Chapter I: General Considerations. 483 (3)

=====================================+===========+===============================================
| | Conduct of the Inmates.
| +----------------------+------------------------
| Good and | Men. | Women.
|Rather Good+----------------------+------------+-----------
Arrondissements. | Dwellings.| Good and | Bad and | Good and | Bad and
| |Rather Good.|Very Bad.|Rather Good.| Very Bad.
| % | % | % | % | %
-------------------------------------+-----------+------------+---------+------------+-----------
The 6 arrondissements with the | | | | |
smallest number of good and | | | | |
rather good dwellings | 75 | 70 | 30 | 50 | 50
| | | | |
The 6 arrondissements with the | | | | |
greatest number of good and | | | | |
rather good dwellings | 86 | 81 | 19 | 58 | 42
-------------------------------------+-----------+------------+---------+------------+-----------
The 12 arrondissements together | 80 | 74.5 | 25.5 | 53 | 47
=====================================+===========+============+=========+============+===========
The figures cited above in proportion| } 94 | 94 | 118 | 96 | 106
to all Paris = 100 | } 107 | 109 | 71 | 109 | 91
+-----------+------------+---------+------------+-----------
| 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100
=====================================+===========+============+=========+============+===========

Although the division according to good and bad conduct is somewhat arbitrary, and although it is impossible to separate the effect of bad housing from other influences operative at the same time, yet these figures say plainly: there is a relationship between housing and conduct. It is evident that there is a reciprocal effect between the condition of the dwelling and the conduct of the inmates, but this fact does not diminish the influence of the dwelling. [574]

Finally, we add some figures upon the influence of furnished rooms as residence, summarizing the results of an inquiry into industries in Paris, made in 1860 and including 400,000 persons: [575]

Paris, 1860.

I. Men.

================+=====================+==================== Occupations. | In Furnished Rooms. | Conduct Doubtful | | or Bad. ----------------+---------------------+-------------------- | % | % 90 occupations | 5 | 3 90 ,, | 14 | 9 90 ,, | 28 | 12 ----------------+---------------------+------------------- 270 occupations | 20 | 9 ================+=====================+===================

Proportion to all the occupations = 100.

================+=====+===== 90 occupations | 25 | 13 90 ,, | 70 | 100 90 ,, | 140 | 133 ----------------+-----+----- 270 occupations | 100 | 100 ================+=====+=====

II. Women.

================+=====================+================== Occupations. | In Furnished Rooms. | Conduct Doubtful | | or Bad. ----------------+---------------------+------------------ | % | % 110 occupations | -- | 3 60 ,, | 4 | 6 60 ,, | 14 | 15 ----------------+---------------------+------------------ 230 occupations | 7 | 9 ================+=====================+==================

Proportion to the Average of the 230 occupations = 100.

================+=====+===== 110 occupations | 0 | 33 60 ,, | 59 | 68 60 ,, | 206 | 169 ----------------+-----+----- 230 occupations | 100 | 100 ================+=====+=====

The evil influence of living in furnished rooms comes out plainly in these figures.

As has already been said at the beginning of these observations as to the influence of the economic life upon the development of social feelings on the part of the proletariat, the egoistic side of the human character is developed by the fact that the individual is dependent, that he lives in a subordinate position, and that he feels himself poor and deprived of everything. However, in so far as the proletarian sells his labor he is guaranteed against famine, however miserable his condition, and conscious of the utility of his rôle in society, he feels himself, notwithstanding his poverty, a man who, except for his employer, is independent of all men. But if work is not to be found, or if the proletarian, sick and infirm, is not able to work, it goes without saying that the resulting unemployment is very demoralizing. The lack of steady work, the horrors of the penury into which he and his fall, and the long train of evils which result from both, kill the social feelings in a man, for, as we have seen above, these feelings depend upon reciprocity. Let one familiarize himself with the thought of the condition of the man who lives in the greatest poverty, i.e. the man who is abandoned by all, and he will understand how egoistic must be the feelings of such.

From the position in which the proletarians find themselves it follows that, towards each other, it is rather the altruistic than the egoistic feelings that develop; living less isolated than the bourgeois, they see the misfortune that strikes their neighbor, and have felt the same themselves, and above all, their economic interests are not opposed. Forced idleness—at present chronic, and acute in times of panic—modifies these conditions at times; it makes competitors of the workers, who take the bread out of each other’s mouths. [576]

The proletarian is never sure of his existence: like the sword of Damocles unemployment is constantly hanging over his head. Upon this subject Engels says:

“But far more demoralizing than his poverty in its influence upon the English working man is the insecurity of his position, the necessity of living upon wages from hand to mouth, that in short which makes a proletarian of him. The smaller peasants in Germany are usually poor, and often suffer want, but they are less at the mercy of accident, they have at least something secure. The proletarian, who has nothing but his two hands, who consumes today what he earned yesterday, who is subject to every chance, and has not the slightest guarantee for being able to earn the barest necessities of life, whom every crisis, every whim of his employer may deprive of bread, this proletarian is placed in the most revolting, inhuman position conceivable for a human being.” [577]

This uncertainty of existence is one of the reasons which explain why, in relatively prosperous times the working-man often spends his wages as soon as he receives them, for he knows that the economies possible to him are so small that he could never be saved from misery in case of unemployment.

Finally we must speak of ignorance and lack of training on the part of the proletariat, as a factor of criminality. As we know, this question of education is one of those which are most debated in criminal sociology. Certain authors have prophesied that each new school would make a prison superfluous, while on the other hand it has been claimed that ignorance and the lack of civilization have nothing to do with the etiology of crime, but that on the contrary knowledge and civilization are even factors of crime. Although these extreme opinions are hardly ever expressed nowadays, the ideas upon the point in question still differ widely. [578]

In my opinion, no really decisive arguments have ever been adduced for the opinion that the intellectual condition of men has no influence upon criminality. In general the reasoning is as follows: ignorance is decreasing; crime on the contrary increases; ignorance cannot therefore be a factor. Such a line of argument is very superficial, for ignorance is surely not the only cause of crime. Its influence may therefore be neutralized by other factors. And further, from the point of view of statistics it is not permissible to use the indirect method when the direct method is practicable. In most criminal and prison statistics the percentage of the illiterate among the criminals is given, and we have only to put beside these figures those for the illiterate among the non-criminal population to be convinced of the existence or absence of the connection in dispute.

We shall begin, then, by giving the figures that we know.

