Chapter VII: Conclusions (3)

[290] The figures given by J. S. in “Aus den Ergebnissen der sächsischen Armenstatistik” (“Neue Zeit” 1894–95, II), confirm those in the table I have given, if we do not lose sight of the fact that J. S. does not give the “co-assisted” persons separately. The figures of Charles Booth in his “Pauperism” show that alcoholism forms a more important factor in the two districts that he has studied (12.6% and 21.9%); for laziness the figures are 1.9% and 10.6%. Statistics of the Netherlands confirm in general those of the German Empire:

=========================+========+========++===========================+========+======== Assisted Temporarily. | 1898 | 1899 || Assisted Continuously. | 1898 | 1899 -------------------------+--------+--------++---------------------------+--------+-------- Causes of Indigence. | % | % || Causes of Indigence. | % | % -------------------------+--------+--------++---------------------------+--------+-------- Illness, etc. | 42.3 | 45.1 || Illness or bodily defects | 18.6 | 18.9 Lack or shortage of work | 30.7 | 28.9 || Old age | 45.4 | 47 Alcoholism | 2.6 | 2.6 || Death of breadwinner | 20.0 | 19.2 Other causes | 24.4 | 23.4 || Alcoholism | 1.8 | 1.5 |--------+--------|| Other causes | 14.2 | 13.4 | 100.0 | 100.0 || |--------+-------- | | || | 100.0 | 100.0 =========================+========+========++===========================+========+========

(Verslagen over de verrichtingen aangaande het armbestuur over 1898 en 1899. Bijlage E. Handelingen 2e Kamer der Staten-Generaal 1899–1900, 1900–1901.)

[291] P. 490. “Biologie und Kriminalstatistik.” (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strafrechtswissenschaft”, VII.)

[292] See K. Kautsky’s “Das Erfurter Programm”, p. 64.

[293] Upon the period without class see, among others, L. H. Morgan, “Ancient Society”, and upon the origin of classes H. Cunow, “Arbeitstheilung und Frauenrecht” (“Neue Zeit”, 1900–01, I, p. 178 ff.).

[294] It is well known that sociological studies upon the subject of marriage date from 1861, when Bachofen’s “Das Mutterrecht” came out. Since then a very extensive literature on the subject has appeared, without by any means exhausting the subject. (See Dr. Steinmetz, “Die neueren Forschungen zur Geschichte der menschlichen Familie”, “Zeitschr. für Sozialwissenschaft,” 1899.)

[Note to the American Edition: The literature upon the origin and evolution of marriage and the family has recently been considerably increased. The following books seem to us to be the most important: H. Schurtz, “Altersklassen und Männerbünde”; M. Weber, “Ehefrau und Mutter in der Rechtsentwicklung”; A. Vierkandt, “Das Problem der Familien- und Stammesorganisation der Naturvölker”; E. Westermarck, “Ursprung und Entwicklung der Moralbegriffe”, II; F. Müller-Lyer, “Formen der Ehe”, “Die Familie”, and “Phasen der Liebe”; H. Cunow, “Zur Urgeschichte der Ehe und Familie.”]

[295] Westermarck (in his “History of Human Marriage”, pp. 51–133) has led the opposition to the promiscuity theory. It is also combated by Starcke in his “Die primitive Familie” and by Grosse in his “Die Formen der Familie und die Formen der Wirthschaft” (pp. 41–45). For a résumé of the arguments for and against see Dr. C. J. Wynaendts Francken, “De Evolutie van het huwelijk” (pp. 57–65).

[296] See Ch. Letourneau, “L’évolution du mariage” (pp. 46–48).

[297] See Fr. Engels, “Der Ursprung der Familie, des Privateigenthums, und des Staats” (pp. 17–18) [Translated as “The Origin of the family, etc.” Page references are to the original.]; and C. de Kelles-Krauz, “Formes primitives de la famille” (pp. 303–304 of the “Revue Internationale de Sociologie”, VIII).

[298] The following discussion is based upon material drawn from Grosse (op. cit.), and from H. Cunow (“Die ökonomischen Grundlagen der Mutterherrschaft” (“Neue Zeit”, 1897–98).

[299] Op. cit., pp. 60–61.

[300] L. H. Morgan, “Ancient Society”, p. 424; Fr. Engels, op. cit., p. 21; and others.

[301] Westermarck believes that there is an innate aversion to sexual relationships between persons who have lived together from childhood; and that the sexual aversion that exists between near blood-relations is in consequence of the fact that these persons have always lived together. This instinct would thus have been acquired by natural selection, since those who did not have it would run more danger than the others of disappearing in consequence of the injurious effects of such unions. (Op. cit., chaps. xiv and xv.) Cunow on the other hand makes the point that there cannot be an innate aversion between persons who have been raised together, for marriages between such persons do take place, and are not thought at all immoral or contrary to nature. (“Die Verwandtschaftsorganisationen der Australneger,” pp. 184 ff.)

[302] See Steinmetz, op. cit., p. 817.

