Chapter XXXVI: Preparation of the Universal Beverage (3)

In cleansing drip or filter bags use cool water. Hot water "cooks
in" the coffee stains. After the bag is rinsed keep it submerged in
cool water until time to use it again. Never let it dry. This
treatment protects the cloth from the germs in the air which cause
souring. New filter bags should be washed before using to remove
the starch or sizing.

DRIP (OR FILTER) COFFEE. The principle behind this method is the
quick contact of water at full boiling point with coffee ground as
fine as it is practical to use it. The filtering medium may be of
cloth or paper, or perforated chinaware or metal. The fineness of
the grind should be regulated by the nature of the filtering
medium, the grains being large enough not to slip through the
perforations.

The amount of ground coffee to use may vary from a heaping
teaspoonful to a rounded tablespoonful for each cup of coffee
desired, depending upon the granulation, the kind of apparatus used
and individual taste. A general rule is the finer the grind the
smaller the amount of dry coffee required.

The most satisfactory grind for a cloth drip bag has the
consistency of powdered sugar and shows a slight grit when rubbed
between thumb and finger. Unbleached muslin makes the best bag for
this granulation. For dripping coffee reduced to a powder, as fine
as flour or confectioner's sugar, use a bag of canton flannel with
the fuzzy side in. Powdered coffee, however, requires careful
manipulation and cannot be recommended for everyday household use.

Put the ground coffee in the bag or sieve. Bring fresh water to a
full boil and pour it through the coffee at a steady, gradual rate
of flow. If a cloth drip bag is used, with a very finely ground
coffee, one pouring should be enough. No special pot or device is
necessary. The liquid coffee may be dripped into any handy vessel
or directly into the cups. Dripping into the coffee cups, however,
is not to be recommended unless the dripper is moved from cup to
cup so that no one cup will get more than its share of the first
flow, which is the strongest and best.

The brew is complete when it drips from the grounds, and further
cooking or "heating up" injures the quality. Therefore, since it is
not necessary to put the brew over the fire, it is possible to make
use of the hygienic advantages of a glassware, porcelain or
earthenware serving pot.

BOILED (OR STEEPED) COFFEE. For boiling (or steeping) use a medium
grind. The recipe is a rounded tablespoonful for each cup of coffee
desired or--as some cooks prefer to remember it--a tablespoonful
for each cup and "one for the pot." Put the dry coffee in the pot
and pour over it fresh water _briskly boiling_. Steep for five
minutes or longer, according to taste, over a low fire. Settle with
a dash of cold water or strain through muslin or cheesecloth and
serve at once.

PERCOLATED COFFEE. Use a rounded tablespoonful of medium fine
ground coffee to each cupful of water. The water may be poured into
the percolator cold or at the boiling point. In the latter case,
percolation begins at once. Let the water percolate over the
grounds for five or ten minutes depending upon the intensity of the
heat and the flavor desired.

In response to a request by the author, Charles W. Trigg has contributed the following discussion of coffee making:

VARIOUS ASPECTS OF SCIENTIFIC COFFEE BREWING

Before converting it into the beverage form, coffee must be
carefully selected and blended, and skillfully roasted, in order
thus far to assure obtaining a maximum efficiency of results. No
matter how accurately all this be done, improper brewing of the
roasted bean will nullify the previous efforts and spoil the drink;
for roasted coffee is a delicate material, very susceptible to
deterioration and of doubtful worth as the source of a beverage
unless properly handled.

There probably never was produced a drink which so fits into the
exacting desires of the human appetite as does coffee. Properly
prepared, it is a delightful beverage: but incorrectly made, it
becomes an imposition upon the palates of mankind. Sensitive though
coffee is to improper manipulation, the best procedure for brewing
it is also the easiest. Cheap coffee well made excels good coffee
poorly made.

CONSTITUENT CONCEPTS. The roasting of green coffee causes an
alteration in the constitution of its constituents, with the result
that some of the compounds present therein which were originally
water-soluble are rendered insoluble, and some which were insoluble
are converted into soluble ones. A portion of the original caffein
content is lost by sublimation. The aromatic conglomerate, caffeol,
is formed, and a considerable quantity of gas is produced, a
portion of which, developing pressure in the cells of the beans,
pops, or swells, them so as to increase the size of each individual
bean. The constituents which are water-soluble after the
torrefaction may be generally classified as heavy extractives and
light aromatic materials. The percentages and nature of these
materials in the roasted coffee will vary with the type of coffee
and with the roast which it is given. In general, and in particular
for purposes of comparison of methods of brewing, they may be
considered to be the same and to occur in about the same
proportions in all coffees.

The heavy extractives are caffein, mineral matter, proteins,
caramel and sugars, "caffetannic acid", and various organic
materials of uncertain composition. Some fat will also be found in
the average coffee brew, being present not by virtue of being water
soluble, but because it has been melted from the bean by the hot
water and carried along with the solution.

The caffein furnishes the stimulation for which coffee is generally
consumed. It has only a slightly bitter taste, and because of the
relatively small percentage in which it is present in a cup of
coffee, does not contribute to the cup value. The mineral matter,
together with certain decomposition and hydrolysis products of
crude fiber and chlorogenic acid, contribute toward the astringency
or bitterness of the cup. The proteins are present in such small
quantity that their only rôle is to raise somewhat the almost
negligible food value of a coffee infusion. The body, or what might
be called the licorice-like character of coffee, is due to the
presence of bodies of a glucosidic nature and to caramel.

As has been previously pointed out[382], the term "caffetannic
acid" is a misnomer; for the substances which are called by this
name are in all probability mainly coffalic and chlorogenic acids.
Neither is a true tannin, and they evince but few of the
characteristic reactions of tannic acid. Some neutral coffees will
show as high a "caffetannic acid" content as other acid-charactered
ones. Careful work by Warnier[383] showed the actual acidities of
some East Indian coffees to vary from 0.013 to 0.033 percent. These
figures may be taken as reliable examples of the true acid content
of coffee, and though they seem very low, it is not at all
incomprehensible that the acids which they indicate produce the
acidity in a cup of coffee. They probably are mainly volatile
organic acids together with other acidic-natured products of
roasting.