United States, 1890. [579]

=========================================+================== To 82,329 Prisoners there were | To 100 of the ------------+------------------+---------+ Population over | Absolute Number. | % | Age of 10 Years. ------------+------------------+---------+------------------ Illiterate | 19,631 | 23.83 | 13.3 ============+==================+=========+==================

Austria, 1881–1899. [580]

==========+=======================================================
| To 100 Persons Convicted of Crimes.
Years. +-------------------+------------------+----------------
| Unable to Read or | Able to Read and | Having a Higher
| Write. | Write. | Education.
----------+-------------------+------------------+----------------
1881-1885 | 46.2 | 53.5 | 0.2
1886-1890 | 41.0 | 58.7 | 0.3
1891-1895 | 37.5 | 62.2 | 0.2
1896 | 33.0 | 60.3 | 0.7
1897 | 34.9 | 64.4 | 0.7
1898 | 33.2 | 66.1 | 0.7
1899 | 33.0 | 66.2 | 0.8
==========+===================+==================+================

England and Wales, 1894–1900. [581]

========+==============================================================================================================================================================================================================++============== Years. | Prisoners Found Guilty. || Percentage | || of Persons +---------------------------------------------------++---------------------------------------------------++-------------------------------------------------++-------------------------------------------------++ Wishing to | Unable to Read or Write. || Able to Read, or to Read Poorly || Able to Read and Write Well. || Having a Higher Education. || Marry who | || and Write. || || || were Unable +---------------------------------------------------++---------------------------------------------------++-------------------------------------------------++-------------------------------------------------++ to Sign | Men. | Women. || Men. | Women. || Men. | Women. || Men. | Women. || their Names. +-------------------------+-------------------------++-------------------------+-------------------------++------------------------+------------------------++------------------------+------------------------++--------------- | Absolute Number. | % | Absolute Number. | % || Absolute Number. | % | Absolute Number. | % || Absolute Number. | % | Absolute Number. | % || Absolute Number. | % | Absolute Number. | % || Men. | Women. --------+------------------+------+------------------+------++------------------+------+------------------+------++------------------+-----+------------------+-----++------------------+-----+------------------+-----++------+-------- 1893 | -- | -- | -- | -- || -- | -- | -- | -- || -- | -- | -- | -- || -- | -- | -- | -- || 5.0 | 5.7 1894 | 20,760 | 18.4 | 11,457 | 27.4 || 86,639 | 76.6 | 29,620 | 70.7 || 5,554 | 4.9 | 797 | 1.9 || 102 | 0.1 | 3 | 0.0 || 0.0 | -- 1895 | 18,840 | 18.2 | 11,143 | 27.8 || 80,409 | 77.9 | 28,511 | 71.2 || 3,879 | 3.8 | 386 | 1.0 || 89 | 0.1 | 2 | 0.0 || 0.0 | -- 1896 | 19,377 | 18.1 | 11,844 | 28.5 || 85,199 | 79.2 | 29,261 | 70.6 || 2,806 | 2.6 | 307 | 0.7 || 52 | 0.1 | 2 | 0.0 || 0.0 | -- 1897 | 18,588 | 17.4 | 11,783 | 27.8 || 84,777 | 79.7 | 30,290 | 71.4 || 2,980 | 2.8 | 344 | 0.8 || 68 | 0.1 | 4 | 0.0 || 0.0 | -- 1898 | 18,591 | 16.6 | 12,092 | 26.8 || 86,675 | 77.3 | 32,350 | 71.6 || 6,680 | 6.0 | 726 | 1.6 || 158 | 0.1 | 7 | 0.0 || 0.0 | -- 1899 | 17,703 | 16.3 | 11,483 | 25.3 || 84,854 | 78.4 | 35,114 | 73.0 || 5,658 | 5.2 | 740 | 1.6 || 84 | 0.1 | 6 | 0.0 || 0.0 | -- 1900 | 16,583 | 16.6 | 11,519 | 25.3 || 77,967 | 77.8 | 33,169 | 73.5 || 5,460 | 5.5 | 420 | 0.9 || 81 | 0.1 | 5 | 0.6 || 2.9 | 3.4 ========+==================+======+==================+======++==================+======+==================+======++==================+=====+==================+=====++==================+=====+==================+=====++======+========

The following table gives the figures for the different crimes:

Austria, 1899. [582]

=========================+========================================================= | To 100 Persons Convicted. Crimes. +-------------+---------------+--------------+------------ | Illiterate. | Able to Read. | Able to Read | Higher | | | and Write. | Education. -------------------------+-------------+---------------+--------------+------------ Arson | 44.2 | 2.6 | 53.2 | 0.0 Libel | 41.7 | 0.8 | 57.1 | 0.4 Assault | 40.5 | 1.4 | 58.0 | 0.1 Infanticide | 39.5 | 2.6 | 57.9 | 0.0 Homicide | 39.3 | 3.1 | 57.4 | 0.2 Robbery | 35.0 | 1.6 | 63.4 | 0.0 Theft | 32.6 | 1.2 | 65.7 | 0.5 All crimes | 31.7 | 1.3 | 66.2 | 0.8 Fraud | 30.8 | 1.3 | 66.2 | 2.7 Extortion | 27.3 | 1.5 | 70.4 | 0.8 Malicious mischief | 21.6 | 1.1 | 77.3 | 0.0 Threats | 21.0 | 1.7 | 76.9 | 0.4 Leze majesty | 19.7 | 1.6 | 76.2 | 2.5 Rape, etc. | 17.2 | 1.7 | 79.3 | 1.8 Criminal breach of trust | 6.0 | 0.2 | 86.4 | 7.4 =========================+=============+===============+==============+============

Belgium, 1899–1901.

==========+================================================================= | Persons Convicted. +-------------+--------------+--------------+------------+-------- Years. | Illiterate. | Able to Read | Able to Read | Having a | Total. | | or Write | and Write. | Higher | | | Imperfectly. | | Education. | ----------+-------------+--------------+--------------+------------+-------- 1899 | 588 | 1389 | 424 | 144 | 2545 1900 | 626 | 1444 | 521 | 176 | 2767 1901 | 619 | 1581 | 604 | 218 | 3022 1899-1901 | 1833 | 4414 | 1549 | 538 | 8334 ----------+-------------+--------------+--------------+------------+-------- % | 22.-- | 53.-- | 18.6 | 6.4 | 100.0 ==========+=============+==============+==============+============+========

According to the census of 1900, 18% of the total male population over 15 years old were completely illiterate. [583]

In 1907 1.32% of the men and 1.75% of the women out of the total population could not sign their names. [584]

France, 1882–1898. [585]

