Chapter VI: Part II: Mass Studies in Heredity of Adult Build (1)

It is a matter of common observation that in some families the parents and children are all slender; in others, there may be many examples of obesity. Worthington (1877, p. 50) cites a number of examples from C. Bouchard. A woman of 45 years weighs 107 kg. (236 pounds); her obesity began shortly after marriage; her father is very obese and her mother obese. A woman of 49 years, whose father is a Turk and whose mother is French, weighs 117 kg. or about 258 pounds; her mother was obese. A woman of 115 kg. or about 250 pounds has an obese mother and two sisters who were obese in infancy; also a gouty mother’s father and father’s father.

The following, from Chambers (1850), show obesity “on both sides of the house”: Male of 28 years, 120 kg. (266 pounds); woman of 48 years, 127 kg. (280 pounds); woman of 52 years, 98.4 kg. (217 pounds); man of 57 years, 227 kg. (500 pounds); woman of 58 years, 104 kg. (231 pounds); woman of 68 years, 118 kg. (260 pounds); woman of 70 years, 107 kg. (238 pounds). In many other cases cited by Chambers, one parent of the obese patient was obese. Howard (1908, p. 54) cites the case of a 7-year-old girl, 45.5 inches (115.6 cm.) tall, who weighed 40 kg. (88 pounds), had a pendulous abdomen, and was feeble-minded. Her sibs were not abnormal and her parents were of average build. One of her great uncles weighs 127 kg. (280 pounds), an uncle, at 40 years, about 109 kg., and an aunt of 31 years, 95 kg. (210 pounds). This case is instructive because of the skipping of a generation.

In the class of obese cases known as adiposis dolorosa, heredity is usually obvious. Price (1909) cites a case of an obese woman of 48 years and weighing 140 kg. (310 pounds) who belongs to a fraternity of 7; 1 was a miscarriage, 2 died young of accident, 1 died at 22 of typho-pneumonia, 1 died young of scarlet fever, and 1 brother is large and rheumatic. The father seems to have been of average build and the mother is stated to have been “very thin.” Of her sibs, 6 were fleshy or very fleshy, 1 medium, and 1 slender; the children of these fleshy sibs of the mother are “all stout.”

Lyon (1910, p. 68) discusses heredity in adiposis dolorosa and lipomatosis and cites a considerable number of cases of family recurrence in his cases and others. Thus he twice treated a father and his son for multiple fatty tumors; also twice a mother and daughter. Lyon’s obese case No. 5 was like her 3 sisters and 1 daughter; a son of her father’s brother showed similar fatty deposits. 10 other instances of family recurrence of abnormal fat deposit are cited.

Maranon and Bonilla (1920) cite the case of a girl of 18 years who was slender, like her parents, until after an attack of syphilis, when she came to weigh 157 kg. or 350 pounds, while her height was 160 cm., her chest-girth 130 cm., and that of her abdomen 150 cm. or 90 per cent of her height. She had a very large brother, and both mother’s parents were obese, though the parents were not known to be so.

Such examples might be multiplied indefinitely.

Our problem is not what are all the causes of this diversity of build, but rather in how far do genetical factors play a part in this diversity. We are not oblivious to the fact that there are many factors responsible for the result—deviation from the average build. These we shall consider in detail in a later section, and the consideration will help us to see the limits to the action of the genetical factors. Before going on to that, we shall have to consider more in detail the nature of the facts for which an explanation has to be sought.

METHODS AND MATERIALS.

The method of analyzing the genetic factors in build is that of tabulating the distribution of aberrant builds in the family network. There is required, first, a large mass of family data which includes many extreme or aberrant types of build, and which is as reliable and as accurately quantitative as possible; secondly, this has to be subjected to the ordinary methods of genetic analysis.

The available material has consisted of data on stature and weight given in the Records of Family Traits which constitute a fair sample of the population; and of quantitative data on special schedules giving stature and weight of a fraternity, its parents, uncles and aunts, and grandparents. These special schedules had been mailed to an address list of overweight and underweight persons obtained through the kind cooperation of Mr. Arthur Hunter. Those who returned the schedules showed an especial appreciation of the requirements of our study. A third source was the A file of the Eugenics Record Office, where are gathered miscellaneous pedigrees of families showing aberrancy in build. A fourth and especially valuable source was the field work of Miss Louise A. Nelson, of the Eugenics Record Office; this started with selected, usually obese, cases.

After the data had been assembled and tabulated, a certain amount of correspondence and personal visitation was undertaken in order to secure a confirmation or revision of the records in hand. In some cases this brought to light errors in the records, in others, useful details. Naturally, it was not possible to secure a revision of all of the data used, but an attempt was made to select only records that had been compiled with care and conscientiousness, and these traits in the compiler reveal themselves pretty clearly to a person who has examined thousands of these records, just as carelessness is revealed also by slipshod speech or posture.

For our study we desire the data of stature and weight for children, parents, and grandparents. With some exceptions only those families are studied in which all these data are accurately given. Also, only children who are above 18 years of age can be utilized, because stature changes so rapidly until that age. However, since it is build and not stature we are studying, the fact of increase of stature from 19 to 21 years of age affects the result very little. Finally, in a certain proportion of the cases the stature and weight of all of the grandparents are not given quantitatively. Such families are utilized, nevertheless, with such quantitative data as may have been afforded.

The data were taken from the Records of Family Traits by Miss Miriam Kortright, who long assisted in our statistical work. The computations of index of build were made by Miss Kortright and Mr. William Kraus, Miss Laura Craytor, and Miss Margaret Andrus, who checked one another’s work. The tabulation and seriations of the indices were done by Misses Margaret Babcock and Katharine Belzer.

THE ADULT INDEX OF BUILD.