We know that very small quantities of acid are readily detected in
fruit juices and beer, and that variation in their percentages is
quickly noticed, while the neutralization of this small amount of
acidity leaves an insipid drink. Hence it seems quite likely that
this small acid content gives to the coffee brew its essential
acidity. A few minor experiments on neutralization have proven the
production of a very insipid beverage by thus treating a coffee
infusion. So that the acidity of certain coffees most apparently
should be attributed to such compounds, rather than to the misnamed
"caffetannic acid."

The light aromatic materials, and the other substances which are
steam-distillable, i.e. which are driven off when coffee is
concentrated by boiling, are the main determining factors in the
individuality of coffees. These compounds, which are collectively
called "caffeol", vary greatly in the percentages present in
different coffees, and thus are largely responsible for our ability
to distinguish coffees in the cup. It is these compounds which
supply the pleasingly aromatic and appetizing odor to coffee.

All of these compounds, with the possible exception of the
proteins, are easily soluble in both hot and cold water. The fact
that a clear coffee extract made with hot water does not show any
precipitate immediately upon cooling, proves that cold water will
give as complete an extraction as hot water. However, speed of
extraction is materially increased with rise in temperature, due to
the fact that the rate and degree of solubility of the substances
in water, and the diffusion of the water through the cell walls of
the coffee, are accelerated. Also, the resistance which the fat
content of the bean offers to the wetting of the coffee, and the
persistency of the "enfleurage" action of the fat in retaining the
caffeol, are less with hot than with cold water. Accordingly, the
speed of extraction is increased by using hot water, and the
efficiency of extraction procured per unit time of subjection to
water is higher.

Prolonged contact of coffee with water results in the hydrolysis of
some of the insoluble materials and subsequent extraction of the
substances thus formed. The rate of hydrolysis also increases with
temperature: and as these compounds are of an astringent or bitter
nature, the solution obtained upon boiling coffee is naturally
possessed of a flavor unpleasant to the palate of the connoisseur.
Boiling of the coffee infusion after it has been removed from the
grounds also has a deleterious effect, as the local overheating of
the solution at the point of application of the heat results in a
decomposition, particularly if the solution be converted into steam
at this point, leaving a thin film of solids temporarily exposed to
the destructive action of the heat. Some of the more delicate
constituents are unfavorably affected by such treatment, and
undergo hydrolysis and oxidation. The products thus formed are
thrown into relief in the flavor by the loss of the aromatic
properties through steam distillation which is incidental to
boiling.

It is a well known fact that re-warming a coffee brew has a
unfavorable effect upon it. This is probably due in part to a
precipitation of some of the water-soluble proteins upon standing,
and their subsequent decomposition when heat is applied directly to
them in reheating the solution. The absorption of air by the
solution upon cooling, with attendant oxidation, which is
accentuated by the application of heat in re-warming, must also be
considered, as well as the other effects of boiling as set forth,
and the action of the materials of which the coffee pot is
constructed upon the solution.

PHYSICAL CONCEPTION. The coffee bean is composed of a large number
of cells which function as natural containers and retainers of
coffee fat and of the aromatic flavoring substances. In order to
render the soluble solids fully accessible, the resistance which
these cells offer to the extracting water must be overcome by
grinding so as to break open all of them. In this manner a grind is
obtained which will give a maximum removal of the heavy
extractives. But when all of the cells are broken, great
opportunity is offered for the escape of the caffeol, which is
further enhanced by the slight heating which usually accompanies
such fine grinding. So much caffeol escapes that even our most
expert cup-testers would experience difficulty in identifying
powdered coffees in a blind test. What cup-testers, in fact, use
powdered coffees for making their cup selections?

Consider powdered coffee, compared with freshly ground coffee of a
coarser grind. Neither the former nor its brew possesses the amount
of characteristic flavor or aroma, attributable to caffeol,
evidenced by the latter. The explanation of this is that the finer
the grind, the more readily accessible are the soluble constituents
of the coffee to the extracting water. Caffeol, however, in
addition to being water-soluble, is extremely fugacious, so that
when the grinding is carried to such a fineness that every cell is
broken, the greater part of the caffeol volatilizes before the
water comes into contact with it. It is therefore highly desirable
that a grind be used wherein all of the cells are not broken, but a
grind that is sufficiently fine to permit efficient extraction. In
the light of this knowledge, the grind advocated by King[384] seems
to be logical, for with it--though neither a maximum of the
non-volatile extractives nor a maximum of caffeol is obtained--an
all-round maximum of cup quality is procured.

The escape, upon grinding, of these volatile aromatic and flavoring
constituents which lend individuality to coffees, makes it
essential that the roasted beans be ground immediately prior to
extraction.

DIFFERENT METHODS OF EXTRACTION. The methods employed for preparing
the coffee drink may be classified under the general headings of
boiling, steeping, percolation, and filtration. True percolation is
the simple process known by the trade as filtration; but in this
classification, the term indicates the style of extraction
exemplified by the pumping percolator.

Boiled coffee is usually cloudy, due to the suspension of fine
particles resulting from the disintegration of the grounds by the
violence of boiling. The usual procedure in clarifying the
decoction is to add the white of an egg or some egg-shells, the
albumen of which is coagulated upon the fine particles by the heat
of the solution, and the particles thus weighted sink to the
bottom. Even this procedure, requiring much attention, does not
give as clear a solution as some of the other extraction procedures
employed. The conditions to which coffee is subjected during
boiling are the worst possible, as both grounds and solution
undergo hydrolysis, oxidation, and local-overheating, while the
caffeol is steam-distilled from the brew. Many persons, who have
long been accustomed to drinking the relatively bitter beverage
thus produced, are not satisfied by coffee made in any other way;
but this is purely a perversion of taste, for none of the
properties are present which make coffee so prized by the epicure.

Steeping, in which cold water is added to the coffee, and the
mixture brought up to a boil, does not subject the coffee to so
strenuous conditions. Local overheating and hydrolysis occur, but
not to so great an extent as in boiling; and most of the effects of
oxidation and volatization of caffeol are absent. However,
extraction is rather incomplete, due to lack of thorough admixture
of the water and coffee.