=======+============================================================================================================+================ | To the 100 Prisoners there were on Entering Prison | Number of | | Persons to the +----------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+--------------------+-------------------+ 100, who could Years. | Illiterate. | Able to Read. | Able to Read | Able to Read, | Having a Complete | Having an | not sign their | | | and Write. | Write and | Primary Education. | Education Higher | Names when | | | | Cipher. | | than Primary. | they Married. +-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+------------+------+------------+-------+-------- | Men. | Women. | Men. | Women. | Men. | Women. | Men. | Women. | Men. | Women. | Men. | Women. | Men. | Women. -------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+------------+------+------------+-------+-------- 1882 | 27.60 | 38.04 | 12.62 | 15.41 | 30.56 | 32.36 | 21.17 | 13.01 | 6.24 | 0.87 | 1.81 | 0.31 | 14.4 | 22.6 1883 | 30.08 | 36.11 | 11.91 | 16.78 | 30.48 | 30.60 | 19.00 | 15.28 | 6.60 | 0.87 | 1.93 | 0.36 | 14.2 | 22.4 1884 | 27.54 | 42.61 | 10.14 | 15.02 | 31.71 | 30.57 | 21.67 | 9.93 | 5.72 | 1.39 | 2.18 | 0.46 | 13.6 | 22.2 1885 | 28.44 | 40.25 | 10.19 | 16.15 | 30.02 | 33.53 | 23.55 | 9.17 | 5.33 | 0.69 | 2.47 | 0.21 | 12.7 | 20.2 1886 | 26.63 | 39.93 | 11.20 | 14.52 | 31.19 | 36.64 | 22.81 | 8.06 | 5.63 | 0.85 | 2.54 | --[#] | 11.6 | 18.7 1887 | 26.51 | 37.49 | 12.49 | 14.31 | 33.89 | 38.90 | 21.04 | 8.38 | 4.05 | 0.92 | 2.02 | -- | 10.7 | 17.0 1888 | 24.90 | 32.29 | 14.05 | 12.92 | 32.50 | 42.43 | 22.50 | 10.77 | 4.18 | 1.59 | 2.17 | -- | 10.6 | 16.2 1889 | 22.50 | 35.13 | 14.18 | 27.22 | 30.06 | 27.78 | 24.99 | 7.70 | 5.80 | 2.17 | 2.47 | -- | 9.8 | 15.2 1890 | 20.12 | 34.94 | 14.19 | 26.34 | 30.76 | 29.71 | 25.97 | 6.47 | 6.34 | 2.54 | 2.52 | -- | 8.8 | 13.6 1891 | 20.05 | 33.32 | 12.79 | 22.44 | 31.14 | 33.39 | 26.52 | 8.37 | 6.57 | 2.06 | 2.93 | 0.42 | 8.4 | 12.6 1892 | 20.38 | 33.80 | 13.24 | 24.89 | 28.29 | 30.60 | 28.30 | 7.34 | 6.33 | 2.64 | 3.46 | 0.73 | 8.1 | 12.1 1893 | 22.08 | 29.78 | 11.19 | 24.75 | 28.03 | 32.75 | 27.33 | 9.22 | 7.51 | 2.82 | 3.86 | 0.68 | -- | -- 1894 | 20.89 | 31.14 | 13.15 | 22.57 | 27.64 | 35.86 | 27.84 | 7.42 | 6.70 | 2.47 | 3.78 | 0.54 | 6.8 | 10.4 1895 | 20.50 | 30.43 | 13.80 | 18.82 | 26.66 | 38.39 | 30.15 | 9.80 | 6.41 | 2.32 | 2.48 | 0.24 | -- | -- 1896 | 20.91 | 28.58 | 11.97 | 17.09 | 31.00 | 38.70 | 23.78 | 12.04 | 10.40 | 3.22 | 1.94 | 0.37 | -- | -- 1897 | 21.09 | 28.57 | 10.59 | 15.67 | 27.77 | 40.48 | 30.40 | 12.10 | 8.15 | 2.48 | 2.00 | 0.69 | -- | -- 1898 | 23.70 | 31.65 | 9.11 | 8.70 | 31.05 | 46.67 | 27.77 | 8.69 | 6.81 | 3.65 | 1.56 | 0.69 | 4.5 | 7.2 =======+=======+========+=======+========+=======+========+=======+========+=======+============+======+============+=======+========

Scotland. [587]

========================+=====================================
| Prisoners.
|------------------+------------------
| Men. | Women.
|----------+-------+----------+-------
| Absolute | % | Absolute | %
| Numbers. | | Numbers. |
------------------------+----------+-------+----------+-------
Illiterate | 3,807 | 12.0 | 2,635 | 20.5
Able to read and write | 27,849 | 87.9 | 10,245 | 79.5
With a higher education | 46 | 0.1 | 1 | 0.0
+----------+-------+----------+-------
Total | 31,702 | 100.0 | 12,881 | 100.0
========================+==========+=======+==========+=======

France, 1896–1900. [588]

============================+================== | Percentage | of Accused Crimes. | Persons | Completely | Illiterate. ----------------------------+----------------- Arson | 26 Infanticide | 21 Poisoning | 20 Rape and indecent assault | upon children | 20 Serious assaults | 16 Murder | 16 Homicide | 15 Rape, etc. upon adults | 14 All crimes | 14 Aggravated theft | 12 Parricide | 10 Assaults upon parents, etc. | 10 Fraudulent bankruptcy | 10 Highway robbery | 8 Counterfeiting | 7 Forgery, etc. | 2 Breach of trust | 2 ============================+===================

Ireland, 1905.

============================+========================================================
| Prisoners.
+------------------+------------------+------------------
| Men. | Women. | Total.
+----------+-------+----------+-------+----------+-------
| Absolute | | Absolute | | Absolute |
| Numbers. | % | Numbers. | % | Numbers. | %
----------------------------+----------+-------+----------+-------+----------+-------
Illiterate | 4,321 | 22.5 | 3,264 | 32.5 | 7,585 | 25.9
Able to read, or read and | | | | | |
write imperfectly | 3,804 | 19.8 | 1,983 | 19.8 | 5,787 | 19.8
Able to read and write well | 11,003 | 57.2 | 4,757 | 47.4 | 15,760 | 53.9
With a higher education | 93 | 0.5 | 32 | 0.3 | 125 | 0.4
Unknown | 2 | 0.0 | -- | -- | 2 | 0.0
+----------+-------+----------+-------+----------+-------
Total | 19,223 | 100.0 | 10,036 | 100.0 | 29,259 | 100.0
============================+==========+=======+==========+=======+==========+=======

According to the census of 1901 the percentage of illiterates was 12.2 for the men, 13.1 for the women, and 12.7 for the total population 12 years old and over. [589]

Italy, 1881–1889. [590]

======+=====================================++===============================+================ | Correctional Tribunals. || Assizes. | To 100 Married +-------------------------------------++-------------------------------+ there were the | To 100 Arraigned there were || To 100 Convicted there were | Following who Years.| || |were Illiterate. +-----------+-----+--------+----------++-----------+--------+----------+------+--------- | |Able |Able to | Having || |Able to | Having | Men | |Illiterate.| to |Read and| a Higher ||Illiterate.|Read and| a Higher | and | Men.[591] | |Read.| Write. |Education.|| | Write. |Education.|Women.| ------+-----------+-----+--------+----------++-----------+--------+----------+------+--------- 1881 | 68.38 | 1.74| 27.38 | 2.50 || 63.40 | 34.87 | 1.73 | 59.07| 48.24 1882 | 67.93 | 1.61| 27.59 | 2.87 || 59.05 | 38.11 | 2.84 | 57.43| 46.68 1883 | 66.45 | 1.82| 28.74 | 2.99 || 57.64 | 40.00 | 2.36 | 56.67| 45.79 1884 | 64.61 | 1.71| 30.10 | 3.58 || 58.99 | 38.76 | 2.25 | 55.81| 44.97 1885 | 60.93 | 1.80| 32.90 | 4.37 || 61.24 | 36.75 | 2.01 | 54.92| 44.28 1886 | 61.34 | 2.20| 33.15 | 3.31 || 59.66 | 38.25 | 2.09 | 53.31| 43.19 1887 | 59.25 | -- | 37.07 | 3.68 || 59.34 | 37.04 | 3.62 | 52.83| 42.83 1888 | 61.48 | -- | 34.51 | 4.01 || 69.14 | 31.99 | 3.87 | 52.08| 42.27 1889 | 60.98 | -- | 35.31 | 3.71 || 63.75 | 33.14 | 3.11 | 50.83| 41.21 ======+===========+=====+========+==========++===========+========+==========+======+=========

The following figures shed light upon the intellectual condition of those accused of certain important classes of crime:

Italy, 1889 (Assizes). [592]