In an earlier section of this paper the question of the best index of build has been discussed generally. It was pointed out that many regard it as a truism that build is a relation of volume to stature. Since the volume of a person’s body is rarely known, and it is difficult to determine it, weight has been substituted for volume. However, this substitution assumes that specific gravity is the same for slender and for fat persons; but this is not at all the case. The specific gravity of a fat person is about that of water (0.978 to 1.079 in 4 children 7 to 13 years of age, Meeh, 1879, and 1.014 in a 61-year-old man of 98 kg. weight, Mies, 1899); of a thin person it may be 5 to 8 per cent above that of water (1.049 to 1.082 for thin convicts, Mies, 1899). This variable specific gravity complicates the attempt to infer volume from weight. In view of these difficulties it were better to measure build by a relation of chest diameter (or circumference) to stature. But this ratio can not be used in our studies, since our data, for the most part, give only weight and stature and not chest-girth. It remains thus to determine the closest relation between weight and chest-girth. This determination I have attempted to make for 100 young men, 20 to 25 years of age, measured at Harvard University where they were students. It will hardly be worth while to reproduce the detailed tables of measurements and ratios, but they will be found summarized in table 8. In this table is given the frequency of occurrence of each of the different ratios (or rather classes of ratios) found using chest-girth in first, second, and third powers as a divisor. If weight varied exactly with the chest-girth, then the ratio of the former to the latter should remain constant. Such a strict relation is hardly to be expected and, of course, is not found. The ratios obtained show a certain variability about the mean condition, and this variability is measured by the standard deviation. Similarly, if each weight be divided in turn by the second and third powers of stature, and the corresponding variability of the ratios be considered, we shall have a method of deciding whether weight varies more closely with the first, second, or third power of chest-girth, and which of those powers gives in its fluctuations the best measure of the corresponding fluctuations in weight.

TABLE 8.—_Variability of weight in relation to the second and third powers of chest-girth as found in 100 Harvard students._

[_f_, frequency of occurrence of the given index-class.]

+------------------+-------------------+-------------------+
| Weight ÷ | Weight ÷ | Weight ÷ |
| chest-girth | chest-girth² | chest-girth³ |
+------------------+-------------------+-------------------+
| _f_ | _f_ | _f_ |
| 610 to 619 1 | 690 to 700 1 | 711 to 720 1 |
| 640 649 3 | 711 720 1 | 761 770 3 |
| 660 669 2 | 731 740 1 | 791 800 3 |
| 670 679 4 | 741 750 1 | 801 810 3 |
| 680 689 6 | 751 760 5 | 811 820 3 |
| 690 699 2 | 761 770 2 | 821 830 3 |
| 700 709 7 | 771 780 4 | 831 840 3 |
| 710 719 6 | 781 790 11 | 841 850 5 |
| 720 729 4 | 791 800 10 | 851 860 1 |
| 730 739 10 | 801 810 7 | 861 870 10 |
| 740 749 7 | 811 820 9 | 871 880 6 |
| 750 759 7 | 821 830 8 | 881 890 3 |
| 760 769 6 | 831 840 5 | 891 900 5 |
| 770 779 4 | 841 850 3 | 901 910 5 |
| 780 789 7 | 851 860 4 | 911 920 3 |
| 790 799 5 | 861 870 9 | 921 930 2 |
| 800 809 2 | 871 880 3 | 931 940 7 |
| 810 819 3 | 881 890 4 | 941 950 1 |
| 820 829 3 | 891 900 3 | 951 960 4 |
| 830 839 3 | 901 910 4 | 961 970 4 |
| 840 849 4 | 921 930 2 | 971 980 9 |
| 850 859 1 | 951 960 1 | 981 990 1 |
| 870 879 1 | 961 970 2 | 991 1000 5 |
| 900 909 1 | | 1001 1010 2 |
| 920 929 1 | | 1031 1040 1 |
| | | 1041 1050 4 |
| | | 1061 1070 2 |
| | | 1111 1120 1 |
| | | |
| σ, 58.32 | σ, 51.50 | σ, 76.99 |
+------------------+-------------------+-------------------+

A comparison of the standard deviations gives the following results for man:

weight weight weight
Ratio: ----------- ------------ ------------
chest-girth chest-girth² chest-girth³
Standard deviation: 58.3 51.5 77.0

From these results the conclusion is drawn that since the variability (standard deviation) of weight ÷ chest-girth² is least, the square of the chest-girth varies more closely with weight than either the first or third power of chest-girth; consequently the square of chest-girth is the best measure of weight of the three.

By hypothesis, the chest-girth in persons of the same build varies very closely or exactly with stature; consequently we could substitute in the foregoing ratios for chest its average equivalent, stature/_K_, in which _K_ is nearly 2, more precisely 1.9. In any case it is thus clearly deducible that a better index of build is got by dividing weight by the square of stature than by its cube, as has been so often done. Accordingly, the ratio of weight to stature² has been adopted in this paper as the standard index of build. The correlation between this index of build and relative chest-girth is found by calculation to be about 0.45.

In any scale of index of build it is, of course, desirable to use the metric system. Unfortunately, most of our data are in English units, so that our indices were first obtained by the use of these units. We have in many cases transmuted the English into the equivalent metric measures. We have, however, retained the original English index, since a large portion of the more cultured part of the world uses that system in daily life. A table to facilitate transmutation is also given in the Appendix, table XVIII. To facilitate the determination of the index of build when stature and weight (in English or metric units) are known, table XVI has been prepared (pages 169, 170).

To avoid decimals, the ratio, weight in pounds ÷ (stature in inches)² is multiplied in this book by 1,000; this gives a series of ratios running from 20 to 60 and over. To avoid confusion with the English system, the metric equivalents are taken as the ratio of weight in grams ÷ (stature in centimeters)². This gives a series of index numbers of the order 1.5 to 4.0; in this case, at least, one decimal is always expressed. The small integral figure and the decimal at once indicate that the index is from metric units. Since the index of build has often been expressed as the ratio of weight to, respectively, stature, stature²⸳⁵, and stature³, table XVII has been prepared to permit these ratios to be transmuted into weight ÷ stature², English system.