When coffee is to be made under the best conditions, the
temperature of the water used and of the extract after it is made
should not fluctuate. In the pumping percolator, as in the steeping
method, the temperature varies greatly from the time the extraction
is started to the completion of the operation. This is deleterious.
Also, local overheating of the infusion occurs at the point of
application of the heat; and because of the manner in which the
water is brought into contact with the coffee, the degree of
extraction shows inefficiency. Spraying of the water over the
coffee never permits the grounds to be completely covered with
water at any one time, and the opportunity offered for channeling
is excessive. The principle of thorough extraction demands that, as
the substance being extracted becomes progressively more exhausted,
fresh solvent should be brought into contact with it. In the
pumping percolator the solution pumped over the grounds becomes
more concentrated as the grounds become exhausted; so that the time
taken to reach the degree of extraction desired is longer, and an
appreciable amount of relatively concentrated liquor is retained by
the grounds.

The simplest procedure to follow is that in which boiling water is
poured over ground coffee suspended on a filtering medium in such a
manner that the extracting water will slowly pass through the
coffee and be received in a containing vessel, which obviates
further contact of the beverage with the grounds. The water as it
comes into contact with the ground coffee extracts the soluble
material, and the solution is removed by gravity. Fresh water takes
its place; so that, if the filter medium be of the proper fineness,
the water flows through at the correct rate of speed, and complete
extraction is effected with the production of a clear solution.
Thus a maximum extraction of desirable materials is obtained in a
short time with a minimum of hydrolysis, oxidation, and loss of
caffeol; and if the infusion be consumed at once, or kept warm in a
contrivance embodying the double-boiler principle, the effects of
local overheating are avoided. Also, with the use of an appropriate
filter, a finer grind of coffee can be used than in the other
devices, without obtaining a turbid brew. All this works toward the
production of a desirable drink.

There are several devices on the market, some using paper, and some
cloth, as a filter, which operate on this principle and give very
good coffee. The use of paper presents the advantage of using a new
and clean filter for each brew, whereas the cloth must be carefully
kept immersed in water between brews to prevent its fouling.

Contrivances operating on the filtration principle have been
designed for use on a large scale in conjunction with coffee urns,
and have proven quite successful in causing all of the water to go
slowly through the coffee without channeling, thus accomplishing
practically complete extraction. The majority of urns are still
operated with bags, of which the ones with sides of heavier
material than the bottom obtain the most satisfactory results, as
the majority of the water must pass through the coffee instead of
out through the sides of the bag. Greatest efficiency, when bags
are used, is obtained by repouring until all of the liquid has
passed twice through the coffee; further repouring extracts too
much of the astringent hydrolysis products. The bags, when not in
use, should not be allowed to dry but should be kept in a jar of
cold water. The urns provided with water jackets keep the brew at
almost a constant temperature and avoid the deterioration incident
to temperature fluctuation.

COMPOSITION OF BREWS. The real tests of the comparative values of
different methods of brewing are the flavor and palatibility of the
drink, in conjunction with the number of cups of a given strength
which are produced, or the relative strengths of brews of the same
number of cups volume. Chemical analysis has not yet been developed
to a stage where the results obtained with it are valuably
indicative. Caffeol is present in quantities so small that no
comparative results can be obtained. "Caffetannic acid"
determinations are practically meaningless. This compound is of so
doubtful a composition and physiological action, and the methods
employed for its determination are so indefinite as to
interpretation, as to render valueless any attempts at comparison
of relative percentages. The only accurate analysis which can be
made is that for caffein.

Much advertising emphasis has been placed on the small amount of
caffein extracted by some devices. What is one of the main reasons
for the consumption of coffee? The caffein contained therein, of
course. So that if one device extracts less caffein than another,
that fact alone is nothing in favor of the former. If the consumer
does not want caffein in his drink there are caffein-free coffees
on the market.

The coffee liquor acts on metals in such a manner as to lower the
quality of the drink, so that metals of any sort, and by all
means, irons, should be avoided as far as possible. Instead,
earthenware or glass, preferably a good grade of the former, should
be employed as far as possible in the construction of coffee-making
devices.

Of the various metals, silver, aluminum, monel metal, and tin (in
the order named) are least attacked by coffee infusions; and
besides these, nickel, copper, and well enameled iron (absolutely
free from pin holes) may be used without much danger of
contamination. Rings for coffee-urn bags should be made of tinned
copper, monel metal, or aluminum. Even if coffee be made in metal
contrivances, the receptacles in which it stands should be made of
earthenware or of glass.

Painstaking care should be given to the preservation of the
coffee-makers in a state of cleanliness, as upon this depends the
value of the brew. Dirt, fine grounds, and fat (which will turn
rancid quickly) should not be allowed to collect on the sides,
bottom, or in angles of the device difficult of access. Nor should
any source of metallic or exterior contamination be allowed to go
uneliminated.

_The Perfect Cup of Coffee_

Lovers of coffee in the United States are in a better position to obtain an ideal cup of the beverage than those in any other country. While imports of green coffee are not so carefully guarded as tea imports, there is a large measure of government inspection designed to protect the consumer against impurities, and the Department of Agriculture is zealous in applying the pure food laws to insure against misbranding and substitution. The department has defined coffee as "a beverage resulting from a water infusion of roasted coffee and nothing else."

Today no reputable merchant would think of selling even loose coffee for other than what it is. And the consumer can feel that, in the case of package coffee, the label tells the truth about the contents.

With a hundred different kinds of coffee coming to this market from nineteen countries, so many combinations are possible, that there is sure to be a straight coffee or a blend to suit any taste. And those who may have been frightened into the belief that coffee is not for them should do a little experimenting before exposing themselves to the dangers of the coffee-substitute habit.