====================================+=========================================== |To the 100 Accused of Each Crime there were Crimes. +-------------+------------+---------------- |Illiterate or|Able to Read|Having a Higher | Nearly So. | and Write. | Education. ------------------------------------+-------------+------------+---------------- Infanticide | 92.9 | 7.1 | 0.0 Perjury | 86.8 | 11.3 | 1.9 Highway robbery | 75.5 | 24.2 | 0.3 Homicide | 72.5 | 26.5 | 1.0 Serious assaults | 68.8 | 30.6 | 0.6 Rebellion, etc. | 65.9 | 34.1 | 0.0 All crimes | 63.8 | 33.1 | 3.1 Rape | 63.6 | 32.7 | 3.7 Aggravated theft | 59.7 | 38.4 | 1.9 Counterfeiting etc. | 50.9 | 46.9 | 2.2 Offenses against public decency etc.| 47.6 | 38.1 | 14.3 Sexual crimes against nature | 43.8 | 45.8 | 10.4 Forgery | 10.4 | 36.2 | 26.4 ====================================+=============+============+================

New York State, 1881–1897. [593]

======+=========================================================== | To 100 Persons Entering Elmira Reformatory. Years.+-----------+-----------------+------------------+---------- |Illiterate.|Able only to Read|Primary Education.| Higher | | and Write. | |Education. ------+-----------+-----------------+------------------+---------- 1881 | 19.0 | 59.3 | 16.5 | 5.2 1882 | 18.5 | 58.7 | 18.0 | 4.8 1883 | 19.3 | 57.5 | 18.6 | 4.6 1884 | 19.3 | 56.1 | 20.2 | 4.4 1885 | 18.3 | 55.7 | 21.9 | 4.1 1886 | 19.9 | 53.2 | 23.0 | 3.9 1888 | 19.8 | 50.1 | 26.2 | 3.9 1889 | 19.5 | 49.9 | 26.9 | 3.7 1890 | 19.1 | 50.8 | 26.9 | 3.2 1891 | 18.7 | 48.6 | 29.4 | 3.3 1892 | 19.3 | 48.8 | 28.6 | 3.3 1893 | 19.0 | 45.6 | 31.8 | 3.6 1894 | 18.8 | 43.8 | 33.8 | 3.6 1896 | 18.3 | 41.3 | 37.0 | 3.4 1897 | 18.3 | 43.3 | 35.2 | 3.2 ======+===========+=================+==================+==========

Netherlands, 1865–1900. [594]

======+=========================== | Unable to Read or Write. +--------------+------------ Years.| Convicts at | | Time of |Militia-men. |Incarceration.| % | % | ------+--------------+------------ 1865 | 38 | 18.2 1870 | 30 | 16.3 1875 | 25 | 12.3 1880 | 25 | 11.5 1885 | 22 | 10.5 1890 | 24 | 7.2 1892 | 25 | 5.4 1893 | 22 | 5.4 1894 | 20 | 5.0 1895 | 20 | 5.4 1896 | 20 | 4.7 1897 | 19 | 4.0 1898 | 19 | 3.6 1899 | 18 | 2.8 1900 | 16 | 2.3 ======+==============+============

Netherlands, 1903–1905. [595]

==============================+========================================= | Out of 100 Convicted there were +------+------+------+------+------+------ | 1903. | 1904. | 1905. +------+------+------+------+------+------ | Men. |Women.| Men. |Women.| Men. |Women. ------------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------ Without elementary instruction| 7.57| 24.70| 6.61| 18.26| 6.36| 13.33 With elementary instruction | 91.43| 74.71| 92.20| 80.62| 92.50| 85.34 ,, secondary education | 0.74| 0.33| 0.84| 0.22| 0.80| 0.47 ,, higher education | 0.07| 0.00| 0.12| 0.00| 0.11| 0.00 Unknown | 0.15| 0.26| 0.23| 0.90| 0.23| 0.86 Total |100.00|100.00|100.00|100.00|100.00|100.00 ==============================+======+======+======+======+======+======

The following figures give an estimate with regard to some specified crimes: [596]

Netherlands, 1901.

=====================================+=============== |To 100 Convicts Crimes. | Unable | to Read or | Write. -------------------------------------+--------------- Marauding | 16.6 Vagrancy | 10.0 Simple theft | 9.9 Malicious mischief, etc. | 9.4 Aggravated theft | 9.1 All crimes | 8.6 Assaults | 7.9 Domiciliary trespass | 7.5 Receiving stolen goods | 7.4 Defamation and kindred offenses | 6.9 Offenses against public decency | 6.5 Embezzlement | 5.8 Rebellion | 5.7 Rape and other sexual crimes | 4.3 Obtaining money under false pretenses| 1.7 =====================================+===============

Prussia, 1894–1897. [597]

==========+==============================================+==========
|Out of 18,049 Recidivists in Prussian Prisons.|To the 100
| |Recruits.
+-----------+------------+----------+----------+----------
| Without |Very Little | Primary | Higher | Without
|Education. | Education. |Education.|Education.| Primary
| | | | |Education.
----------+-----------+------------+----------+----------+----------
Number | 1,491 | 8,589 | 7,782 | 187 |
Percentage| 8.3 | 47.6 | 43.1 | 1.0 | 0.23
==========+===========+============+==========+==========+==========

Switzerland, 1892–1896. [598]

==============================+===========+=========== | Men. | Women. Education +-------+---+-------+--- |Number.| % |Number.| % ------------------------------+-------+---+-------+--- Illiterate | 352 | 3| 82 | 5 Primary education | 8,665 | 87| 1,580 | 92 Secondary and higher education| 856 | 9| 45 | 2 Unknown | 109 | 1| 15 | 1 ------------------------------+-------+---+-------+--- Total | 9,982 |100| 1,722 |100 ==============================+=======+===+=======+===

The figures for those who have had a primary education are divided up as follows: [599]

==================+===========+=========== | Men. | Women. State of Education+-------+---+-------+--- |Number.| % |Number.| % ------------------+-------+---+-------+--- Good | 4,394 | 51| 764 | 48 Mediocre | 4,125 | 47| 750 | 48 Reading only | 146 | 2| 66 | 4 ------------------+-------+---+-------+--- Total | 8,665 |100| 1,580 |100 ==================+=======+===+=======+===

The redactor of the official statistics of Switzerland observes that there are no figures to determine the number of illiterates among the non-criminal population, but the statistics of recruits for the years 1891 to 1895 show that about 19% of the recruits had a higher education.

I am of the opinion that the statistics which I have quoted, [600] including, as they do, millions of criminals, are very significant: the illiterates supply, in general, a great proportion of the criminals, a proportion much greater than that of the illiterates in the general population. (In countries with a relatively small number of illiterates, like England, the Netherlands, and Prussia, for example, the difference is naturally much greater than in a country like Italy where the percentage of illiteracy is great. In Prussia for instance, there are thirty-six times as many illiterates among the recidivists as among the recruits.)

However, most of the statistics, aside from the figures for illiteracy, give others which show how many persons really educated are to be found among the criminals. And then we note that a very great majority of criminals are ignorant and untrained. In England, for example, there is among male criminals only 1 to 1,000 who knows more than how to read and write well, and among the women not even 1 to 1,000; in Austria there are a little more than 4 to 1,000; and in France a little more than 20 to 1,000 among the men, and between 4 and 5 among the women. The relation between ignorance and criminality cannot, then, be contradicted. But it is impossible to fix exactly the extent of the influence of the one upon the other, or it is difficult to separate ignorance from other factors with which it is ordinarily found, as poverty, for instance.