CLASSIFICATION OF BUILD.

For the purposes of analysis, it was found necessary to make a small number of classes of build. To decide upon the limits of these classes, a polygon of frequency of all indices of build was made, as shown in figure 7. It appeared plain at the outset that it is desirable to plot the data in this polygon by using as abscissæ the logarithms of the index of build rather than the absolute indices, since the range of weight above the mode is, for obvious reasons, very much greater than below the mode. Taking mean weight at 68 kg., or 150 pounds, the minimum weight is about 20 kg. (45 pounds), or 25 kg. (55 pounds) below the mean, and the maximum weight is about 150 kg. (330 pounds), or 182 kg. (400 pounds) above the mean. That is, the range of weight classes is three times as great above as below the mean. Plotting data in logarithmic fashion, as shown in figure 7, it appears that the modal index of build is 2.3 (33). The range is from 1.4 (20) to 4.5 (64). Using the logarithms of abscissæ, the curve is more nearly a symmetrical one. It is more irregular above than below the mode, because the classes are more numerous and the frequency of each class smaller. The presence of two modes is suggestive of the hypothesis that the medium class and probably the fleshy classes are not strictly homogeneous, but, on the contrary, comprise groups of individuals whose build is due to dissimilar factors, or sets of factors.

To derive the desired classes from figure 7, the polygon was somewhat arbitrarily divided into five parts, as indicated. Taking 33.5 as a starting-point, an equal logarithmic distance was laid off, above and below this point, on the base-line. This was taken as the range of middle class. An equal logarithmic range was accorded the classes next above and below the median respectively. All of the remainders were thrown into the extreme classes to which are given, thus, a somewhat greater range than the interior classes. This seemed desirable, since their frequencies were so low. The adjusted classes finally adopted are as shown in table 9.

TABLE 9.—_The five standard classes of build; limits and middle points of each._

+----------------------+-------------------------------------------+
| | Range of indices. |
| +---------------+--------------+------------+
| Class. | | | Middle |
| | Metric. | English. | of class |
| | | | (English). |
+----------------------+---------------+--------------+------------+
| Very slender (V. S.) | 1.40 to 1.80 | 20 to 25.4 | 23.5 |
| Slender (S.) | 1.81 2.14 | 25.5 30.4 | 28.0 |
| Medium (M.) | 2.15 2.56 | 30.5 36.4 | 33.5 |
| Fleshy (F.) | 2.57 3.05 | 36.5 43.4 | 40.0 |
| Very fleshy (V. F.) | 3.06 4.50+ | 43.5 64 + | 48.0 |
+----------------------+---------------+--------------+------------+

SIGNIFICANCE OF VARIATIONS IN BUILD.

What is the meaning of the great variations of build described in the preceding paragraph? What is known in this matter may here be briefly summarized that it may be held in mind in considering the numerous cases to which we shall have occasion to refer.

In general, it may be stated that variations in build are due to endogenous causes and exogenous causes. In this book we shall have occasion to examine especially the former—the constitutional or hereditary factors. These include idiosyncrasies of metabolism, in part controlled by peculiarities in the functioning of the endocrine glands; in part, probably, by even finer protoplasmic differences. Thus it is known that the thyroid gland greatly influences metabolism; its activity in growing children tends to produce tall and slender form. On the other hand, deficiency in its activity in childhood leads to the type of obesity known as cretinism, and in middle life to myxedema. The secretions of the pituitary gland cooperate with the thyroid in stimulating growth, especially in the preadolescent stage. When pituitary secretions are deficient there frequently results, it is believed, the adiposogenital syndrome, in which great masses of fat are deposited on breasts, abdomen, hips, and buttocks, and the gonads remain infantile. A case that quite certainly belongs to this category is shown by Beck (1922, p. 881) and reproduced in plate 8, figures 3, 4, 5; 3 of this man’s 4 sibs are fleshy and have scant beards. This is quite like our standard very fleshy case (plate 2, fig. 5). See, also, the extreme cases falling under this category described by Lyon, 1910.

Lesions of the pineal gland (Beck, 1922, p. 909) and of the gonads are stated in some cases to induce obesity. Certain it is that, on the other hand, the activity of the gonads tends to slow up growth in stature and to increase the chest circumference (plate 6), and this change is more marked in the male than the female.

The exogenous causes of build are striking, so much so that many physiologists seem to accept the hypothesis that they are of sole importance, that excess of fat is due merely to excess of calories ingested over those concerned in bodily activity. While no one will deny the possibility of starving most fleshy persons thin or of increasing the weight of most adults by an excess of food, yet it is also obvious that two persons of the same stature and fed equal amounts of similar food may come to differ enormously, due to internal conditions, sometimes of glandular origin and sometimes dependent upon, or at least associated with, disease.