Once upon a time it was thought that Java and Mocha were the only worthwhile blend, but now we know that a Bogota coffee from Colombia, and a Bourbon Santos from Brazil, make a most satisfying drink. And if the individual seeker should happen to be a caffein-sensitive, there are coffees so low in caffein content, like some Porto Ricans, as to overcome this objection; while there are other coffees from which the caffein has been removed by a special treatment. There is no reason why any person who is fond of coffee should forego its use. Paraphrasing Makaroff, Be modest, be kind, eat less, and think more, live to serve, work and play and laugh and love--it is enough! Do this and you may drink coffee without danger to your immortal soul.

If you are accustomed to buying loose coffee, have your dealer do a little experimental blending for you until you find a coffee to suit your palate. Some expert blends are to be found among the leading package brands. But you really can not do better than to trust your case to a first-class grocer of known reputation. He will guide you right if he knows his business; and if he doesn't, then he doesn't know his business--try elsewhere. Test him out along this line:

Let us reason together, Mr. Grocer. Let us consider these facts about coffee: green coffee improves with age? Granted. As soon as it is roasted, it begins to lose in flavor and aroma? Certainly. Grinding hastens the deterioration? Of course. Therefore, it is better to buy a small quantity of freshly roasted coffee in the bean and grind it at the time of purchase or at home just before using? Absolutely!

If your grocer reacts in this fashion, he need only supply you with a quality coffee at fair price and you need only to make it properly to obtain the utmost of coffee satisfaction.

Some connoisseurs still cling to the good old two-thirds Java and one-third Mocha blend, but the author has for years found great pleasure in a blend composed of half Medellin Bogota, one-quarter Mandheling "Java", and one-quarter Mocha. However, this blend might not appeal to another's taste, and the component parts are not always easy to get. The retail cost (1922) is about fifty cents.

Another pleasing blend is composed of Bogota, washed Maracaibo, and Santos, equal parts. This should retail from thirty to thirty-five cents. Good drinking coffees are to be had for prices ranging from twenty-five to thirty cents. In the stores of one of the large chain systems an excellent blend composed of sixty percent Bourbon Santos, and forty percent Bogota is to be had (1922) for 29 cents. All these figures apply, of course, to normal times.

If you are epicurean, you will want to read up on, and to try, the fancy Mexicans, Cobáns, Sumatra growths, Meridas, and some from the "Kona side" of Hawaii.

In preparing the perfect cup of coffee, then, the coffee must be of good grade, and freshly roasted. It should, if possible, be ground just before using. The author has found a fine grind, about the consistency of fine granulated sugar, the most satisfactory. For general home use, a device that employs filter paper or filter cloth is best; for the epicure an improved porcelain French percolator (drip pot) or an improved cloth filter will yield the utmost of coffee's delights. Drink it black, sweetened or unsweetened, with or without cream or hot milk, as your fancy dictates.

It should be remembered that to make good coffee no special pot or device is necessary. Good coffee can be made with any china vessel and a piece of muslin. But to make it in perfection pains must be taken with every step in the process from roaster to cup.

Hollingworth[385] points out that through taste alone it is impossible to distinguish between quinine and coffee, or between apple and onion. There is something more to coffee than its caffein stimulus, its action on the taste-buds of the tongue and mouth. The sense of smell and the sense of sight play important rôles. To get all the joy there is in a cup of coffee, it must look good and smell good, before one can pronounce its taste good. It must woo us through the nostrils with the wonderful aroma that constitutes much of the lure of coffee.

And that is why, in the preparation of the beverage, the greatest possible care should be observed to preserve the aroma until the moment of its psychological release. This can only be done by having it appear at the same instant that the delicate flavor is extracted--roasting and grinding the bean much in advance of the actual making of the beverage will defeat this object. Boiling the extraction will perfume the house; but the lost fragrance will never return to the dead liquid called coffee, when served from the pot whence it was permitted to escape.

To recapitulate, with an added word on service, the correct way to make coffee is as follows:

1. Buy a good grade of freshly roasted coffee from a responsible dealer.

2. Grind it very fine, and at home, just before using.

3. Allow a rounded tablespoonful for each beverage cup.

4. Make it in a French drip pot or in some filtration device where freshly boiling water is poured through the grind but once. A piece of muslin and any china receptacle make an economical filter.

5. Avoid pumping percolators, or any device for heating water and forcing it repeatedly through the grounds. Never boil coffee.

6. Keep the beverage hot and serve it "black" with sugar and hot milk, or cream, or both.

_Some Coffee Recipes_

When Mrs. Ida C. Bailey Allen prepared a booklet of recipes for the Joint Coffee Trade Publicity Committee, she introduced them with the following remarks on the use of coffee as a flavoring agent:

Although coffee is our national beverage, comparatively few cooks
realize its possibilities as a flavoring agent. Coffee combines
deliciously with a great variety of food dishes and is especially
adapted to desserts, sauces and sweets. Thus used it appeals
particularly to men and to all who like a full-bodied pronounced
flavor.

For flavoring purposes coffee should be prepared just as carefully
as when it is intended for a beverage. The best results are
obtained by using freshly made coffee, but when, for reasons of
economy, it is desirable to utilize a surplus remaining from the
meal-time brew, care should be taken not to let it stand on the
grounds and become bitter.

When introducing made coffee into a recipe calling for other
liquid, decrease this liquid in proportion to the amount of coffee
that has been added. When using it in a cake or in cookies, instead
of milk, a tablespoonful less to the cup should be allowed, as
coffee does not have the same thickening properties.

In some cases, better results are gained if the coffee is
introduced into the dish by scalding or cooking the right
proportion of ground coffee with the liquid which is to form the
base. By this means the full coffee flavor is obtained, yet the
richness of the finished product is not impaired by the
introduction of water, as would be the case were the infused coffee
used. This method is advisable especially for various desserts
which have milk as a foundation, as those of the custard variety
and certain types of Bavarian Creams, Ice Cream, and the like. The
right proportion of ground coffee, which is generally a
tablespoonful to the cup, should be combined with the cold milk or
cream in the double-boiler top and should then be scalded over hot
water, when the mixture should be put through a very fine strainer
or cheese cloth, to remove all grounds.

Coffee can be used as a flavoring in almost any dessert or confection where a flavoring agent is employed.