The ancient idea that crime is only a consequence of ignorance need not be treated of, for morality and intellect are two distinct parts of the psychic life, even though there exists a certain relation between them.

The first reason why ignorance and the lack of general culture must be ranked among the general factors of crime is this: the person who, in our present society, where the great majority of parents care very little for the education of their children, does not go to school, is deprived of the moral ideas (honesty, etc.) which are taught there, and ordinarily passes his time in idleness and vagabondage.

The second reason which makes ignorance a factor of crime, is that generally an ignorant man is, more than others, a man moved by the impulse of the moment, who allows himself to be governed by his passions, and is induced to commit acts which he would not have committed if his intellectual equipment had been different.

In the third place, it is for the following reasons that ignorance and the lack of training fall within the etiology of crime. The mind of the man whose psychic qualities, whether in the domain of the arts, or of the sciences, have been developed, has become less susceptible to evil ideas. His intellectual condition constitutes thus a bridle which can restrain evil thoughts from realizing themselves; for real art and true science strengthen the social instincts. The figures cited above furnish only a slight contribution to this question. There is no doubt that if we had figures showing how many criminals there are any part of whose life is taken up by art or science, we should find the number very small. It could not be objected that the cause of this is in the innate qualities of the criminals; certainly one man is born with greater capacity than another, but everyone is born with some capacities which, if developed, may become a source of happiness; and a happy man, says the proverb, is not wicked.

Finally ignorance is in still another way a factor in crime. Very often the author of a crime conceives and executes it in so clumsy a fashion and with so little chance of success, that we may be certain that he would not have committed it if he had not been an ignorant person, without knowledge of the forces with which he had to do.

When the Italian school is reproached with making their researches upon prisoners only, and not upon criminals and their free equals, the implication is that it is only the stupid and ignorant criminals that are in prison, while the others, the shrewd and tricky, remain at liberty. There is assuredly much truth in this assertion.

The lower proletariat. In the preceding pages I have already spoken of the influence exercised by bad material surroundings upon a man’s character; I have pointed out the moral consequences of bad housing conditions, and also that he becomes embittered and malicious through lack of the necessaries of life. All this applies to the proletariat in general, but much more strongly still to those who do not succeed, for any reason, in selling their labor, that is the lower proletariat.

If the dwellings of the working-class are bad, those of the lower proletariat are more pitiable still. There are, through sickness or lack of work, periods of dire poverty in the life of almost every worker—for the lower proletariat these periods are without intermission. Its poverty is chronic. And when the poverty makes itself felt for a long time together, the intellectual faculties become blunted to such a point that there remains of the man only the brute, struggling for existence.

Although the material and intellectual poverty of the lower proletariat is much greater than that of the proletariat, the difference between them is only quantitative. In one connection, however, there is also a qualitative difference, and a very important one, namely that the working-man is a useful being without whom society could not exist. However oppressed he may be, he is a man who has a feeling of self-respect. It is different with the member of the lower proletariat. He is not useful, but a detriment. He produces nothing, and tries to live upon what others make; he is merely tolerated. He who has lived long in poverty loses all feeling of self-respect, and lends himself to anything whatever that will suffice to prolong his existence.

In short, poverty (taken in the sense of absolute want), kills the social sentiments in man, destroys in fact all relations between men. He who is abandoned by all can no longer have any feeling for those who have left him to his fate.

b. The proportion in which the different classes are guilty of crime. After having treated of the direct consequences of the present economic system upon the different classes, I shall take up this question, which is an important one for the problem of criminality, before touching upon the indirect consequences.

As I have already observed in Part I, the opinions with regard to this proportion are very divergent. There are authors (Garofalo, for instance) who are of the opinion that the bourgeoisie commits as many crimes, in proportion to its numbers, as the proletariat. On the other hand there are those who maintain that the prisons hold only the poor. That Garofalo’s conclusion does not hold good for Italy has been proved by the statistics of Fornasari di Verce and those of Dr. Marro, quoted in Part I of this book. The figures given by Fornasari di Verce have to do with the persons sentenced by the assizes, the correctional tribunals, and the justices of the peace. They show that 56% of the convicts were indigent, that 31% had only the strict necessities of life, 10% were moderately well off, while 2% were well-to-do or rich; while among the non-criminal population about 40% were rich or more or less well-to-do, and the other 60% indigent or having only the necessaries of life. But the figures for non-possessors become much greater if we take only the number of those sentenced by the court of assizes,—the real criminals.

Italy, 1887–1889 (Assizes). [601]

========================+=========+=========+======== Condition. | 1887. | 1888. | 1889. ------------------------+---------+---------+-------- | % | % | % Indigent | 79.57 | 79.62 | 77.58 Having the necessaries | 9.39 | 10.21 | 13.31 Passably well off | 7.35 | 6.62 | 6.12 Well-to-do and rich | 3.69 | 3.55 | 2.98 +---------+---------+-------- | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 ========================+=========+=========+========

The following figures give the economic condition of persons convicted for different crimes:

Italy, 1889 (Assizes). [602]

==============================+==================================================== |To the 100 Convicted of the Crimes Given there were: Crimes. +------------+------------+------------+------------- | Indigent. | Having the | Passably | Well-to-do | |necessaries.| well off. | or rich. ------------------------------+------------+------------+------------+------------- Infanticide | 88.1 | 7.1 | 4.8 | 0.0 Theft of every kind | 81.5 | 13.4 | 3.3 | 1.7 Counterfeiting, etc. | 80.3 | 10.4 | 7.7 | 1.6 Rebellion, cruelty, etc. | 79.5 | 11.4 | 0.0 | 9.1 Homicide of every degree | 79.0 | 10.8 | 6.8 | 3.4 Serious assaults | 78.7 | 12.4 | 7.4 | 1.5 Highway robbery | 77.8 | 17.5 | 4.0 | 0.7 Rape and other sexual offenses| 77.3 | 14.8 | 5.6 | 2.3 Extortion | 74.7 | 13.1 | 7.8 | 4.4 Forgery | 47.5 | 24.7 | 11.1 | 16.7 ==============================+============+============+============+=============

Italy not being a rich country, it is evident that the headings “passably well-off” and “well-to-do or rich” have been given a liberal interpretation, otherwise they would never include almost 40% of the population. But even taking account of this fact, these figures show that the indigent, that is, the lower proletariat, and the proletariat without work, form a much higher proportion of the criminal class than of the population as a whole.