TABLE 10.—_Incidence of disease in relation to build._

+-------------------+-----------------+-------------------+-----------+
| | In 10,000 of | | |
| | standard | In persons of | |
| | population. | selected build. | |
| +------+----------+------+------------+-----------+
| Diagnosis of | 1. | 2. | 3. | 4. | 5. |
| disease. | | | | Per cent | |
| | No. | Per cent | No. | afflicted | Ratio of |
| | of |afflicted.| of |in 69 V. S. | col. 4 to |
| |cases.| |cases.|population. | col. 2. |
+-------------------+------+----------+------+------------+-----------+
|VERY SLENDER BUILD.| | | | | |
| | | | | | |
| YOUTH. | | | | | |
|Influenza | 7 | 0.07 | 2 | 2.81 | 40.14 |
|Tuberculosis | 24 | .24 | 2 | 2.81 | 11.70 |
|Colds | 48 | .48 | 3 | 4.34 | 9.04 |
| | | | | | |
| MIDDLE AGE. | | | | | |
|Melancholia | 10 | .10 | 2 | 2.81 | 28.10 |
|Nervousness | 130 | 1.30 | 6 | 8.60 | 6.62 |
|Tuberculosis | 58 | .58 | 2 | 2.81 | 4.85 |
+-------------------+------+----------+------+------------+-----------+
| | | | | Per cent | |
| SLENDER BUILD. | | | | afflicted | |
| | | | | in 737 S. | |
| YOUTH. | | | |population. | |
|Fevers | 4 | 0.04 | 4 | 0.542 | 13.55 |
|Adenoids | 10 | .10 | 9 | 1.22 | 12.20 |
|Appendicitis | 28 | .28 | 13 | 1.76 | 6.28 |
|Anemia | 11 | .11 | 5 | .68 | 6.16 |
|Tuberculosis | 24 | .24 | 10 | 1.35 | 5.62 |
|Tonsilitis | 104 | 1.04 | 30 | 4.07 | 3.91 |
|Bronchitis | 53 | .53 | 12 | 1.62 | 3.06 |
|Pneumonia | 165 | 1.65 | 34 | 4.61 | 2.79 |
|Nervous breakdown | 74 | .74 | 15 | 2.03 | 2.74 |
|Rheumatism | 117 | 1.17 | 16 | 2.17 | 1.85 |
|Diphtheria | 150 | 1.50 | 19 | 2.57 | 1.71 |
|Scarlet Fever | 281 | 2.81 | 29 | 3.93 | 1.40 |
|Typhoid fever | 253 | 2.53 | 25 | 3.39 | 1.34 |
| | | | | | |
| MIDDLE AGE. | | | | | |
|Anemia | 3 | .03 | 3 | .407 | 13.57 |
|Intestinal trouble | 4 | .04 | 3 | .407 | 10.17 |
|Appendicitis | 23 | .23 | 9 | 1.220 | 5.30 |
|Tuberculosis | 58 | .58 | 22 | 2.980 | 5.14 |
|Heart disease | 94 | .94 | 15 | 2.030 | 2.16 |
|Pneumonia | 139 | 1.39 | 22 | 2.980 | 2.14 |
|Typhoid fever | 138 | 1.38 | 16 | 2.170 | 1.57 |
+-------------------+------+----------+------+------------+-----------+
| | | | | Per cent | |
| FLESHY BUILD | | | | afflicted | |
| | | | | in 543 F. | |
| YOUTH. | | | |population. | |
|Adenoids | 10 | 0.10 | 3 | 0.553 | 55.30 |
|Scarlet fever | 281 | 2.81 | 36 | 6.642 | 2.36 |
|Typhoid fever | 253 | 2.53 | 28 | 5.166 | 2.04 |
|Pneumonia | 165 | 1.65 | 17 | 3.136 | 1.90 |
| | | | | | |
| MIDDLE AGE. | | | | | |
|Hernia | 8 | 0.08 | 7 | 1.29 | 16.00 |
|Arterio-sclerosis | 9 | .09 | 6 | 1.10 | 12.22 |
|Bladder trouble | 10 | .10 | 6 | 1.10 | 11.00 |
|Measles | 10 | .10 | 6 | 1.10 | 11.00 |
|Appendicitis | 23 | .23 | 12 | 2.22 | 9.65 |
|Eczema | 6 | .06 | 3 | 0.55 | 9.17 |
|Hemorrhoids | 13 | .13 | 5 | 0.92 | 7.11 |
|Liver trouble | 16 | .16 | 6 | 1.10 | 6.88 |
|Paralysis | 49 | .49 | 18 | 3.38 | 6.80 |
|Heart trouble | 94 | .94 | 34 | 6.28 | 6.69 |
|Gallstones | 22 | .22 | 8 | 1.47 | 6.68 |
|Apoplexy | 27 | .27 | 8 | 1.47 | 5.44 |
|Tumor | 18 | .18 | 5 | 0.92 | 5.13 |
|Bronchitis | 38 | .38 | 9 | 1.66 | 4.37 |
|Erysipelas | 31 | .31 | 7 | 1.29 | 4.16 |
|Cancer | 51 | .51 | 10 | 1.84 | 3.61 |
|Pneumonia | 139 | 1.39 | 27 | 4.98 | 3.58 |
|Malaria | 43 | .43 | 8 | 1.47 | 3.42 |
|Typhoid fever | 138 | 1.38 | 22 | 4.06 | 2.95 |
|Kidney trouble | 74 | .74 | 11 | 2.03 | 2.74 |
|Rheumatism | 349 | 3.49 | 37 | 6.82 | 1.95 |
+-------------------+------+----------+------+------------+-----------+
| | | | | Per cent | |
| VERY FLESHY BUILD.| | | | afflicted | |
| | | | |in 103 V. F.| |
| YOUTH. | | | |population. | |
|Pneumonia | 165 | 1.65 | 7 | 6.79 | 4.115 |
| | | | | | |
| MIDDLE AGE. | | | | | |
|Dropsy | 14 | 0.14 | 3 | 2.91 | 20.80 |
|Stomach trouble | 15 | .15 | 3 | 2.91 | 19.40 |
|Apoplexy | 37 | .37 | 5 | 4.85 | 11.40 |
|Kidney trouble | 74 | .74 | 8 | 7.76 | 10.60 |
|Cancer | 51 | .51 | 4 | 3.88 | 7.61 |
|Heart disease | 94 | .94 | 6 | 5.82 | 6.20 |
|Pneumonia | 139 | 1.39 | 8 | 7.76 | 5.6 |
|Malaria | 43 | .43 | 2 | 1.94 | 4.5 |
|Typhoid fever | 138 | 1.38 | 6 | 5.82 | 4.2 |
|Rheumatism | 349 | 3.49 | 10 | 9.70 | 2.8 |
+-------------------+------+----------+------+------------+-----------+

Very slender build: A. Youth; expectation for cases of measles, 2; found, none.