On iced coffee and the use of coffee in summer beverages in general, Mrs. Allen writes as follows:

ICED COFFEE. This is not only a delicious summer drink, but it also
furnishes a mild stimulation that is particularly grateful on a
wilting hot day. It may be combined with fruit juices and other
ingredients in a variety of cooling beverages which are less sugary
and cloying than the average warm weather drink and for that reason
it is generally popular with men.

Coffee that is to be served cold should be made somewhat stronger
than usual. Brew it according to your favorite method and chill
before adding sugar and cream. If cracked ice is added make sure
the coffee is strong enough to compensate for the resulting
dilution. Mixing the ingredients in a shaker produces a smoother
beverage topped with an appetizing foam.

It is a convenience, however, to have on hand a concentrated syrup
from which any kind of coffee-flavored drink may be concocted on
short notice and without the necessity of lighting the stove.
Coffee left over from meals may be used for the same purpose, but
it should be kept in a covered glass or china dish and not allowed
to stand too long. A coffee syrup made after the following recipe
will keep indefinitely and may be used as a basis for many
delicious iced drinks:

COFFEE SYRUP. Two quarts of very strong coffee; 3-1/2 pounds sugar.
The coffee should be very strong, as the syrup will be largely
diluted. The proportion of a pound of coffee to one and
three-fourths quarts of water will be found satisfactory. This may
be made by any favorite method, cleared and strained, then combined
with the sugar, brought to boiling point, and boiled for two or
three minutes. It should be canned while boiling, in sterilized
bottles. Fill them to overflowing and seal as for grape juice or
for any other canned beverage.

A COFFEE CHRONOLOGY

_Giving dates and events of historical interest in legend, travel,
literature, cultivation, plantation treatment, trading, and in the
preparation and use of coffee from the earliest time to the
present_

900[L]--Rhazes, famous Arabian physician, is first writer to
mention coffee under the name _bunca_ or _bunchum_.[M]

1000[L]--Avicenna, Mahommedan physician and philosopher, is the
first writer to explain the medicinal properties of the coffee
bean, which he also calls _bunchum_.[M]

1258[L]--Sheik Omar, disciple of Sheik Schadheli, patron saint and
legendary founder of Mocha, by chance discovers coffee as a
beverage at Ousab in Arabia.[M]

1300[L]--The coffee drink is a decoction made from roasted berries,
crushed in a mortar and pestle, the powder being placed in boiling
water, and the drink taken down, grounds and all.

1350[L]--Persian, Egyptian, and Turkish ewers made of pottery are
first used for serving coffee.

1400-1500--Earthenware or metal coffee-roasting plates with small
holes, rounded and shaped like a skimmer, come into use in Turkey
and Persia over braziers. Also about this time appears the familiar
Turkish cylinder coffee mill, and the original Turkish coffee
boiler of metal.

1428-48--Spice grinder to stand on four legs first invented;
subsequently used to grind coffee.

1454[L]--Sheik Gemaleddin, mufti of Aden, having discovered the
virtues of the berry on a journey to Abyssinia, sanctions the use
of coffee in Arabia Felix.

1470-1500--The use of coffee spreads to Mecca and Medina.

1500-1600--Shallow iron dippers with long handles and small
foot-rests come into use in Bagdad and in Mesopotamia for roasting
coffee.

1505[L]--The Arabs introduce the coffee plant into Ceylon.

1510--The coffee drink is introduced into Cairo.

1511--Kair Bey, governor of Mecca, after consultation with a
council of lawyers, physicians, and leading citizens, issues a
condemnation of coffee, and prohibits the use of the drink.
Prohibition subsequently ordered revoked by the sultan of Cairo.

1517--Sultan Selim I, after conquering Egypt, brings coffee to
Constantinople.

1524--The kadi of Mecca closes the public coffee houses because of
disorders, but permits coffee drinking at home and in private. His
successor allows them to re-open under license.

1530[L]--Coffee drinking introduced into Damascus.

1532[L]--Coffee drinking introduced into Aleppo.

1534--A religious fanatic denounces coffee in Cairo and leads a mob
against the coffee houses, many of which are wrecked. The city is
divided into two parties, for and against coffee; but the chief
judge, after consultation with the doctors, causes coffee to be
served to the meeting, drinks some himself, and thus settles the
controversy.

1542--Soliman II, at the solicitation of a favorite court lady,
forbids the use of coffee, but to no purpose.

1554--The first coffee houses are opened in Constantinople by
Shemsi of Damascus and Hekem of Aleppo.

1570[L]-80[L]--Religious zealots in Constantinople, jealous of the
increasing popularity of the coffee houses, claim roasted coffee to
be a kind of charcoal, and the mufti decides that it is forbidden
by the law. Amurath III subsequently orders the closing of all
coffee houses, on religious grounds, classing coffee with wine,
forbidden by the _Koran_. The order is not strictly observed, and
coffee drinking continues behind closed shop-doors and in private
houses.

1573--Rauwolf, German physician and botanist, first European to
mention coffee, makes a journey to the Levant.

1580--Prospero Alpini (Alpinus), Italian physician and botanist,
journeys to Egypt and brings back news of coffee.

1582-83--The first printed reference to coffee appears as _chaube_
in Rauwolf's _Travels_, published in German at Frankfort and
Lauingen.

1585--Gianfraneesco Morosini, city magistrate in Constantinople,
reports to the Venetian senate the use by the Turks "of a black
water, being the infusion of a bean called _cavee_."

1587--The first authentic account of the origin of coffee is
written by the Sheik Abd-al-Kâdir, in an Arabian manuscript
preserved in the Bibliothéque Nationale, Paris.

1592--The first printed description of the coffee plant (called
_bon_) and drink (called _caova_) appears in Prospero Alpini's work
_The Plants of Egypt_, written in Latin, and published in Venice.

1596[L]--Belli sends to the botanist de l'Écluse "seeds used by the
Egyptians to make a liquid they call _cave_."

1598--The first printed reference to coffee in English appears as
_chaoua_ in a note of Paludanus in _Linschoten's Travels_,
translated from the Dutch, and published in London.

1599--Sir Antony Sherley, first Englishman to refer to coffee
drinking in the Orient, sails from Venice for Aleppo.