Other figures confirming these conclusions for Italy have been produced by Dr. Colajanni (see Part I of this work). Further than these, statistics concerning the financial condition of convicts are not numerous so far as I know. Here are those that are known to me:

Austria, 1881–1899. [603]

=========+=============================================== | Condition (%). Years. +-------------+--------------------+----------- |Without Money.|With a Little Money.|Well-to-do. ---------+--------------+--------------------+----------- 1881-1885| 89.1 | 10.4 | 0.3 1886-1890| 90.0 | 9.4 | 0.4 1891-1895| 89.6 | 9.9 | 0.4 1896 | 86.7 | 13.0 | 0.3 1897 | 86.0 | 13.5 | 0.5 1898 | 85.9 | 13.7 | 0.4 1899 | 86.7 | 13.0 | 0.3 =========+==============+====================+===========

The following figures give us the proportions of the different crimes:

Austria, 1899. [604]

=====================+=================================================== | There were to the 100 Convicts Guilty of the | Crimes Mentioned: Crimes. +----------+----------+--------+------+------+------ |Without Fortune.[605]|Little Fortune.| Well-to-do. +----------+----------+--------+------+------+------ | Men. | Women. | Men. |Women.| Men. |Women. ---------------------+----------+----------+--------+------+------+------ Robbery | 96.6 | 100.0 | 3.4 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 Theft | 92.0 | 94.7 | 7.8 | 5.3 | 0.2 | 0.0 Rape, etc. | 91.2 | 100.0 | 8.6 | 0.0 | 0.2 | 0.0 Leze majesty, etc. | 90.1 | 93.1 | 9.6 | 6.9 | 0.3 | 0.0 Threats | 90.0 | 81.5 | 9.9 | 18.5 | 0.1 | 0.0 Rebellion, etc. | 87.3 | 74.9 | 12.4 | 24.8 | 0.3 | 0.3 Crimes in general | 86.4 | 88.4 | 13.2 | 11.4 | 0.4 | 0.2 Extortion | 86.2 | 80.0 | 13.5 | 20.0 | 0.3 | 0.0 Serious assaults | 79.0 | 70.2 | 30.6 | 29.8 | 0.4 | 0.0 Fraud | 74.8 | 75.1 | 23.6 | 24.3 | 1.6 | 0.6 Murder, homicide | 73.0 | 87.2 | 26.7 | 12.8 | 0.3 | 0.0 Infanticide, abortion| 0.0 | 90.8 | 0.0 | 9.2 | 0.0 | 0.0 =====================+==========+=======-==+========+======+======+======

I have not been able to procure the figures showing the financial condition of the Austrian population. But it may be considered as certain that there are more well-to-do persons in Austria than about 3% of the population, and also that there are more persons with a little money than the percentage of criminals shown under that heading. Therefore, as in Italy, the poor there are more guilty of crime than the well-to-do (and much more so of certain crimes). It is interesting to note that well-to-do women are not guilty at all of most crimes. [606]

Prussia, 1894–1897. [607]

=============================================================================================== Among Recidivists were Found -----------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------- With incomes of | -----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ Indigent. Less than 900 marks. | 900 to 2,000 marks. | 2,000 to 5,000 marks. | ----------+------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+----------- Men. | Women. | Men. | Women. | Men. | Women. | Men. | Women. -------+--+------------+-------+---+-------+---+-------+---+-------+---+-------+---+-------+--- Number.| %|Number.| % |Number.| % |Number.| % |Number.| % |Number.| % |Number.| % |Number.| % -------+--+-------+----+-------+---+-------+---+-------+---+-------+---+-------+---+-------+--- 13,931 |90| 2,424 |96.5| 1,424 |9.2| 66 |2.6| 46 |0.3| 2 |0.1| 74 |0.5| 18 |0.8 =======+==+=======+====+=======+===+=======+===+=======+===+=======+===+=======+===+=======+===

There were no rich persons then among the recidivists; no one with an income of more than 5,000 marks. On the other hand, those of very limited income are exceedingly numerous, especially among the women. It is a pity that the first group was not further subdivided, for “less than 900 marks” leaves the group still very large.

The following figures give a picture of the financial situation of the Swiss criminals.

Switzerland, 1892–1896. [608]

========================================= There were Prisoners: ---------------------------+-------+----- |Number.| % ---------------------------+-------+----- With fortune | 589 | 5.0 With expectations | 1,140 | 9.7 With neither | 9,569 | 81.8 Condition unknown | 406 | 3.5 +-------+----- |11,704 |100 +=======+===== Having a savings-bank book | 202 | 1.7 Without ,, ,, | 9,608 | 82.1 Unknown | 1,894 | 16.1 +-------+----- |11,704 |100 ===========================+=======+=====

All the statistics cited [609] show then that the poor supply a very great proportion of the convicts, in every case a greater proportion than they bear to the population in general, and the well-to-do form only a small part.

There are still other ways of inquiring what part the different classes take in criminality. One consists in an examination of the statistics of the intellectual development of the convicts, for the illiterate and those who have received only a primary education belong, almost without exception, to the classes without fortune. These statistics have already been given, and they confirm entirely the conclusions to be drawn from the figures for the financial condition of the convicts.

The third way of solving the problem is by a study of the statistics of the occupations of those convicted. Here, however, great difficulties present themselves. In the first place not all the criminal statistics make the distinction between the employer and the workman in such and such an occupation. And it is just this information that we need. In the second place we need beside statistics for the occupation of the criminals, others showing the occupations of the population in general, and the two classified in the same way. Even in this case the picture given by these statistics will not be exact, for there are among the employers many persons who are not really independent (workers at home, etc.), or persons who, while being employers, are, as far as their plane of living is concerned, only the equal of the proletarian, and not of the bourgeois.

Upon this question we have the following figures:

Germany, 1894–1896. [610]

======================+=============================================================================================================
Groups | To 10,000 Persons Over 12 Years of Age in Each Group of Occupations there were:
of +-----+---------+---------+--------+--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----
Occupations. | A. | B. | C. | D. | E. | F. | G. | H. | I. | J. | K. | L. | M. | N. | O. | P.
----------------------+-----+---------+---------+--------+--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----
I. Agriculture: | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
a. Independent | 75.1| 7.1 | 0.2 | 1.5 | 1.7 | 0.21| 0.10| 19.1| 1.5| 2.9| 0.22| 14.1| 0.02| 2.3| 0.08| 0.03
b. Workers |142.1| 28.9 | 3.1 | 4.8 | 6.0 | 1.67| 0.18| 9.8| 3.1| 6.8| 0.31| 36.4| 0.05| 6.5| 0.36| 0.37
II. Manufacturing: | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
a. Independent |129.9| 7.1 | 0.5 | 5.1 | 5.4 | 1.20| 0.17| 27.8| 3.3| 5.3| 0.32| 17.5| 0.02| 3.2| 0.09| 0.05
b. Workers |234.5| 32.7 | 5.8 | 10.2 | 10.2 | 2.98| 0.20| 19.4| 13.1| 13.3| 0.32| 57.5| 0.06| 12.0| 0.19| 0.14
III. Commerce and | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
transportation:| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
a. Independent |275.5| 10.4 | 0.7 | 8.8 | 16.4 | 1.35| 0.11| 49.4| 5.9| 7.4| 0.59| 21.8| 0.04| 3.4| 0.10| 0.01
b. Workers |222.6| 35.2 | 6.7 | 22.0 | 18.3 | 2.22| 0.09| 20.8| 10.3| 8.8| 0.32| 26.3| 0.05| 6.1| 0.06| 0.05
IV. Domestics | 52.8|27.1[611]|2.02[611]|3.1[611]|4.0[611]| 0.06| 0.15| 2.4| 0.4| 0.8| 0.20| 1.4| 0.01| 0.6| 0.12| 0.31
V. Public service | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
and lib. profess.| 79.3| 5.9 | 1.2 | 4.8 | 5.6 | 1.69| 0.06| 20.0| 2.0| 2.2| 0.14| 6.6| 0.01| 1.6| 0.02| 0.00
VI. Population | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
over 12 |120.1| 19.2 | 2.5 | 5.2 | 5.4 | 1.17| 0.13| 14.7| 4.5| 5.5| 0.22| 22.3| 0.03| 4.6| 0.13| 0.09
======================+=====+=========+=========+========+========+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====

KEY TO COLUMN HEADINGS:

A. Crimes in General. I. Violence and Threats against Public Functionaries. B. Theft. J. Domiciliary Trespass. C. Aggravated Theft. K. Perjury. D. Embezzlement. L. Serious Assaults. E. Fraud. M. Homicides. F. Rape, etc. N. Malicious Mischief. G. Incest. O. Arson. H. Insult. P. Infanticide.