[303] Upon the origin of agriculture see H. Cunow, “Arbeitstheilung und Frauenrecht” (“Neue Zeit”, 1900–1901; I, pp. 102 ff.).

[304] See C. N. Starcke, “Die primitive Familie”, pp. 106–107.

[305] The “metronymic” system by which the mother has the right to transmit her name to the child (Mutterrecht) is quite distinct from the matriarchate. As to the origin of the matriarchate see Dr. L. v. Dargun, “Mutterrecht und Vaterrecht”, pp. 67 ff.

[306] L. H. Morgan, “Ancient Society”, p. 345; Dargun, op. cit., pp. 131, 132.

[307] See Morgan, op. cit., Pt. II, chap. X and XIII, and F. Engels, “Origin of the Family, etc.”, chap. V, VI, VIII; Gumplowicz, “Grundriss der Soziologie,” pp. 190 ff.; and F. Oppenheimer, “Der Staat.”

[308] Engels, op. cit., p. 51. [Paging of original.]

[309] See Engels, op. cit., pp. 47 ff. [Paging of original.]

[310] See A. Bebel, “Die Frau und der Sozialismus”, pp. 265 ff.

[311] See “Neue Zeit”, 188, p. 239; G. v. Mayr, “Statistik und Gesellschaftslehre”, II, p. 384; F. v. d. Goes, “Socialisme en Feminisme” (“Tweemaandelijksch Tijdschrift”, VI, 1900) pp. 430–445; Braun, “Die Frauenfrage”, pp. 166 ff.; C. Zetkin, “Geistiges Proletariat, Frauenfrage und Sozialismus”, pp. 4, 5.

[312] See Bebel, op. cit., chapter entitled “Ehehemmnisse und Ehehindernisse”; v. d. Goes, op. cit., pp. 445–458; Braun, op. cit., pp. 166–170; Zetkin, op. cit., pp. 5–6.

[313] See Bebel, op. cit., p. 159; v. d. Goes, op. cit., pp. 458 ff.; and Braun, op. cit., pp. 165, 166.

[314] See Bebel, op cit., pp. 223 ff.; v. d. Goes, op. cit. (Année VII, 1901), pp. 120 ff.; Zetkin, op. cit., pp. 3, 4, and “Die Arbeiterinnen- und Frauenfrage der Gegenwart”, pp. 3 ff.

[315] See Braun, op. cit., p. 181.

[316] See Braun, op. cit. Pt. II, chaps. IV and V.

[317] [Note to the American Edition: There has appeared, especially recently, an extensive literature criticising the conditions of modern marriage. Cf. among others: Forel, “Die Sexuelle Frage”; M. Weber, op. cit., chap. vi; T. Bloch, “Das Sexualleben unserer Zeit”, chap. x; Havelock Ellis, “Geschlecht und Gesellschaft”, II, chap. x; A. Moll, “Handbuch der Sexualwissenschaften”; F. Müller-Lyer, “Die Familie” and “Phasen der Liebe.”]

[318] “Das Weib und der Stier.” (“Neue Zeit”, 1900–1901, II, p. 6–7.)

[319] Upon marriage in the bourgeoisie see Fourier, “Théorie des quatre mouvements” (Complete Works, I, pp. 162 ff.); A. E. F. Schäffle, “Bau und Leben”, etc., III, pp. 36, 50; Nordau, “Die conventionnellen Lügen der Kulturmenschheit”, pp. 263 ff.; Bebel, op. cit., pp. 103 ff.; and Dr. E. Gystrow, “Liebe und Liebesleben im XIX Jahrhundert”, pp. 26 ff.

[320] It is unnecessary to go into the question of marriage in the petty bourgeoisie, which does not differ fundamentally from that which we have been treating. See Dr. B. Schönlank, “Zur Psychologie des Kleinbürgerthums”, pp. 123–124 (“Neue Zeit”, 1890).

[321] Engels, op. cit., pp. 59, 60, and Dr. A. Blaschko, “Die Prostitution im XIX Jahrhundert”, p. 12.

[322] See “Englands industrielle Reservearmee”, pp. 215–216 (“Neue Zeit”, 1884).

[323] Engels, op. cit., pp. 63–74 [paging of original].

[324] E. Grosse, “Die Formen der Familie und die Formen der Wirthschaft”, pp. 49–53.

[325] See Grosse, op. cit., pp. 78–82, 120–123.

[326] Grosse, op. cit., pp. 183–186.

[327] See Grosse, op. cit., pp. 220–223, 226–228, 230–234.

[328] See v. Dargun, op. cit., p. 12.

[329] See M. Kovalewsky, “Tableau des origines et de l’évolution de la famille et de la propriété”, pp. 150–161.

[330] The law does not produce much change in the situation which would exist without it, since most parents would perform this duty without being compelled.

[331] L. Ferriani, “Entartete Mütter”, pp. 24–50.

[332] “Der Selbstmord im kindlichen Lebensalter”, p. 48.