Slender build: A. Youth; expectation for cases of whooping-cough, 7; chicken-pox, 4; colds, 4; croup, 3. Cases found, none. B. Middle Age; expectation for cases of eye trouble, 30, erysipelas, 24, tonsillitis, 23, and apoplexy, 21. Cases found, none.

Fleshy build: A. Youth; expectation for cases of ear trouble, 19, lung trouble, 18. Cases found, none. B. Middle age; expectation for cases of throat trouble, 5. Cases found, none.

DISEASES IN RELATION TO BUILD.

As just stated, it is frequently true that build is influenced permanently by disease. To test the influence of disease on, or association of diseases with, different types of build, a tabulation was made of the diseases recorded (in the Records of Family Traits, Eugenics Record Office) as occurring during youth and during middle age in 10,000 fairly well described persons. This constituted the control. Then there was determined for our groups of very slender, slender, fleshy, and very fleshy, the incidence of disease. The ratio of the percentage incidence of the latter to the former was then calculated. In table 10 is given in sum many of the results found for the principal diseases. This table may now be briefly discussed.

Persons of _very slender_ build are characterized in youth by an excess of respiratory diseases—influenza, tuberculosis, and colds. In middle age they show an excess of melancholia, nervousness, and tuberculosis.

In 737 persons of _slender_ build there are found in youth many diseases in excess of normal incidence. These comprise diseases of the respiratory tract—tuberculosis, tonsillitis, bronchitis, pneumonia; some nervous diseases, “nervous breakdown”; various general infections, such as “fevers,” appendicitis, anemia, “rheumatism,” diphtheria, scarlet and typhoid fevers. One might conclude that slender youth are relatively nonresistant to infections. In slender persons there is found in middle age an excess of tuberculosis and pneumonia, much appendicitis and intestinal trouble, and (as also in youth) anemia.

These associations of slender build and disease are not always easy to interpret. The common idea of the tubercular diathesis comprises slender form. On the other hand, a person who has, or has recovered from, active pulmonary tuberculosis is apt to remain underweight, partly because the respiratory apparatus is damaged. The association of “nervousness” with slenderness is probably due to the double effect of some glandular dystrophy, as, for example, of the thyroid gland. Hyperthyroid individuals are usually tall, slender, and “nervous” or irritable.

In 103 persons of _very fleshy_ build, the only outstanding disease of youth is pneumonia. In middle age occur “kidney trouble,” “dropsy” (which often accompanies chronic nephritis), and apoplexy, which is sometimes caused by extra pressure on the blood-vessels resulting from impeded elimination from the kidney or to a diabetic tendency which puts extra work on the vessels. “Heart disease” is also commoner than usual.

In 542 persons of fleshy build, “bladder trouble” (probably including diabetes) and kidney trouble are exceptionally frequent, also arterio-sclerosis and its accompaniments, apoplexy and paralysis. Hernia is frequent, as are various diseases of the digestive tract, such as appendicitis, hemorrhoids, liver trouble, and gallstones. These are doubtless not the cause of, but a consequence or concomitant of, overweight. Sibilant bronchitis, lithiasis (uric and biliare), and diabetes mellitus are mentioned, in addition to the above, by Heckel (1920, p. 31) as especially apt to be associated with obesity.

TABLE 11.—_Distribution of progeny of the different matings according to index of build; males and females tabulated separately._

[From Appendix tables, omitting starred families.]

+----------------------------------------------------------------+
| Distribution of male progeny. |
+----------------------------------------------------------------+
|Index of build (English) |
| +---+---+---+---+---+----+---+---+---+----+----+---+---+-----+
| |VS |VS | V | S | S | S | S | M | M | M | F | F |VF |Total|
| |× | × | × | × | × | × | × | × | × | × | × | × | × | ♂ |
| |S | M | F | S | M | F |VF | M | F | VF | F |VF |VF | |
| |II |III|IV | VI|VII|VIII|IX | X | XI| XII|XIII|XIV|XV | |
| +---+---+---+---+---+----+---+---+---+----+----+---+---+-----+
| 22| | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| 23| | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| 24| | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| 25| 1| | | 1| | 1| | | | 1 | | | | 4|
| 26| 1| | | | 1| | | | | | | | | 2|
| 27| 1| | 1| 7| | | | 1| | 1 | | | | 11|
| 28| | 1| | 5| | 1| 1| 1| | | | | | 9|
| 29| | 1| | 4| 3| 2| | 3| 2| 1 | 2| | | 18|
| 30| | | | 5| 8| 2| 2| 13| 7| 1 | 1| | | 39|
| 31| 1| | | 2| 17| 5| 1| 10| 6| 2 | 2| 1| 1| 48|
| 32| | 2| 2| 3| 21| 7| 2| 18| 25| 3 | 4| 4| 3| 94|
| 33| | 2| 1| 2| 23| 13| 2| 23| 26| 4 | 3| 7| 1| 107|
| 34| | 2| 1| | 17| 14| 1| 16| 21| 3 | 4| 3| 1| 83|
| 35| | | | | 24| 8| 2| 25| 20| 8 | 8| 5| 2| 102|
| 36| | 1| | | 14| 4| | 25| 20| 1 | 9| 2| 1| 77|
| 37| | 1| 1| | 12| 10| 1| 8| 14| 5 | 6| 1| 1| 60|
| 38| | | 1| | 9| 9| 2| 10| 16| 3 | 9| 3| | 62|
| 39| 1| | | | 6| 4| 5| 8| 5| 9 | 7| 7| 1| 53|
| 40| | | 1| | 4| 2| 1| 6| 6| 5 | 4| 5| 1| 35|
| 41| | | 2| | 4| 1| | 4| 10| | 1| 2| | 24|
| 42| | | | | 1| 2| 1| 1| 5| 1 | 4| 6| | 21|
| 43| | 1| 1| | 2| 2| | 3| 2| 1 | 3| 4| | 19|
| 44| | | | | 1| | 1| | 1| 1 | | 2| 1| 7|
| 45| | | | | 1| 1| | | 2| 4 | 2| | 2| 12|
| 46| | | | | | | 1| 1| | 2 | | 2| 1| 7|
| 47| | | | | 1| | | 1| 2| | 4| | 2| 10|
| 48| | | | | 1| | | | | | | 2| | 3|
| 49| | | | | | | | 1| | | | | | 1|
| 50| | | | | 1| | | | | 1 | | | 2| 4|
| 51| | | 1| | 1| | | | | | 2| | 1| 5|
| 52| | | | | | | | | | | | | | 0|
| 53| | | | | | | | | 2| | 2| 1| | 5|
| 54| | | | | | | | | 1| | | | | 1|
| 55| | | | | | | | | | | | | | 0|
| 56| | | | | | | | | | | | | | 0|
| 57| | | | | | | | | | | | | | 0|
| 58| | | | | | | | | 1| | | | | 1|
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 0|
| 79| | | | | | | | | | 1 | | | | 1|
|103| | | | | | | | | | 1 | | | | 1|
| +---+---+---+---+---+----+---+---+---+----+----+---+---+-----+
| ♂ | 5| 11| 12| 29|172| 88 | 23|178|194| 59| 77| 57| 21| 926|
| ♀ | 6| 17| 13| 18|134| 67 | 11|149|146| 53| 79| 43| 9| 745|
| +---+---+---+---+---+----+---+---+---+----+----+---+---+-----+
|Total | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| ♂ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
|and| | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| ♀ | 11| 28| 25| 47|306| 155| 34|327|340| 112| 156|100| 30| 1671|
+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+---+---+---+----+----+---+---+-----+