Germany, 1896. [612]

======================+======================================================================================================= Groups | To 10,000 Persons Over 12 Years of Age and having Occupation there were to Each Group: of +--------+-------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+------+-----+-----+-------+-----+-----+-----+----- Occupations. | A. | B. | C. | D. | E. | F. | G. | H. | I. | J. | K. | L. | M. | N. | O. | P. ----------------------+--------+-------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+------+-----+-----+-------+-----+-----+-----+----- Agriculture | 1,208.7| 238.1| 26.2| 35.8| 1.2 | 1.1 | 54.1| 9.0| 12.1 |127.2| 84.1| 299.8| 24.6| 55.0| 2.8 |0.42 Manufacturing | 2,144.3| 304.3| 58.4| 86.6| 2.3 | 2.6 | 97.9| 19.0| 26.3 |225.3|141.8| 496.1|105.3|120.0| 3.2 |0.51 Commerce and | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | transportation | 2,566.2| 276.9| 40.1|159.3| 1.2 | 6.3 |154.5| 50.5| 19.5 |353.4|126.3| 256.8| 84.8| 80.1| 4.0 |0.64 Workmen and | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | day-laborers[613] |10,402.6|2,622.7|439.3|514.7|20.8 |15.3 |459.7| 88.8|107.8 |829.8|669.5|1,679.5|664.2|439.5| 9.7 |1.60 Domestics | 530.3| 305.7| 25.3| 29.4| 0.23| 0.45| 46.8| 9.2| 0.83| 24.8| 7.4| 13.4| 4.3| 10.0| 2.2 |0.08 Public service and | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | liberal professions | 798.6| 70.7| 13.1| 48.9| 0.63| 1.6 | 65.3| 18.7| 17.1|193.0| 33.2| 70.8| 19.7| 21.4| 2.1 |0.13 Professors, | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | physicians, employees| 418.6| 19.2| 1.7| 9.9| 0.00| 0.71| 19.8| 6.8| 12.4|120.0| 14.3| 25.8| 8.6| 7.8| 0.99|0.14 Persons of income, | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | students, persons | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | supported | 224.5| 17.3| 0.71| 4.3| 0.00| 0.65| 9.2| 1.8| 4.6 | 65.7| 14.8| 30.6| 8.3| 12.7| 0.59|0.06 ======================+========+=======+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+======+=====+=====+=======+=====+=====+=====+====

KEY TO COLUMN HEADINGS:

A. Crimes in General. I. Rape upon Children, etc. B. Theft. J. Insult. C. Aggravated Theft. K. Assaults. D. Embezzlement. L. Serious Assaults. E. Robbery. M. Violence and Threats against Public Functionaries. F. Extortion. N. Domiciliary Trespass. G. Fraud. O. Perjury. H. Forgery. P. Homicide.

These statistics, probably the best upon the subject, tell the whole story to those who know how to read the figures. They constitute a proof of the enormous influence of the social factors in the etiology of crime. It is impossible to maintain that the influence works the other way, that the moral disposition influences the choice of a profession. Dr. Prinzing rightly says in the article cited: “It is quite impossible that those engaged in the three great groups of occupations, agriculture, manufacturing, and commerce, are persons of different kinds of moral traits. On the contrary, the supposition that the moral endowment of each group is nearly the same is completely justified by the movements that are continually going on under our own eyes, through which the countryman becomes a city-dweller, and the man who has grown up in the practice of agriculture, a workman or assistant in manufacturing and commerce.” [614]

England and Wales, 1894–1900. [615]

=============+====+=========================================+======+==============
| | Among the Prisoners Convicted there were: | Average.
Occupations. | +------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+------
| | 1894.| 1895.| 1896.| 1897.| 1898.| 1899.| 1900.|Number.| %
-------------+----+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+------
Domestics |{ M.| 948| 729| 832| 651| 662| 667| 604| 729| 0.7
|{ W.| 1,876| 1,530| 1,417| 1,369| 1,424| 1,986| 2,042| 1,663| 3.9
| | | | | | | | | |
Workmen, |{ M.|75,539|69,944|72,725|73,264|77,321|75,220|69,168| 73,311| 68.0
housekeepers,|{ W.|11,083|10,596|10,574|12,394|14,376|14,960|14,179| 12,594| 29.2
seamstresses |{ | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | |
Factory |{ M.| 3,763| 2,420| 3,212| 2,855| 3,019| 2,590| 2,331| 2,941| 2.7
workers|{ W.| 3,755| 3,127| 2,926| 2,762| 3,086| 3,367| 3,498| 3,217| 7.5
| | | | | | | | | |
Mechanicians |{ M.|20,702|18,747|19,216|19,179|20,914|20,351|19,726| 19,870| 18.4
and skilled|{ W.| 677| 646| 1,220| 1,342| 1,527| 1,348| 1,480| 1,177| 2.7
workmen|{ | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | |
Foremen, |{ M.| 80| 75| 65| 64| 60| 75| 61| 68| 0.1
inspectors|{ W.| 2| 3| 4| 5| 2| 1| 2| 2| 0.0
| | | | | | | | | |
Store and |{ M.| 2,869| 2,652| 2,805| 2,506| 2,877| 2,677| 2,550| 2,705| 2.5
office clerks|{ W.| 125| 83| 77| 84| 102| 161| 237| 124| 0.3
| | | | | | | | | |
Merchants |{ M.| 4,054| 4,045| 4,410| 3,984| 4,352| 4,052| 3,461| 4,056| 3.7
|{ W.| 4,127| 4,004| 4,249| 4,087| 4,820| 4,513| 4,179| 4,282| 9.9
| | | | | | | | | |
Liberal |{ M.| 239| 231| 208| 223| 194| 209| 204| 215| 0.2
professions|{ W.| 24| 23| 34| 23| 33| 24| 28| 27| 0.1
| | | | | | | | | |
Soldiers, |{ | 3,620| 3,338| 3,433| 3,227| 3,202| 3,082| 3,327| 3,318| 3.1
sailors and |{ | | | | | | | | |
marines|{ | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | |
Prostitutes | | 5,132| 5,105| 7,411| 6,746| 6,413| 6,092| 6,715| 6,230| 14.5
| | | | | | | | | |
Without |{ M.| 1,369| 746| 644| 550| 518| 391| 320| 648| 0.6
occupation|{ W.|15,067|14,910|13,494|13,606|13,361|12,888|12,745| 13,725| 31.9
-------------+----+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+------
| | Total { Men |107,861|100.00
| | { Women| 43,041|100.00
=============+====+================================================+=======+======

According to the first table the workmen are implicated, in a much greater degree than the independents, in all the crimes except that of insult (which is explained by the fact that this crime is one of those which are prosecuted only after complaint laid, and that working-men decide to lay complaint much less quickly than the bourgeois). Certain crimes, indeed, are more often committed by the independent merchants than by the working-men of the same class, but here it is necessary to remember that many of the small merchants are on the same plane of living as the working-men. The liberal professions, on the contrary, show very low figures, a fact which is to be plainly noticed in the second table, where the attention is caught by the very low figures of the group of students and person with incomes. The participation in all crimes by unskilled workmen is very great, even if we allow for the figures’ being exaggerated.

