar and pestle, have been recovered from Pliocene beds. The latter evidence has also been called in question.

The discovery at Crayford and in Kent's Hole in England, and in the Grotte d'Église in France, of flint implements of human manufacture, demonstrates without doubt that Man was living in Europe in the Pleistocene age--at which time most of the species of Mammals were identical with those now living--before the climate (which had been cooling since the Miocene) had become so cold as to cause the Arctic Mammals to swarm down in front of the approaching glaciation of the Northern Hemisphere. At that epoch the River-drift Men, as they are called, would have had to contend with Wolves, Bears, and Lions; while Elephants and Rhinoceroses, Horses, Oxen, and Bison roamed wild around them. The implements of this "long-headed" race were stones, conveniently picked up and rough-hewn into rude choppers and scrapers, pointed borers, and cutting chips. There is evidence that their makers ranged across a more extended Europe than now, into Africa and continental India. After the River-drift Men, who disappeared with the Ice age, there came on the scene a race known as the Palæolithic "Cave Men." Associated with their bones there have been found, in numerous caverns, remains of the Reindeer (_Cervus tarandus_), the Woolly Rhinoceros (_R. tichorhinus_), and the Mammoth (_Elephas primigenius_). They were an artistic people, who have left drawings of extraordinary fidelity of the animals with which they were familiar, scratched on bones and horns of the animals themselves. Their implements were better chipped and shaped than were those of the {220}River-drift Men. They appear to have been ignorant of the potter's art; but they clothed themselves in skins, wore teeth-ornaments, and hunted the Reindeer and other animals--they were men, as Sir A. Geikie remarks, who must have had much similarity with the Esquimo--an identification, however, which has lately been strongly contested. Many fragments of their skeletons have been found in caverns in various parts of Europe: a lower jaw and an _ulna_ at Naulette, a skull at Cro-Magnon, a lower jaw in the Grotte des Fées at Arcy-sur-Cure (Yonne), another from the rock shelter of La Madelaine in the Dordogne; portions of skulls from Neanderthal, Cannstatt, and Gibraltar, and as far north as Derbyshire, in England. The remains are, unfortunately, all very fragmentary, and afford little more information as to the physical characters of the Palæolithic races, than that they were "long-headed." In 1886, however, in the Grotto of Spy, in the Belgian Province of Namur, were discovered two nearly complete skeletons, which showed that the Neanderthal skull, the lower jaw from Naulette, and the skulls from Cannstatt and Gibraltar all belonged to the same race. This race, which was widely spread over Europe in the Palæolithic age, presents more Simian characters than any yet unearthed. MM. Lohest and Fraipont, of Liege, who discovered and described the remains from Spy, have given in detail the following Simian characteristics which they present: The superciliary crests are far greater, and the forehead more retreating, than in any other known race--characters which closely resemble those in female and young male Orangs and Chimpanzees; and the occipital region of the skull shows a transverse crest as in some African tribes and in the above-named Anthropoid Apes. The lower jaw presents little or none of that markedly {221}human character--the chin; and the slope of the interior (or posterior) surface of its symphysis is intermediate between that of Man and the higher Apes. The bones of the fore-arm (the _ulna_ and _radius_) are curved so as to produce a space between them, wider than in any human subject, and resembling what is seen in Apes. The thigh-bone (_femur_) is so shaped and articulated to the leg-bone (_tibia_) "that in order to maintain equilibrium the head and body must have been thrown forward." This relation of the _femur_ and _tibia_ is found in the Apes, and it is highly probable that the Man of Spy presented a somewhat similar figure when walking; that is to say, the knees were bent and the body thrown forward. The crowns of the molar teeth of this race have, as in the lowest races of Man, four cusps, but with distinct and divergent roots, as among the Chimpanzees, but they increase in size from in front to behind, as they do in Apes. "The other and much more numerous characters of this long-headed skull, of the trunk and of the limbs, seem to be all human." (_Fraipont._) "Under whatever aspect we view this [the Neanderthal] cranium ... whether we regard its vertical depression, the enormous thickness of its supra-ciliary ridges, its sloping occiput, or its long and straight squamosal suture--we meet with Ape-like characters, stamping it as the most pithecoid of human crania yet discovered." The cranial capacity being, however, about seventy-five cubic inches, "so large a mass of brain as this would alone suggest that the pithecoid tendencies indicated by the skull did not extend deep into the organisation.... In no sense, then, can the Neanderthal bones be regarded as the remains of a human being intermediate between Man and Apes." (_Huxley_, 1867.) "The distance which separates the Man of Spy from the {222}modern Anthropoid Ape is undoubtedly enormous; between the Man of Spy and the _Dryopithecus_ it is a little less. But we must be permitted to point out that if the Man of the later Quaternary age is the stock whence existing races have sprung, he has travelled a great way. From the data now obtained, it is permissible to believe that we shall be able to pursue the ancestral type of Man and the Anthropoid Apes still further, perhaps as far as the Eocene, and even beyond." (_Fraipont._) As these fossil human remains are now admitted to be of the Palæolithic age of the Pleistocene period, they give some idea of "the rate of evolution of the human species, and indicate that it has not taken place at a much faster or slower pace than that of other Mammalia. And if that is so, we are warranted in the supposition that the genus _Homo_, if not the species which the courtesy or the irony of naturalists has dubbed _sapiens_, was represented in Pliocene or even Miocene times.... There is no reason to suppose that the genus _Homo_ was confined to Europe in the Pleistocene age; it is much more probable that this, like other Mammalian genera of that period, was spread over a large extent of the surface of the globe. At that time, in fact, the climate of regions nearer the equator must have been far more favourable to the human species, and it is possible that under such conditions it may have attained a higher development than in the north." (_Huxley._) Professor Huxley points out also, in the interesting article "The Aryan Question," in _The Contemporary Review_ for November, 1890, from which we have taken the above extracts, that the Irish river-bed skulls, belonging to a dark-haired, long-headed race, and those of the Frisians, the blond, long-headed race, now living on the North German coast, unmistakably approach the Neanderthal and Spy type in many of their distinctive {223}characters, "a sure indication" of the physiological continuity with the Pleistocene Neanderthaloid Men. The skulls of some of the Australian aboriginals and of the broad-headed people of Borreby, in Denmark, also present a remarkable similarity to the Neanderthal skull--perhaps an indication that those are characters of a stage in the pedigree of the human species before it differentiated into any of the existing races. (_Huxley._)