1600[L]--Pewter serving-pots appear.

1600--Iron spiders on legs, designed to sit in open fires, are used
for roasting coffee.

1600[L]--Coffee cultivation introduced into southern India at
Chickmaglur, Mysore, by a Moslem pilgrim, Baba Budan.[M]

1600-32--Mortars and pestles of wood, and of metal (iron, bronze,
and brass) come into common use in Europe for making coffee powder.

1601--The first printed reference to coffee in English, employing
the more modern form of the word, appears in W. Parry's book,
_Sherley's Travels_, as "a certain liquor which they call coffe."

1603--Captain John Smith, English adventurer, and founder of the
colony of Virginia, in his book of travels published this year,
refers to the Turks' drink, "coffa."

1610--Sir George Sandys, the poet, visits Turkey, Egypt, and
Palestine, and records that the Turks "sip a drink called _coffa_
(of the berry that it is made of) in little china dishes, as hot as
they can suffer it."

1614--Dutch traders visit Aden to examine into the possibilities of
coffee cultivation and coffee trading.

1615--Pietro Della Valle writes a letter from Constantinople to his
friend Mario Schipano at Venice that when he returns he will bring
with him some coffee, which he believes "is a thing unknown in his
native country."

1615--Coffee is introduced into Venice.

1616--The first coffee is brought from Mocha to Holland by Pieter
Van dan Broecke.

1620--Peregrine White's wooden mortar and pestle (used for
"braying" coffee) is brought to America on the Mayflower by White's
parents.

1623-27--Francis Bacon, in his _Historia Vitae et Mortis_ (1623),
speaks of the Turks' "caphe"; and in his _Sylva Sylvarum_ (1627)
writes: "They have in Turkey a drink called _coffa_ made of a berry
of the same name, as black as soot, and of a strong scent ... this
drink comforteth the brain and heart, and helpeth digestion."

1625--Sugar is first used to sweeten coffee in Cairo.

1632--Burton in his _Anatomy of Melancholy_ says: "The Turks have a
drink called _coffa_, so named from a berry black as soot and as
bitter."

1634--Sir Henry Blount makes a voyage to the Levant, and is invited
to drink "cauphe" in Turkey.

1637--Adam Olearius, German traveler and Persian scholar, visits
Persia (1633-39); and on his return tells how in this year he
observed that the Persians drink _chawa_ in their coffee houses.

1637--Coffee drinking is introduced into England by Nathaniel
Conopios, a Cretan student at Balliol College, Oxford.

1640--Parkinson, in his _Theatrum Botanicum_, publishes the first
botanical description of the coffee plant in English--referred to
as "_Arbor Bon cum sua Buna_. The Turkes Berry Drinke."

1640--The Dutch merchant, Wurffbain, offers for sale in Amsterdam
the first commercial shipment of coffee from Mocha.

1644--Coffee is introduced into France at Marseilles by P. de la
Roque, who brought back also from Constantinople the instruments
and vessels for making it.

1645--Coffee comes into general use in Italy.

1645--The first coffee house is opened in Venice.

1647--Adam Olearius publishes in German his _Persian Voyage
Description_, containing an account of coffee manners and customs
in Persia in 1633-39.

1650[L]--Varnar, Dutch minister resident at the Ottoman Porte,
publishes a treatise on coffee.

1650[L]--The individual hand-turned metal (tin-plate or tinned
copper) roaster appears; shaped like the Turkish coffee grinder,
for use over open fires.

1650--The first coffee house in England is opened at Oxford by
Jacobs, a Jew.

1650--Coffee is introduced into Vienna.

1652--The first London coffee house is opened by Pasqua Rosée in
St. Michael's Alley, Cornhill.

1652--The first printed advertisement for coffee in English appears
in the form of a handbill issued by Pasqua Rosée, acclaiming "The
Vertue of the Coffee Drink."

1656--Grand Vizier Kuprili, during the war with Candia, and for
political reasons, suppresses the coffee houses and prohibits
coffee. For the first violation the punishment is cudgeling; for a
second, the offender is sewn up in a leather bag and thrown into
the Bosporus.

1657--The first newspaper advertisement for coffee appears in _The
Publick Adviser_ of London.

1657--Coffee is introduced privately into Paris by Jean de
Thévenot.

1658--The Dutch begin the cultivation of coffee in Ceylon.

1660[L]--The first French commercial importation of coffee arrives
in bales at Marseilles from Egypt.

1660--Coffee is first mentioned in the English statute books when a
duty of four pence is laid upon every gallon made and sold "to be
paid by the maker."

1660[L]--Nieuhoff, Dutch ambassador to China, is the first to make
a trial of coffee with milk, in imitation of tea with milk.

1660--Elford's "white iron" machine for roasting coffee is much
used in England, being "turned on a spit by a jack."

1662--Coffee is roasted in Europe over charcoal fires without
flame, in ovens, and on stoves; being "browned in uncovered
earthenware tart dishes, old pudding pans, fry pans."

1663--All English coffee houses are required to be licensed.

1663--Regular imports of Mocha coffee begin at Amsterdam.

1665--The improved Turkish long brass combination coffee grinder
with folding handle and cup receptacle for green beans, for boiling
and serving, is first made in Damascus. About this period the
Turkish coffee set, including long-handled boiler and porcelain
cups in brass holders, comes into vogue.

1668--Coffee is introduced into North America.

1669--Coffee is introduced publicly into Paris by Soliman Aga, the
Turkish ambassador.

1670--Coffee is roasted in larger quantities in small closed
sheet-iron cylinders having long iron handles designed to turn them
in open fireplaces. First used in Holland. Later, in France,
England, and the United States.

1670--The first attempt to grow coffee in Europe at Dijon, France,
results in failure.

1670--Coffee is introduced into Germany.

1670--Coffee is first sold in Boston.

1671--The first coffee house in France is opened in Marseilles in
the neighborhood of the Exchange.

1671--The first authoritative printed treatise devoted solely to
coffee, written in Latin by Faustus Nairon, professor of Oriental
languages, Rome, is published in that city.