[333] Op. cit. This quotation follows directly upon the one given above.

[334] Dr. A. Baer, op. cit., p. 49. See also pp. 58, 59.

[335] [Note to the American Edition: Cf. M. Kauffmann, “Die Psychologie des Verbrechens”, pp. 235 ff.]

[336] C. Zetkin, “Die Arbeiterinnen- und Frauenfrage der Gegenwart”, pp. 23–39.

[337] See J. Stern, “Thesen über den Sozialismus”, p. 24; and C. Zetkin, op. cit., pp. 30 ff.

[338] C. Zetkin, op. cit., p. 24.

[339] L. Ferriani, “Schlaue und glückliche Verbrecher”, pp. 34, 35.

[340] To name one among many: M. Kovalewsky. See his “Tableau des origines et de l’évolution de la famille et de la propriété”, pp. 160, 161.

[341] The number of births is constantly decreasing, and the consequent decrease in the size of families accentuates the tendency to develop egoism in the child.

[342] Compare, among others, E. Key, “Das Jahrhundert des Kindes”, p. 316.

[343] “The Book of the New Moral World”, Pt. III., pp. 9–11.

[344] K. Kautsky, “Die Entstehung des Christenthums” (“Neue Zeit”, 1885).

[345] L. Ferriani, “Schlaue und glückliche Verbrecher”, p. 48.

[346] P. 144 [In original, p. 147]. See also L. Braun, “Die Frauenfrage”, pp. 318 ff.; C. Zetkin, op. cit., p. 26; Herkner, op. cit., pp. 36 ff.; and especially Rühle, “Das proletarische Kind”, pp. 42 ff. Upon the education of children of the working class in general, see also: G. Schönfeldt, “Die heutige Arbeiterfamilie und die öffentliche Erziehung vorschulpflichtiger Kinder” (“Neue Zeit”, I, 1898–1899).

[347] [Note to the American Edition: Upon the situation of illegitimate children see Rühle, op. cit. pp. 63 ff., and especially the interesting works of Dr. Spann, “Untersuchungen über die uneheliche Bevölkerung in Frankfurt a/M.” and “Die unehelichen Mündel des Vormundschaftsgerichtes in Frankfurt a/M.”]

[348] Dr. C. Hugo, “Kind und Gesellschaft”, p. 562 (“Neue Zeit”, 1894–1895, I). See also L. Ferriani, “Entartete Mütter.”

[Note to the American Edition: At this moment I have before me the “Annual Report, 1912–1913”, where it is shown that the total number of children for whom the society in question has cared has increased to 2,101,130 in 29 years, an annual average, therefore, of about 75,000. For the year of the report the number was 159,000.

Cf. Rühle, op. cit., and especially the report upon Austria of Dr. J. M. Baernreither, “Die Ursachen, Erscheinungsformen und die Ausbreitung der Verwahrlosung von Kindern und Jugendlichen in Oesterreich.”]

[349] For a criticism of the present educational system see A. C. F. Schäffle, “Bau und Leben des sozialen Körpers”, I, p. 262; Ch. Letourneau, “L’évolution du mariage et de la famille”, p. 444; E. Key, “Das Jahrhundert des Kindes”, pp. 109 ff.; Th. Schlesinger Eckstein, “Die Frau im XIX Jahrhundert”, pp. 54–56.

[350] [Note to the American Edition: There has also appeared in recent times a considerable literature upon the etiology of prostitution. We note the following: A. Forel, “Die sexuelle Frage”, chap. x; P. Kampffmeyer, “Die Prostitution als soziale Klassenerscheinung und ihre sozialpolitische Bekämpfung”; T. Hermann, “Die Prostitution und ihr Anhang”; T. Bloch, “Das Sexualleben unserer Zeit”, chap. xiii, and “Die Prostitution”, I (chiefly historical); A. Pappritz, “Die Welt von der man nicht spricht”; H. Arendt, “Menschen die den Pfad verloren”; M. Minovici, “Remarques sur la criminalité en Roumanie”; C. K. Schneider, “Die Prostituirte und die Gesellschaft”; G. Schnapper-Arndt, “Sozial-Statistik”, chap. viii; Quiros and Aguinaliedo, “Verbrechertum und Prostitution in Madrid”; R. Hessen, “Die Prostitution in Deutschland”; A. Blaschko, “Prostitution” (“Handwörterbuch der Staatswissenschaften”, VI); H. Ellis, “Geschlecht und Gesellschaft”, II, chap. viii; “The Social Evil in Chicago” (“Report of the Vice Commission of Chicago”); A. Moll, “Handbuch der Sexualwissenschaften”, chap. iv; E. von Grabe, “Prostitution, Kriminalität, und Psychopathie”; A. Neher, “Die geheime und öffentliche Prostitution in Stuttgart, Karlsruhe, und München.”]

[351] C. Zetkin, “Geistiges Proletariat, Frauenfrage, und Sozialismus”, pp. 5, 6; Dr. J. Jeannel, “De la prostitution dans les grandes villes au XIXe siècle”, pp. 187, 188.