The next palæontological evidence of Man is found in the Neolithic cavern deposits, alluvial accumulations, peat mosses, lake bottoms, pile dwellings, and shell-mounds in various parts of Europe. Between the time that Palæolithic Man left the caves he occupied, and the date when the earlier Neolithic people began to deposit fragments of the records of their history in the kitchen-midden, which they piled in front of their shelters, a long period appears to have elapsed in many districts. The objects found in these refuse-heaps are not associated with the remains of the Mammoth, the Woolly Rhinoceros, or the Elephant, but with those of animals still living, or such as have lived down to within historical times. The remains of his skeleton indicate that Neolithic Man varied very much in stature. Some were tall, some short; some had long and others broad skulls. The long-skulled people had the same tall stature and cranial peculiarities as the blue-eyed, light haired, and long-headed _Xanthochroi_ living at the present day in Eastern Prussia, North Belgium, Northern France, and Britain, though their bony fabric "bears marks of somewhat greater ruggedness and savagery." The broad-skulled Men were short, and agreed in physical characters with the majority of the people now inhabiting the Mediterranean sea-board--the _Melanochroi_--with black hair and black eyes. Many Neolithic graves have {224}given up also the remains of a tall, broad-skulled, and a short, long-skulled race.

Such are the only recovered links in the pedigree of our race, and extremely unsatisfactory they are; indeed, beyond these few spots in Western Europe, in California, and the Mississippi valley in North America, Palæontology is silent as to the history of Man, and sheds no light upon his origin, or his last pithecoid parents; for, in Professor Huxley's impressive words, "so far as that light is bright it shows him substantially as he is now, and when it grows dim it permits us to see no sign that he was other than he is now."

{225}III.--THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE PRIMATES.

By means of the accompanying tables and maps I have attempted to present in a concise and clear manner the distribution of the _Lemuroidea_ and the _Anthropoidea_ in time and in space.

For the distribution of existing forms I have followed the divisions of the Globe proposed by Dr. Bowdler Sharpe in his essay on the Zoo-Geographical Areas of the World, published in "Natural Science" (Vol. III., pp. 100-108).

I. Table showing the genera of PRIMATES peculiar to, and common to, the Old and New Worlds.

_A._ LEMUROIDEA.

OLD WORLD. NEW WORLD.
(Palæogæa.) (Neogæa.)
Living. Extinct. Living. Extinct.
Fam. CHIROMYIDÆ.
Chiromys [+] -- -- --

Fam. TARSIIDÆ.
Tarsius [+] -- -- --

Fam. MEGALADAPIDÆ. {226}
Megaladapis -- [+] -- --

Fam. LEMURIDÆ.
Perodicticus [+] -- -- --
Loris [+] -- -- --
Nycticebus [+] -- -- --
Galago [+] -- -- --
Chirogale [+] -- -- --
Microcebus [+] -- -- --
Opolemur [+] -- -- --
Lemur [+] [+] -- --
Mixocebus [+] -- -- --
Hapalemur [+] -- -- --
Lepidolemur [+] -- -- --
Avahis [+] -- -- --
Propithecus [+] -- -- --
Indris [+] -- -- --

Fam. ANAPTOMORPHIDÆ.
Microchærus -- [+] -- --
Mixodectes -- -- -- [+]
Cynodontomys -- -- -- [+]
Omomys -- -- -- [+]
Anaptomorpha -- -- -- [+]
Plesiadapis -- [+] -- --
Protoadapis -- [+] -- --

Fam. ADAPIDÆ. {227}
Adapis -- [+] -- [+]
Tomitherium -- -- -- [+]
Laopithecus -- -- -- [+]
Pelycodus -- [+] -- [+]
Microsyops -- -- -- [+]
Hyopsodus -- [+] -- [+]
Indrodon -- -- -- [+]
Opisthotomus -- -- -- [+]
Apheliscus -- -- -- [+]
Sarcolemur -- -- -- [+]
Hipposyus -- -- -- [+]
Bathrodon -- -- -- [+]
Mesacodon -- -- -- [+]
Stenacodon -- -- -- [+]

_B._ ANTHROPOIDEA.

Fam. HAPALIDÆ.
Hapale -- -- [+] [+]
Midas -- -- [+] --

Fam. CEBIDÆ.
Chrysothrix -- -- [+] --
Protopithecus -- -- -- [+]
Callithrix -- -- [+] [+]
Nyctipithecus -- -- [+] -- {228}
Brachyurus -- -- [+] --
Pithecia -- -- [+] --
Alouatta -- -- [+] [+]
Cebus -- -- [+] [+]
Homunculus -- -- -- [+]
Anthropops -- -- -- [+]
Lagothrix -- -- [+] --
Brachyteles -- -- [+] --
Ateles -- -- [+] --