Avg. ♂, 35.81 ± 0.12.
σ ♂, 5.325 ± 0.084.

TABLE 11A.—_Distribution of progeny of the different matings according to index of build; males and females tabulated separately_—Continued.

[From Appendix tables, omitting starred families.]

+----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Distribution of female progeny. |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------+
|Index of build (English) |
| +---+---+---+---+---+----+---+---+---+----+----+---+---+-----+-----+
| |VS |VS | V | S | S | S | S | M | M | M | F | F |VF |Total|Total|
| |× | × | × | × | × | × | × | × | × | × | × | × | × | ♀ | ♂ |
| |S | M | F | S | M | F |VF | M | F | VF | F |VF |VF | | and |
| |II |III|IV | VI|VII|VIII|IX | X | XI| XII|XIII|XIV|XV | | ♀ |
| +---+---+---+---+---+----+---+---+---+----+----+---+---+-----+-----+
| 22| | 1| | 1| | | | | | | | | | 2| 2|
| 23| 1| | | | | 1| | | | | | | | 2| 2|
| 24| | | | | | | | | | | | | | 0| 0|
| 25| | | 1| 3| | 1| | 2| | 1| | | | 8| 12|
| 26| 2| 1| | 3| 3| 3| | | 1| | 1| | | 14| 16|
| 27| | 1| 1| 4| 2| 1| | 3| | | | 1| | 13| 24|
| 28| | | 1| 1| 11| 1| | 1| 4| | 2| | | 21| 30|
| 29| 1| 1| 1| 2| 10| 5| 1| 7| 5| 2| 6| | | 41| 59|
| 30| 1| 2| 1| 1| 10| 6| | 10| 9| 2| 3| 2| | 47| 86|
| 31| | 4| | 1| 22| 8| 2| 15| 9| 4| 2| 3| 1| 71| 119|
| 32| 1| 1| 1| 2| 18| 2| 2| 12| 15| 6| 2| 2| 1| 65| 159|
| 33| | 4| 2| | 12| 11| 1| 14| 20| 4| 1| 2| | 71| 178|
| 34| | | 1| | 9| 4| | 12| 13| 9| 8| 2| 2| 60| 143|
| 35| | | 2| | 10| 2| | 9| 13| 4| 9| 3| | 52| 154|
| 36| | 1| | | 7| 2| 1| 19| 20| 2| 8| 4| 1| 65| 142|
| 37| | | | | 3| 3| 1| 14| 8| 4| 7| 2| | 42| 102|
| 38| | | | | 2| 5| 1| 7| 7| 2| 2| 5| | 31| 93|
| 39| | | | | 2| 5| | 10| 5| 2| | 1| 1| 26| 79|
| 40| | | 1| | 3| 1| 1| 3| 6| | 6| 1| 1| 23| 58|
| 41| | | | | 2| 1| 1| 5| 1| 2| 2| 1| | 14| 38|
| 42| | 1| | | 1| 3| | 2| 2| | 7| 3| 1| 21| 42|
| 43| | | | | 2| 1| | | 1| 2| 3| 1| | 10| 29|
| 44| | | | | 1| 1| | | 2| | 6| 1| | 11| 18|
| 45| | | | | 2| | | 1| | 2| | 3| | 8| 20|
| 46| | | 1| | 1| | | | 1| 1| | 1| | 5| 12|
| 47| | | | | | | | | 2| | 1| 2| 1| 6| 16|
| 48| | | | | | | | | | 1| | 1| | 2| 5|
| 49| | | | | 1| | | 1| 1| 1| 2| | | 6| 7|
| 50| | | | | | | | | 1| 1| | | | 2| 6|
| 51| | | | | | | | 1| | | | 1| | 2| 7|
| 52| | | | | | | | | | 1| 1| | | 2| 2|
| 53| | | | | | | | | | | | 1| | 1| 6|
| 54| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 1|
| 55| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 0|
| 56| | | | | | | | 1| | | | | | 1| 1|
| 57| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 0|
| 58| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 1|
| 79| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 1|
|103| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 1|
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| +---+---+---+---+---+----+---+---+---+----+----+---+---+-----+-----+
| ♀ | 6| 17| 13| 18|134| 67| 1|149|146| 53| 79| 43| 9| 745| 1671|
+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+---+---+---+----+----+---+---+-----+-----+

Avg. ♀, 34.54 ± 0.17.
S. D. ♀, 5.133 ± 0.089.