I have not been able to procure statistics concerning the occupations of the whole population of England. Nevertheless, it seems to me to be worth while to mention the figures concerning the occupations of the criminals, for, considered by themselves, they show clearly that the classes without means play a very large part in crime. At least 95% of the men are in this condition, as well as at least 5% of the women (a part of the merchants must be added in both cases) while of the 31.9% without occupation it is certain that a large number are also poor.

France, 1898–1900. [616]

=======================================+============================ | Number of Persons Accused | to 100,000 of Each Group. Groups of Occupations. +---------+---------+-------- | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. ---------------------------------------+---------+---------+-------- Agriculture | 8 | 9 | 8 Manufacturing | 20 | 22 | 24 Commerce | 29 | 33 | 27 Domestic service | 16 | 16 | 13 Liberal professions and public service | 15 | 15 | 15 =======================================+=========+=========+========

Since this table makes no distinction between independents and dependents, it does not advance the matter much, and the only important observation that can be drawn from it is that agriculture and the liberal professions give the lowest figures. A clearer idea is given by the following table:

France, 1890–1895. [617]

==============================+======================================================================================= | To the 100 Prisoners in Penitentiaries and Houses of Correction. +----------------+--------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+------------- Occupations. | 1890. | 1891. | 1892. | 1893. | 1894. | 1895. +------+---------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------ | Men. | Women. | Men. |Women. | Men. |Women.| Men. |Women.| Men. |Women.| Men. |Women. ------------------------------+------+---------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------ Property owners, persons of | | | | | | | | | | | | income | 0.58| 1.10 | 0.62| 2.21 | 0.62| 0.99| 0.66| 1.45| 0.66| 1.78| 0.65| 2.07 Liberal professions | 2.36| 1.03 | 2.92| 1.66 | 2.64| 1.42| 2.41| 1.90| 2.64| 1.62| 2.50| 1.33 Employees | 5.00| 0.55 | 5.40| 0.34 | 5.07| 0.36| 4.81| 0.30| 5.26| 0.62| 5.49| 1.33 Merchants, manufacturers | 3.77| 4.47 | 3.25| 4.80 | 3.49| 4.35| 3.39| 3.81| 3.64| 4.71| 3.19| 5.72 Alimentary professions | 3.12| 1.24 | 3.41| 0.92 | 3.53| 0.85| 3.60| 1.52| 4.31| 1.78| 4.27| 1.82 Workmen in shops and factories| 8.39| 13.14 | 8.93| 12.03 | 8.73| 12.17| 7.86| 15.16| 9.46| 16.08| 9.39| 15.34 Building and furnishing trades| 16.76| 0.21[#]| 16.09|0.28[#]| 17.11| 0.49| 17.68| 0.23| 17.51| 1.23| 17.92| 0.66 Agricultural and day laborers | 48.31| 62.45 | 48.85| 61.02 | 47.94| 63.17| 49.52| 56.44| 45.71| 56.03| 44.93| 54.15 Nomadic occupations | 3.99| 4.68 | 3.89| 4.63 | 4.19| 4.77| 3.79| 4.72| 3.77| 4.79| 3.82| 4.48 Soldiers and sailors | 2.41| -- | 2.23| -- | 2.29| -- | 1.94| -- | 1.75| -- | 1.60| -- Vagabonds and mendicants | 1.48| 4.74[#]| 0.82|4.65[#]] 0.94| 4.77| 1.03| 5.71| 1.27| 4.95| 1.52| 5.14 Individuals in the care of | | | | | | | | | | | | their families | 3.83| 6.39 | -- | 7.46 | 3.45| 5.66| 3.31| 8.76| 4.02| 6.41| 4.72| 7.96 ------------------------------+------+---------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------ |100.00|100.00 |100.00|100.00 |100.00|100.00|100.00|100.00|100.00|100.00|100.00|100.00 ==============================+======+=========+======+=======+======+======+======+======+======+======|======|======

Although there are no statistics of the occupations of the corresponding non-criminal population, the figures are well worth noting. We discover that the unskilled laborers form a large proportion of the prisoners, in every case a larger proportion than they bear to the population in general; and that the merchants and manufacturers form a much smaller part of the prisoners than they do of the population as a whole, for they certainly constitute more than 5.45%, especially in France, a country where small industries still flourish.

Italy, 1891–1895. [620]

=======================================================+============================ | Convicts. Groups of Occupations. +---------------------------- |Annual Average to 100,000 of |Each Group of Occupations. -------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------- Agriculture | 1,009.03 Manufacturing, arts and trades | 855.78 Commerce, transport, navigation and fishing | 1,677.46 Domestic service | 410.96 Employees, liberal professions, capitalists, pensioners| 288.58 =======================================================+============================

These figures show that in Italy also the capitalists and liberal professions furnish a figure for criminality below that of the other groups. The same is true of the following table:

Italy, 1891–1895. [621]

==============================+================================================ | Convicts. |Annual Average to the 100,000 of the Population. Groups of Professions. +-----------------------+------------------------ | Proprietors or | Dependents. | Managers. | ------------------------------+-----------------------+------------------------ Agriculture | 307.43 | 1,368.99 Manufacturing, arts and trades| 678.56 | 861.57 Commerce | 1,278.11 | 1,585.03 ==============================+=======================+========================

The following table is more detailed for certain occupations:

Italy, 1891–1895. [622]

==================================================+============================ | Convicts. +---------------------------- |Annual Average to 100,000 of | Population. Occupations. +--------------+------------- |Proprietors or| Dependents. | Managers. | +--------------+------------- | Men. --------------------------------------------------+--------------+------------- Building trade | 1,654.52 | 1,895.18 {textile, mechanical, } | | Manufacturing {chemical, alimentary,} | 837.80 | 1,443.22 {arts and trades } | | Shoemaking | 1,080.95 | 2,254.63 Meat business | 3,925.95 | 3,900.61 Cafés, etc. | 1,542.12 | 914.68 Sale of food and fuel | 1,035.58 | 2,411.66 Other kinds of commerce | 1,649.80 | 1,383.12 Navigation, fishing | 259.11 | 1.769.94 --------------------------------------------------+--------------+------------- | Women. --------------------------------------------------+--------------+------------- Manufacturing {mines, building, tobacco, textile,}| 133.70 | 193.38 {alimentary, arts and trades }| | Seamstresses, dressmakers, milliners | 285.00 | 138.15 Sale of food and fuel | 460.46 | 511.49 Other kinds of commerce | 2,403.88 | 3,113.34 ==================================================+==============+=============

We have now arrived at the end of our observations upon occupations among criminals. Other statistics are available, but either it is impossible to compare them with statistics of the non-criminal population, or they are without significance for some other reason. At any rate it seems to me that those I have given are enough to show that proportionately the non-possessors are more guilty of crime than the possessors. [623]

The thesis set forth above is confirmed, then, in three different ways. The question still remains to be answered, to what must we attribute the greater criminality among the non-possessors?