[352] Each consequence becomes in its turn a cause; as in this case, for, while prostitution is largely a consequence of the impossibility of marrying, prostitution in its turn becomes, through the demoralizing influence of the prostitutes, a reason why some men do not marry although their means would permit it.

[353] See also by the same author: “Die moderne Prostitution”, pp. 14, 15 (“Neue Zeit”, 1891–92, II), and “Hygiene der Prostitution und venerischen Krankheiten”, p. 39; Dr. V. Augagneur: “La prostitution des filles mineures” (“Archives d’anthropologie criminelle”, III, p. 224).

[354] [Note to the American Edition: Upon the demoralization of poor children see the works of Baernreither and Rühle already cited, and H. Arendt, “Kleine Weisse Sklaven.”]

[355] This study may be found in the second volume of Parent-Duchatelet’s work: “De la Prostitution dans la ville de Paris.”

[356] P. 39 (Session 1882).

[357] Vol. I, pp. 91, 92.

[358] “La Prostitution à Paris et à Londres”, p. 125.

[359] Op. cit., p. 211.

[360] “Le Crime à Deux”, pp. 205, 206. For figures for Berlin see Dr. B. Schoenlank, “Zur Statistik der Prostitution in Berlin”, pp. 335, 336 (“Archiv für soziale Gesetzgeb. u. Stat.”, VII.).

[361] “La prostitution en Russie”, p. 195 (“Progrès médical”, 1893).

[362] “Die Beziehungen der Prostitution zum Verbrechen”, p. 8 (“Archiv f. Kriminal Anthropologie u. Kriminalstatistik”, XI.).

[363] “Zur Kenntnis des grossstädtischen Bettel- und Vagabondentums,” p. 188 (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strafrw.”, XXXIII).

[364] Op. cit. I, pp. 92, 93.

[365] Op. cit., p. 210.

[366] Op. cit., pp. 215, 216.

[367] “Reports of the Select Committee”, Appendix B, p. 52.

[368] Pp. 42–44 and 46–66.

[369] Appendix B, p. 52.

[370] P. 133.

[371] Op. cit., p. 108.

[372] Op. cit., p. 196.

[373] Op. cit., I, pp. 67–70.

[374] Op. cit., I, p. 68.

[375] Op. cit., I, p. 71. The data of the same author show that out of 3,095 fathers of prostitutes, 1,078 (35%) could not sign their names.

[376] Op. cit., I, p. 108.

[377] “Moralstatistik”, p. 216. Upon this cause of prostitution see also: Dr. G. Richelot, op. cit., pp. 582, 583; Dr. C. Röhrmann, “Der sittliche Zustand von Berlin”, pp. 45, 46; “Die Prostitution in Berlin”, pp. 86, 87; L. Faucher, “Études sur l’Angleterre”, I, p. 74; Lecour, op. cit., pp. 202–204; Carlier, op. cit., pp. 35, 36; G. Tomel and H. Rollet, “Les enfants en prison”, pp. 156 ff.; L. Ferriani, “Entartete Mütter”, p. 161; Dr. O. Commenge, “La prostitution clandestine à Paris”, pp. 33–35.

[378] Op. cit., p. 216.

[379] Appendix B, p. 52.

[380] P. 42.

[381] Op. cit., p. 108.

[382] Op. cit., p. 197.

[383] Op. cit., I, p. 102.

[384] Op. cit., I, p. 102. Upon this cause of prostitution see further: Dr. Richelot, op. cit., pp. 574, 575; Dr. Fr. S. Hügel, “Zur Geschichte, Statistik, und Regelung der Prostitution”, pp. 206, 207; Dr. Jeannel, op. cit., pp. 145, 146; A. C. Fr. Schäffle, “Bau und Leben des sozialen Körpers”, I, p. 261; H. Stursberg, “Die Prostitution in Deutschland und ihre Bekämpfung”, pp. 44, 45; Dr. E. Laurent, “Les habitués des prisons de Paris”, pp. 585–589 (description of types); G. Schönfeldt, “Beiträge zur Geschichte des Pauperismus und der Prostitution in Hamburg”, p. 269.

[385] A. Pappritz, “Die wirthschaftlichen Ursachen der Prostitution”, p. 14.

[386] “Wiener Wohnungsverhältnisse”, pp. 221–223 (“Archiv f. soz. Gesetzg. u. Statist.” VII).

[387] “Bijdragen tot de Statistiek van Nederland XXIV, Uitkomsten der woning-statistiek”, p. 52.

[388] Op. cit., p. 98.

[389] Pappritz, op. cit., p. 15.

[390] v. Philippovich, op. cit., p. 222.

[391] P. 42. See also: Richelot, op. cit., pp. 573, 574; W. Acton, “Prostitution Considered in its Moral, Social, and Sanitary Aspects”, pp. 131 ff.; Jeannel, op. cit., p. 143; Lecour, op. cit., p. 246; “Reports of the Select Committee, etc.”, p. 39 (Session of 1882); Stursberg, op. cit., pp. 46, 47; Commenge, op. cit., p. 32.