1671--The first printed treatise in French, largely devoted to
coffee, _Concerning the Use of Coffee, Tea and Chocolate_, by
Philippe Sylvestre Dufour, purporting to be a translation from the
Latin, is published at Lyons.

1672--Pascal, an Armenian, first sells coffee publicly at St.
Germain's fair, Paris, and opens the first Parisian coffee house.

1672--Great silver coffee pots (with all the utensils belonging to
them of the same metal) are used at St.-Germain's fair, Paris.

1674--_The Women's Petition Against Coffee_ is published in London.

1674--Coffee is introduced into Sweden.

1675--Charles II issues a proclamation to close all London coffee
houses as places of sedition. Order revoked on petition of the
traders in 1676.

1679--An attempt by the physicians of Marseilles to discredit
coffee on purely dietetic grounds fails of effect; and consumption
increases at such a rate that traders in Lyons and Marseilles begin
to import the green bean by the ship-load from the Levant.

1679[L]--The first coffee house in Germany is opened by an English
merchant at Hamburg.

1683--Coffee is sold publicly in New York.

1683--Kolschitzky opens the first coffee house in Vienna.

1684--Dufour publishes at Lyons, France, the first work on _The
Manner of Making Coffee, Tea, and Chocolate_.

1685--_Café au lait_ is first recommended for use as a medicine by
Sieur Monin, a celebrated physician of Grenoble, France.

1686--John Ray, one of the first English botanists to extol the
virtues of coffee in a scientific treatise, publishes his
_Universal Botany of Plants_ in London.

1686--The first coffee house is opened in Regensburg, Germany.

1689--Café de Procope, the first real French café, is opened in
Paris by François Procope, a Sicilian, coming from Florence.

1689--The first coffee house is opened in Boston.

1691--Portable coffee-making outfits to fit the pocket find favor
in France.

1692--The "lantern" straight-line coffee pot with true cone lid,
thumb-piece, and handle fixed at right angle to the spout, is
introduced into England, succeeding the curved Oriental serving
pot.

1694--The first coffee house is opened in Leipzig, Germany.

1696--The first coffee house (The King's Arms) is opened in New
York.

1696--The first coffee seedlings are brought from Kananur, on the
Malabar coast, and introduced into Java at Kedawoeng, near Batavia,
but not long afterward are destroyed by flood.

1699--The second shipment of coffee plants from Malabar to Java by
Henricus Zwaardecroon becomes the progenitors of all the _arabica_
coffee trees in the Dutch East Indies.

1699--Galland's translation of the earliest Arabian manuscript on
coffee appears in Paris under the title, _Concerning the First Use
of Coffee and the Progress It Afterward Made_.

1700--Ye coffee house, the first in Philadelphia, is built by
Samuel Carpenter.

1700-1800--Small portable coke or charcoal stoves made of
sheet-iron, and fitted with horizontal revolving cylinders turned
by hand, come into use for family roasting.

1701--Coffee pots appear in England with perfect domes and bodies
less tapering.

1702--The first "London" coffee house is established in
Philadelphia.

1704--Bull's machine for roasting coffee, probably the first to use
coal for commercial roasting, is patented in England.

1706--The first samples of Java coffee, and a coffee plant grown in
Java, are received at the Amsterdam botanical gardens.

1707--The first coffee periodical, _The New and Curious Coffee
House_, is issued at Leipzig by Theophilo Georgi, as a kind of
organ of the first kaffee-klatsch.

1711--Java coffee is first sold at public auction in Amsterdam.

1711--A novelty in coffee-making is introduced into France by
infusing the ground beans in a fustian (linen) bag.

1712--The first coffee house is opened in Stuttgart, Germany.

1713--The first coffee house is opened in Augsburg, Germany.

1714--The thumb-piece on English coffee pots disappears, and the
handle is no longer set at a right angle to the spout.

1714--A coffee plant, raised from seed of the plant received at the
Amsterdam botanical gardens in 1706, is presented to Louis XIV of
France, and is nurtured in the Jardin des Plantes, Paris.

1715--Jean La Roque publishes in Paris his _Voyage de l'Arabie
Heureuse_ (voyage to Arabia the Happy) containing much valuable
information on coffee in Arabia and its introduction into France.

1715--Coffee cultivation is introduced into Haiti and Santo
Domingo.

1715-17--Coffee cultivation is introduced into the Isle of Bourbon
(now Réunion) by a sea captain of St. Malo, who brings the plants
from Mocha by direction of the French Company of the Indies.

1718--Coffee cultivation is introduced into Surinam by the Dutch.

1718--Abbé Massieu's _Carmen Caffaeum_, the first and most notable
poem on coffee written in Latin, is composed, and is read before
the Academy of Inscriptions.

1720--Caffè Florian is opened in Venice by Floriono Francesconi.

1721--The first coffee house is opened in Berlin, Germany.

1721--Meisner publishes a treatise on coffee, tea, and chocolate.

1722--Coffee cultivation is introduced into Cayenne, from Surinam.

1723--The first coffee plantation started in the Portuguese colony
of Pará, Brazil, with plants brought from Cayenne (French Guiana)
results in failure.

1723--Gabriel de Clieu, Norman captain of infantry, sails from
France, accompanied by one of the seedlings of the Java tree
presented to Louis XIV, and with it shares his drinking water on a
protracted voyage to Martinique.

1730--The English bring the cultivation of coffee to Jamaica.

1732--The British Parliament seeks to encourage the cultivation of
coffee in British possessions in America by reducing the inland
duty.

1732--Bach's celebrated _Coffee Cantata_ is published in Leipzig.

1737--The Merchants' coffee house is established in New York; by
some called the true cradle of American liberty and the birthplace
of the Union.

1740--Coffee culture is introduced into the Philippines from Java
by Spanish missionaries.

1748--Coffee cultivation is introduced into Cuba by Don José
Antonio Gelabert.

1750--Coffee cultivation is introduced into Celebes from Java.

1750--The straight-line coffee pot in England begins to give way to
the reactionary movement in art favoring bulbous bodies and
serpentine spouts; the sides are nearly parallel, while the dome of
the lid is flattened to a slight elevation above the rim.