The one clear conclusion from this study is that no single disease and no special single collection of diseases is exclusively responsible for exceptionally slender or exceptionally fleshy build. The variations in build are due primarily rather to various idiosyncrasies of development and metabolism which have largely an hereditary basis, upon which may be superimposed modifications by various types of disease.

TABLE 12.—_Distribution of progeny of the different matings, according to index of build; sexes tabulated together, based on Appendix tables, omitting starred families._

+--------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
| Serial | II | III | IV | VI | VII | VIII| IX |
| mating No. | | | | | | | |
+--------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
| Type of | VS | VS | VS | S | S | S | S |
| mating. | × | × | × | × | × | × | × |
| | S | M | F | S | M | F | VF |
+--------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
| Av. index | 26.1| 28.4| 32.0| 29.8| 30.9| 33.8| 37.9|
| of build | | | | | | | |
+--------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
| No. of | 4 | 8 | 5 | 23 | 101 | 49 | 11 |
| matings. | | | | | | | |
+--------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
| 22 | | 1 | | 1 | | | |
| 23 | 1 | | | | | 1 | |
| 24 | | | | | | | |
| 25 | 1 | | 1 | 4 | | 2 | |
| 26 | 3 | 1 | | 3 | 4 | 3 | |
| 27 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 11 | 2 | 1 | |
| 28 | | 1 | 1 | 6 | 11 | 2 | 1 |
| 29 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 6 | 13 | 7 | 1 |
| 30 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 6 | 18 | 8 | 2 |
| 31 | 1 | 4 | | 3 | 39 | 13 | 3 |
| 32 | 1 | 3 | 3 | 5 | 39 | 9 | 4 |
| 33 | | 6 | 3 | 2 | 35 | 24 | 3 |
| 34 | | 2 | 2 | | 26 | 18 | 1 |
| 35 | | | 2 | | 34 | 10 | 2 |
| 36 | | 2 | | | 21 | 6 | 1 |
| 37 | | 1 | 1 | | 15 | 13 | 2 |
| 38 | | | 1 | | 11 | 14 | 3 |
| 39 | 1 | | | | 8 | 9 | 5 |
| 40 | | | 2 | | 7 | 3 | 2 |
| 41 | | | 2 | | 5 | 2 | 1 |
| 42 | | 1 | | | 3 | 5 | 1 |
| 43 | | 1 | 1 | | 4 | 3 | |
| 44 | | | | | 2 | 1 | 1 |
| 45 | | | | | 3 | 1 | |
| 46 | | | 1 | | 4 | | 1 |
| 47 | | | | | 1 | | |
| 48 | | | | | 1 | | |
| 49 | | | | | 1 | | |
| 50 | | | | | 1 | | |
| 51 | | | 1 | | 1 | | |
| 52 | | | | | | | |
| 53 | | | | | | | |
| 54 | | | | | | | |
| 55 | | | | | | | |
| 56 | | | | | | | |
| 57 | | | | | | | |
| 58 | | | | | | | |
| 79 | | | | | | | |
| 103 | | | | | | | |
| Total | 11 | 28 | 25 | 47 | 306 | 155 | 34 |
+--------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
|Adult progeny | | | | | | | |
| per mating | 2.75| 3.50| 5.00| 2.04| 3.03| 3.16| 3.09|
|Average |28.55|32.18|35.04|28.47|34.01|34.39|35.68|
|P. E. of aver.| ±.86| ±.54| ±.83| ±.24| ±.16| ±.22| ±.51|
|σ | 4.21| 4.20| 6.18| 2.41| 4.20| 4.13| 4.44|
|P. E. of σ | ±.61| ±.38| ±.59| ±.17| ±.11| ±.16| ±.36|
+--------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