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. Th. M. Raest van Limburg, “In den strijd tegen de ontucht.” P. Kampffmeyer, “Das Wohnungselend der Grossstädte und seine Beziehungen zur Verbreitung der Geschlechtskrankheiten und zur Prostitution”, and “Die Wohnungsmissstände im Prostitutions- und im Schlafgängerwesen und ihre gesetzliche Reform”; Pfeiffer, “Das Wohnungselend der grossen Städte und seine Beziehungen zur Prostitution und den Geschlechtskrankheiten.”]

[392] Op. cit., p. 54.

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. especially the “Report of the Departmental Committee on the Employment of Children, Oct., 1903.”]

[393] Op. cit., p. 247. See also Parent-Duchatelet, op. cit., I. p. 103; Röhrmann, op. cit., p. 44; Jeannel, op. cit., pp. 146–148; “Reports”, etc. (Session of 1882), pp. 15–17; K. Struntz, “Die erwerbsmässige Kinderarbeit und die Schule”, pp. 183 ff. (“Neue Zeit”, 1898–1899, I).

[394] Dr. A. Blaschko, “Die Prostitution im XIX Jahrhundert”, p. 22; “Hygiene der Prostitution”, pp. 40, 41.

[395] Appendix B, p. 52.

[396] Dr. Bonhoeffer, op. cit., p. 109.

[397] See the detailed statistics, op. cit., I, pp. 79–84.

[398] Op. cit., p. 148.

[399] Op. cit., p. 336.

[400] Op. cit., p. 197.

[401] Pp. 148, 149 [in original, pp. 151, 152]. See also: L. Faucher, “Études sur l’Angleterre”, I, pp. 276, 277; M. de Baets, “Les influences de la misère sur la criminalité”, pp. 35, 36; Stursberg, op. cit., pp. 49, 50; Commenge, op. cit., pp 13–15; L. Ferriani, “Schlaue und glückliche Verbrecher”, p 467.

[402] Op. cit., p. 149 [in original, p. 152]. For analogous cases see A. Bebel, “Die Frau und der Sozialismus”, pp. 195–197; “Les Scandales de Londres”, pp. 235–238; “Enquête betreffende werking en uitbreiding der wet van 19 September 1874 en naar den toestand van fabrieken en werkplaatsen”, 1887, deel V, p. 77; Dr. H Lux, “Sozialpolitisches Handbuch”, pp. 135, 136; Hirsch, op. cit., pp. 46–48; Commenge, op. cit., pp. 15–17; G. S., “Die weibliche Lohnarbeit und ihr Einfluss auf die Sittlichkeit und Kriminalität”, p. 748 (“Neue Zeit”, 1899–1900, II); L. Braun, “Die Frauenfrage”, p. 308.

[403] See “Die Prostitution im XIX Jahrhundert”, pp. 23, 24.

[404] L. Braun, “Die Frauenfrage”, pp. 409–411; G. S., op. cit., pp. 754–756.

[Note to the American Edition: Upon servants cf. further: O. Spann, “Die geschlechtlich-sittlichen Verhältnisse im Dienstboten und Arbeiterinnenstande”; and R. de Ryckère, “La servante criminelle”, ch. IX.]

[405] Hirsch, op. cit., pp. 48–50.

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. further: C. Jellinek, “Kellnerinnenelend” and Dr. H. Peters, “Zur Lage der Kellnerinnen im Grossherzogtum Baden.” Upon prostitution in the theater see V. v. Lepel, “Prostitution beim Theater.”]

[406] Stursberg, op. cit., pp. 55, 57; Hirsch, op. cit., pp. 42, 43; Pappritz, op. cit., pp. 13, 14.

[407] Op. cit., I, p. 107.

[408] Appendix B, p. 52.

[409] P. 169.

[410] H. Frégier, “Les classes dangereuses de la population dans les grandes villes”, I, p. 97; Lecour, op. cit., p. 244; L. Taxil, “La corruption fin-de-siècle”, p. 42; Commenge, op. cit., pp. 17–20; A. Aletrino, “Over eenige oorzaken der prostitutie”, pp. 21, 22; E. Gystrow, “Liebe und Liebesleben im XIX Jahrhundert”, p. 22.

[411] Op. cit., I, p. 107.

[412] Op. cit., I, p. 99.

[413] Op. cit., I, pp. 104, 105.

[414] Session 1882, Appendix B, p. 52.

[415] Op. cit., p. 169.

[416] “Die Prostitution im XIX Jahrhundert”, pp. 17, 18. See also B. Schönlank, “Zur Lage der in der Wäschefabrikation und Konfektionsbranche Deutschlands beschäftigen Arbeiterinnen”, pp. 126, 127 (“Neue Zeit”, 1888); Hirsch, op. cit., p. 46; Pappritz, op. cit., p. 10.

[417] Hirsch, op. cit., p. 57.