1752--Intensive coffee cultivation is resumed in the Portuguese
colonies in Pará and Amazonas, Brazil.

1754--A white-silver coffee roaster, eight inches high by four
inches in diameter, is mentioned as being among the deliveries made
to the army of Louis XV at Versailles.

1755--Coffee cultivation is introduced into Porto Rico from
Martinique.

1760--Decoction, or boiling, of coffee in France is generally
replaced by the infusion method.

1760--João Alberto Castello Branco plants in Rio de Janeiro the
first coffee tree brought to Brazil from Goa, Portuguese India.

1761--Brazil exempts coffee from export duty.

1763--Donmartin, a tinsmith of St. Benoit, France, invents a novel
coffee pot, the inside of which is "filled by a fine flannel sack
put in its entirety." It has a tap to draw the coffee.

1764--Count Pietro Verri publishes in Milan, Italy, a philosophic
and literary periodical, entitled _Il Caffè_ (the coffee house).

1765--Mme. de Pompadour's golden coffee mill is mentioned in her
inventory.

1770--Complete revolution in style of English serving pots; return
to the flowing lines of the Turkish ewer.

1770--Chicory is first used with coffee in Holland.

1770-73--Coffee cultivation begins in Rio, Minãs, and São Paulo.

1771--John Dring is granted a patent in England for a compound
coffee.

1774--Molke, a Belgian monk, introduces the coffee plant from
Surinam into the garden of the Capuchin monastery at Rio de
Janeiro.

1774--A letter is sent by the Committee of Correspondence from the
Merchants' coffee house, New York, to Boston, proposing the
American Union.

1777--King Frederick the Great of Prussia issues his celebrated
coffee and beer manifesto, recommending the use of the latter in
place of the former among the lower classes.

1779--Richard Dearman is granted an English patent for a new method
of making mills for grinding coffee.

1779--Coffee cultivation is introduced into Costa Rica from Cuba by
the Spanish voyager, Navarro.

1781--King Frederick the Great of Prussia establishes state
coffee-roasting plants in Germany, declares the coffee business a
government monopoly, and forbids the common people to roast their
own coffee. "Coffee-smellers" make life miserable for violators of
the law.

1784--Coffee cultivation is introduced into Venezuela by seed from
Martinique.

1784--A prohibition against the use of coffee, except by the rich,
is issued by Maximilian Frederick, elector of Cologne.

1785--Governor Bowdoin of Massachusetts introduces chicory to the
United States.

1789--The first import duty on coffee, two and a half cents a
pound, is levied by the United States.

1789--George Washington is officially greeted, April 23, as
president-elect of the U.S. at the Merchants coffee house in New
York.

1790--Coffee cultivation is introduced into Mexico from the West
Indies.

1790--The first wholesale coffee-roasting plant in the United
States begins operation at 4 Great Dock Street, New York.

1790--The first United States advertisement for coffee appears in
the _New York Daily Advertiser._

1790--The import duty on coffee in the United States is increased
to four cents a pound.

1790--The first crude package coffee is sold in "narrow mouthed
stoneware pots and jars," by a New York merchant.

1792--The Tontine coffee house is established in New York.

1794--The import duty on coffee in the United States is increased
to five cents a pound.

1798--The first United States patent for an improved
coffee-grinding mill is granted to Thomas Bruff, Sr.

1800[L]--Chicory comes into use in Holland as a substitute for
coffee.

1800[L]--De Belloy's coffee pot, made of tin, later of porcelain,
appears--the original French drip coffee pot.

1800[L]-1900[L]--There is a return in England to the style of
coffee-serving pot having the handle at right angle to the spout.

1802--The first French patent on a coffee maker is granted to
Denobe, Henrion, and Rouch for "a pharmacological-chemical coffee
making device by infusion."

1802--Charles Wyatt is granted a patent in London on an apparatus
for distilling coffee.

1804[L]--The first cargo of coffee--and other East Indian
produce--from Mocha, to be shipped in an American bottom, reaches
Salem, Mass.

1806--James Henckel is granted a patent in England on a coffee
dryer, "an invention communicated to him by a certain foreigner."

1806--The first French patent on an improved French drip coffee pot
for making coffee by filtration, without boiling, is granted to
Hadrot.

1806--The coffee percolator (really an improved French drip coffee
pot) is invented by Count Rumford (Benjamin Thompson), an
expatriated American scientist, in Paris.

1809--The first importation of Brazil coffee by the United States
arrives at Salem, Mass.

1809--Coffee becomes an article of commerce in Brazil.

1811--Walter Rochfort, a London grocer and tea dealer, obtains a
patent in London on a compressed coffee tablet.

1812--Coffee in England is roasted in an iron pan or hollow
cylinder made of sheet iron; and then is pounded in a mortar, or
ground in a hand-mill.

1812--Anthony Schick is granted an English patent on a method, or
process, for roasting coffee, for which specifications were never
enrolled.

1812--Coffee is roasted in Italy in a glass flask with a loose
cork, held over a clear fire of burning coals and continually
agitated.

1812--The import duty, on coffee in the United States is increased
to ten cents a pound as a war-revenue measure.

1813--A United States patent is granted Alexander Duncan Moore, New
Haven, Conn., on a mill for grinding and pounding coffee.

1814--A war-time fever of speculation in tea and coffee causes the
citizens of Philadelphia to form a non-consumption association,
each member pledging himself not to pay more than twenty-five cents
a pound for coffee, and not to use tea unless it is already in the
country.

1816--The import duty on coffee in the United States is reduced to
five cents a pound.

1817[L]--The coffee biggin (said to have been invented by a man
named Biggin) comes into common use in England.

1818--The Havre coffee market for spot coffee and to arrive is
established.

1819--Morize, a Paris tinsmith, invents a double drip reversible
coffee pot.

1819--Laurens is granted a French patent on the original
pumping-percolator device in which the boiling water was raised by
steam pressure and sprayed over the ground coffee.

1820--Peregrine Williamson, Baltimore, is granted the first United
States patent for an improvement on a coffee roaster.