+--------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+------+
| Serial | X | XI | XII | XIII| XIV | XV | |
| mating No. | | | | | | | |
+--------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ |
| Type of | M | M | M | F | F | VF | |
| mating. | × | × | × | × | × | × |Total.|
| | M | F | VF | F | VF | VF | |
+--------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ |
| Av. index | | | | | | | |
| of build | 33.2| 36.4| 40.7| 39.2| 43.0| 47.4| |
+--------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+------+
| No. of | | | | | | | |
| matings. | 92 | 114 | 30 | 33 | 29 | 7 | 506 |
+--------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+------+
| 22 | | | | | | | 2 |
| 23 | | | | | | | 2 |
| 24 | | | | | | | 0 |
| 25 | 2 | | 2 | | | | 12 |
| 26 | | 1 | | 1 | | | 16 |
| 27 | 4 | | 1 | | 1 | | 24 |
| 28 | 2 | 4 | | 2 | | | 30 |
| 29 | 10 | 7 | 3 | 8 | | | 59 |
| 30 | 23 | 16 | 3 | 4 | 2 | | 86 |
| 31 | 25 | 15 | 6 | 4 | 4 | 2 | 119 |
| 32 | 30 | 40 | 9 | 6 | 6 | 4 | 159 |
| 33 | 37 | 46 | 8 | 4 | 9 | 1 | 178 |
| 34 | 28 | 34 | 12 | 12 | 5 | 3 | 143 |
| 35 | 34 | 33 | 12 | 17 | 8 | 2 | 154 |
| 36 | 44 | 40 | 3 | 17 | 6 | 2 | 142 |
| 37 | 22 | 22 | 9 | 13 | 3 | 1 | 102 |
| 38 | 17 | 23 | 5 | 11 | 8 | | 93 |
| 39 | 18 | 10 | 11 | 7 | 8 | 2 | 79 |
| 40 | 9 | 12 | 5 | 10 | 6 | 2 | 58 |
| 41 | 9 | 11 | 2 | 3 | 3 | | 38 |
| 42 | 3 | 7 | 1 | 11 | 9 | 1 | 42 |
| 43 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 6 | 5 | | 29 |
| 44 | | 3 | 1 | 6 | 3 | 1 | 18 |
| 45 | 1 | 2 | 6 | 2 | 3 | 2 | 20 |
| 46 | 1 | 1 | 3 | | 3 | 1 | 12 |
| 47 | 1 | 4 | | 5 | 2 | 3 | 16 |
| 48 | | | 1 | | 3 | | 5 |
| 49 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | | | 7 |
| 50 | | 1 | 2 | | | 2 | 6 |
| 51 | 1 | | | 2 | 1 | 1 | 7 |
| 52 | | | 1 | 1 | | | 2 |
| 53 | | 2 | | 2 | 2 | | 6 |
| 54 | | 1 | | | | | 1 |
| 55 | | | | | | | 0 |
| 56 | 1 | | | | | | 1 |
| 57 | | | | | | | 0 |
| 58 | | 1 | | | | | 1 |
| 79 | | | 1 | | | | 1 |
| 103 | | | 1 | | | | 1 |
| Total | 327 | 340 | 112 | 156 | 100 | 30 | 1671 |
+--------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+------+
|Adult progeny | | | | | | | |
| per mating | 3.55| 2.98| 3.70| 4.72| 3.45| 4.29| 3.29 |
|Average |34.79|35.41|37.64|37.56|38.49|39.20|35.24 |
|P. E. of aver.| ±.15| ±.16| ±.58| ±.29| ±.38| ±.78| ±.087|
|σ | 4.05| 4.34| 9.11| 5.37| 5.38| 6.31| 5.29 |
|P. E. of σ | ±.11| ±.11| ±.41| ±.21| ±.27| ±.55| ±.06 |
+--------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+------+

MASS STUDY OF VARIATION AND HEREDITY IN BUILD.

Having considered the classification and something of the causes of variation in build, we have now to consider the relation between the build of the parents and that of the progeny. This is the mass treatment of the data of “heredity” which was the prevailing method 25 years ago and earlier. It is still a useful method in the case of traits due to multiple factors, such as the present one.

The distribution of build in the children of the different matings is given in tables 11, 11A, and 12. There are 15 possible different combinations of matings of the five grades. The first of these (VS × VS) is not represented in our data, and the fifth, VS × VF, is represented by only one mating and no column is devoted to it. The frequencies are given separately for male and female offspring (table 11), and again for both sexes together (table 12). Table 13 shows that there is a considerable correlation between the average build of the parentage and that of the progeny. From the matings of the fleshier parents the progeny are fleshier; from those of slender parents, slenderer. This relation may conceivably be due to family tradition handed down from parents to children. We shall see later that this hypothesis meets with formidable difficulties to acceptance. The most reasonable hypothesis is that there are, above all, hereditary family tendencies that help determine build.

TABLE 13.—_Distribution of progeny of the various matings, according to classes of build, absolute numbers, and proportions, based on Appendix table, including starred families._

+----------------+-----------+---------------------+-------------------+
| | | | Proportional |
| | Total | Absolute numbers. | frequencies |
|Type of mating. | No. of | | (per mille). |
| | children. +----+---+----+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| | |VS. | S.| M. | F.|VF.|VS.| S.| M.| F.|VF.|
+----------------+-----------+----+---+----+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
|No. II VS × S | 20 | 4 | 12| 2| 2| |200|600|100|100| |
| III VS × M | 28 | 1 | 7| 17| 3| | 36|250|607|107| |
| IV VS × F | 25 | 1 | 5| 10| 7| 2| 40|200|400|280| 80|
| VI S × S | 51 | 5 | 35| 11| | | 98|686|215| | |
| VII S × M | 313 | | 49| 200| 53| 11| |157|639|169| 35|
| VIII S × F | 179 | 5 | 25| 85| 57| 7| 28|140|475|318| 39|
| IX S × VF | 50 | | 7| 18| 17| 8| |140|360|340|160|
| X M × M | 332 | 2 | 40| 201| 82| 7| 6|121|605|247| 21|
| XI M × F | 346 | | 31| 210| 88| 17| | 90|606|255| 49|
| XII M × VF | 112 | 2 | 7| 50| 36| 17| 18| 63|446|321|152|
| XIII F × F | 159 | | 15| 62| 61| 21| | 94|390|384|132|
| XIV F × VF | 146 | 1 | 7| 52| 51| 35| 7| 48|356|349|240|
| XV VF × VF | 37 | | | 12| 8| 10| | |400|267|333|
| +-----------+----+---+----+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| Total | 1798 | | | | | | | | | | |
+----------------+-----------+----+---+----+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+

Comparing the tables for male and female offspring, it appears, first, that there are, for some reason, more males than females about whom data of build are given, probably because more males than females know their stature and weight, or willingly record it; second, there are relatively more females than males of very slender build (grades 22 to 31); there are recorded relatively more very fleshy males than females (grades of 50 and above); third, there are relatively more recorded daughters than sons derived from one very slender parent, and from the F × F and M × M matings. The male progeny are more variable than the female as 5.325 ± 0.084 is to 5.133 ± 0.089; but the difference is less than three times the probable error, and is, consequently, not very significant.