[418] P. 161. See also Faucher, op. cit., I, p. 277; Bebel, op. cit., p. 194; and Schäffle, op. cit., I, p. 261. Cf. Neher, op. cit., pp. 13 ff.

[419] Pp. 8, 9.

[420] P. 188 (“Jahrbuch für Gesetzgebung, Verwaltung, und Volkswirthschaft”, XII, 2). See also L. Braun, “Die Frauenfrage”, pp. 227 ff., and 287 ff.

[421] I, p. 65.

[422] III, p. 168. See also “Reports of the Select Committee,” etc. (Session 1882), pp. 15, 16.

[423] Op. cit., I, pp. 103–104. See also: Richelot, op. cit., pp. 577–579; Frégier, op. cit., I, pp. 97, 98; Ducpetiaux, “De la condition physique et morale des jeunes ouvriers”, I, p. 315; “Die Prostitution in Berlin” (Anon.), pp. 84, 85; Loewe, “Die Prostitution”, pp. 135, 136; Röhrmann, op. cit., pp. 24, 25; Moreau-Christophe, op. cit., III, pp. 167, 168; Acton, op. cit., pp. 180 ff.; Hügel, op. cit., p. 208; Jeannel, op. cit., pp. 140–142; Lecour, op. cit., p. 248; Müller, “De Prostitutie”, pp. 10–11; du Camp, “Prostitution à Paris”, pp. 257, 258 (“Journal des économistes”, 1872); Kühn, “Die Prostitution im XIX Jahrhundert”, pp. 37, 38; Schäffle, op. cit., p. 261; von Oettingen, op. cit., pp. 212, 213; Domela Nieuwenhuis, “Zur Frage der Prostitution”, pp. 254 ff. (“Neue Zeit”, 1884); Stursberg, op. cit., pp. 51–53; Lux, “Die Prostitution”, pp. 10–12; Schönfeld, op. cit., pp. 269 ff.; Teifen, “Das Soziale Elende und die besitzenden Klassen in Oesterreich”, pp. 150 ff.; Taxil, op. cit., pp. 33–38; De Baets, op. cit., pp. 36, 37; Commenge, op. cit., pp. 28, 29, 36, 37; Blaschko, “Die Prostitution im XIX Jahrhundert”, pp. 16–21.

[424] L. Braun, op. cit., p. 555; Röhrmann, op. cit., pp. 46, 47; Pappritz, op. cit., p. 12.

[425] Kühn, op. cit., p. 38.

[426] Hatzig, “Der Mädchenhandel”, p. 514 (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strafrw.” XX); Bebel, op. cit., pp. 190–192; “Reports of the Select Committee”, etc. (Session 1881); “Les scandales de Londres”, passim; Collard, “De handel in blanke slavinnen”, pp. 4–56.

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. further: A. Mackirdy and W. N. Willis, “The White Slave Market”; Willis, “The White Slaves of London”; and H. Wagener, “Der Mädchenhandel.”]

[427] Pp. 514, 515.

[428] Collard, op. cit., pp. 13–15. Upon the procurer’s trade in general see: Parent-Duchatelet, op. cit., I, pp. 430–436; Richelot, op. cit., pp. 583–588; Acton, op. cit., p. 165; Lecour, op. cit., pp. 195–202; Carlier, op. cit., chap. II; Stursberg, op. cit., p. 53; Commenge, op. cit., pp. 60–90; Blaschko, “Hygiene der Prostitution und venerischen Krankheiten”, pp. 37, 38.

[429] Op. cit., pp. 600 and 637.

[430] P. 52 (Session 1882), Appendix B.

[431] Op. cit., I, p. 86.

[432] Op. cit., p. 334.

[433] Richelot, op. cit., pp. 664, 665; Acton, op. cit., p. 165; Pappritz, op. cit., pp. 17, 18.

[434] Tarnowsky, “Prostitution und Abolitionismus”, pp. 108 ff.

[435] Lombroso and Ferrero, “La femme criminelle et la prostituée”, p. 212.

[436] Op. cit., p. 581.

[437] P. 132.

[438] Op. cit., p. 574.

[439] Op. cit., pp. 118, 119.

[440] See some typical examples cited by Dr. Magnan in his report to the second Congress of Criminal Anthropology: “De l’enfance des criminels dans les rapports avec la prédisposition naturelle au crime.” (“Actes,” pp. 60–63.)

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. H. F. Stelzner, “Die psychopathischen Konstitutionen und ihre sociologische Bedeutung.”]

[441] Commenge, op. cit., p. 107.

[442] Op. cit., I, p. 106.

[443] See further against Lombroso’s theory: R. Calwer, “Die erbliche Belastung der Prostituirten” (“Neue Zeit”, XII, 2); Hirsch, op. cit., pp. 15 ff.; Pappritz, op. cit., pp. 3–6.

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. Näcke, “Die Ueberbleibsel der Lombrosischen kriminalanthropologischen Theorien.”]

[444] See for example Blaschko, “Die Prostitution im XIX Jahrhundert”, p. 9.

[445] “The History of Human Marriage”, pp. 70, 71.

[446] [Note to the American Edition: Notable recent works are: E. Vandervelde, “Le socialisme et l’alcool” (“Essais socialistes”); E. Wurm, “Die Alkoholfrage”; A. Pistolese, “Alcoolismo e delinquenza”; and A. Dix, “Alkoholismus und Arbeiterschaft.”]

[447] The abuse of alcohol is much more extensive than is generally believed. Dr. Grotjahn gives as the amount that a normal man can take without being injured by it, 30–45 grams of absolute alcohol, the amount contained in a liter of beer, or a half-liter of light wine. (“Der Alkoholismus”, p. 143.)

[448] Pp. 126, 127.

[449] Op. cit., pp. 287, 288.

[450] Op. cit., p. 288.

[451] Holst, “Arbeiders en Alkohol” (“Nieuwe Tijd”, VII), p. 527, and Grotjahn, op. cit., p. 225.

[452] Verhaeghe, “De l’alcoolisation”, pp. 215, 216.

[453] Grotjahn, op. cit., pp. 35–41.

[454] See J. Rae, “Der Achtstunden-Arbeitstag”, pp. 249, 250, where mention is made of the opposition of public-house keepers in Australia to the movement for an eight-hour day. Upon the shortening of the day and the decrease in the use of alcohol, see pp. 96, 107, 108 in the same work; Lux, “Socialpolitisches Handbuch”, pp. 328–329; Dr. G. M. den Tex, “Verkorting van den arbeidsdag”, pp. 28, 29, 34, 80, 117–120, 140; “Onmatig lange arbeidstijd en misbruik van sterken drank” (Anon.), pp. 17–20; Grotjahn, op. cit., pp. 288–289; Roland-Holst, op. cit., pp. 530–532; Augagneur, “Les vraies causes et les vrais remèdes de l’alcoolisme”, pp. 76–77 (“Mouvement Socialiste”, 1900); Verhaeghe, “Le parti socialiste et la lutte contre l’alcool”, pp. 25–26 (“Mouvement Socialiste”, 1900).

[455] Given in detail in Grotjahn, op. cit., pp. 277–283.

[456] See also Colajanni, “L’alcoolismo”, pp. 153 ff.; Zerboglio, “L’alcoolisme: causes et remèdes”, pp. 123, 124 (“Devenir Social”, 1895); Vandervelde, op. cit., p. 260, and “Die ökonomischen Faktoren des Alkoholismus”, pp. 747, 748 (“Neue Zeit”, 1901–1902, I); Verhaeghe, op. cit., pp. 203–205.

Upon the fact that the abuse of alcohol has consequences much more injurious for the badly nourished man than for others, see: A. Baer, “Der Alkoholismus”, p. 286; Colajanni, op. cit., p. 183; Grotjahn, op. cit., p. 273; Verhaeghe, “De l’alcoolisation”, p. 203.

[457] Colajanni, op. cit., pp. 177, 178; Braun, “Berliner Wohnungsverhältnisse”, p. 22; Grotjahn, op. cit., pp. 290–292; Verhaeghe, “De l’alcoolisation”, pp. 205–208 and 217; Vandervelde, “Die ökonomischen Faktoren des Alkoholismus”, p. 747.

[458] P. 533.

[459] Zerboglio, op. cit., p. 125. See also Verhaeghe, “De l’alcoolisation”, p. 212; Colajanni, op. cit., pp. 181, 182.

[460] See upon this subject Colajanni, op. cit., pp. 168, 169; Verhaeghe, op. cit., pp. 222, 223; Holst, op. cit., p. 528.

[461] Pp. 75, 76. See also Colajanni, op. cit., pp. 169–173; Grotjahn, op. cit., pp. 289–298; Verhaeghe, “De l’alcoolisation”, pp. 225–227.

[462] Holst, op. cit., pp. 534, 535.

[463] Kautsky, “Der Alkoholismus und seine Bekämpfung” (“Neue Zeit”, 1890–91, II); Vandervelde, “Het alkoholisme en de arbeidsvoorwaarden in België,” pp. 268, 271, 272; Holst, op. cit., pp. 528–536.

[464] See, among others, Grotjahn, op. cit., pp. 296–298.

[465] “Condition of the Working Class”, pp. 102, 103 [in original pp. 105, 106]. See also: Ducpetiaux, “De la condition physique et morale des jeunes ouvriers”, I, pp. 352 ff.; Battaglia, “La dinamica del delitto”, pp. 415–417.

[466] “De la prostitution dans la ville de Paris”, I, p. 139.

[467] “Zur Kenntnis des grossstädtischen Bettel- und Vagabondentums. Zweiter Beitrag: Prostituirte”, p. 119 (“Zeitsch. f. d. ges. Strw.”, XXIII). See also: Logan, “The Great Social Evil”, pp. 55–56, 59; Ladame, “De la prostitution dans ses rapports avec l’alcoolisme, le crime et la folie”, pp. 7–14; Colajanni, op. cit., p. 179; Lombroso and Ferrero, “La femme criminelle et la prostituée”, p. 538.

[468] Verhaeghe, “De l’alcoolisation”, p. 211; see also Colajanni, op. cit., p. 183; and Kautsky, op. cit., p. 50.

[469] Pp. 50, 51. See also Battaglia, op. cit., pp. 418–420, and Zerboglio, op. cit., p. 125.

[470] “Ergebnisse einer Umfrage über den Alkoholgenuss der Schulkinder in Nieder-Oesterreich”, p. 82. See also Ducpetiaux, op. cit., pp. 367–370.

[471] See Baer, op. cit., pp. 144, 145; Colajanni, op. cit., pp. 139–142; Grotjahn, op. cit., pp. 178, 179; Verhaeghe, “De l’alcoolisation”, pp. 209–211; Vandervelde, “Die ökonomischen Faktoren des Alkoholismus”, pp. 741, 742.

[472] Grotjahn, op. cit., pp. 300, 301.

[473] Holst, op. cit., p. 530.

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. further upon alcoholism among the Jews, Dr. L. Cheinisse, “Die Rassenpathologie und der Alkoholismus bei den Juden.”]

[474] Vandervelde, “Die ökonomischen Faktoren des Alkoholismus”, pp. 742, 743.

[475] See Zerboglio, op. cit., pp. 125–127; Grotjahn, op. cit., pp. 149–155; Verhaeghe, op. cit., pp. 187–189.

[476] This has actually happened, certain distilleries in the whisky trust being closed to increase the profits.

[477] See Vandervelde, “Het alcoholisme en de arbeidsvoorwaarden in België”, p. 268.

[478] See Grotjahn, op. cit., pp. 219–221.

[479] See Grotjahn, op. cit., pp. 5–12.

[480] Grotjahn, op. cit., p. 9. See also: Hirschfeld, “Die historische Entwicklung des Alkoholmissbrauchs” (VIII Intern. Cong. gegen den Alkoholismus).

[481] The assertion that the Germans were addicted to alcohol before the invasion is erroneous. Agriculture was not sufficiently developed among these peoples for a regular consumption of alcohol. See Kautsky, op. cit., pp. 46, 47, and Grotjahn, op. cit., pp. 13–15.

[482] See Kautsky, op. cit., p. 47, and Grotjahn, op. cit., pp. 20 ff.

[483] [Note to the American Edition: Cf. upon the whole subject of this chapter: J. Makarewicz, “Einführung in die Philosophie des Strafrechts.”]

[484] [The author disregards the legal distinction between the words crime and délit as being “without interest in a sociological work.” The latter word will appear in this translation as “misdemeanor” or “offense” according to the context.—Transl.]

[485] See upon this subject: Post, “Die Geschlechtsgenossenschaft der Urzeit und die Entstehen der Ehe”, p. 156; Steinmetz, “Ethnologische Studien zur ersten Entwicklung der Strafe”, I, pp. 365 ff.; Makarewicz, “L’évolution de la peine”, p. 137 (“Archives d’Anthropologie Criminelle”, XIII). Upon the vengeance of blood see especially Kohler, “Shakespeare vor dem Forum der Jurisprudenz.”

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. also H. Berkusky, “Die Blutrache” (“Zeitschr. f. Socialwissenschaft”, XII).]

[486] The so-called offenses of omission are so few and unimportant that they may be left out of account.

[487] Albrecht, “Actes du Ier congrès d’anthr. crim.”, pp. 110 ff.; Battaglia, “La dinamica del delitto”, pp. 201, 202; “Genesi e funzione delle leggi penali”, pp. 211, 212; Manouvrier, “Genèse normale du crime”, pp. 451, 452 (see also Part One of the present work, on Manouvrier); Näcke, “Verbrechen und Wahnsinn beim Weibe”, p. 96.

[488] A. H. Post, “Bausteine für eine allgemeine Rechtswissenschaft”, I, p. 224.

[489] Steinmetz, “L’ethnologie et l’anthropologie criminelle” (“Compte rendu du Ve Cong. d’anthr. crim.”, p. 105).

[490] It is unnecessary to treat of the origin of punishment. For this subject the works of Steinmetz and Makarewicz already cited may be consulted, together with Westermarck’s “Der Ursprung der Strafe” (“Zeitschrift für Socialwissenschaft”, 1900).

[491] [Note to the American Edition: Recent works of importance are: P. Kropotkin, “Mutual Aid”; L. T. Hobhouse, “Morals in Evolution”; K. Kautsky, “Ethik und Materialistische Geschichtsauffassung”; E. Westermarck, “Ursprung und Entwicklung der Moralbegriffe.”]

[492] [Note to the American Edition: Cf. Ch. Vallon and G. Genil-Perrin, “Crime et altruisme” (“Archives d’anthr. crim.” XXVIII).]

[493] See, among others, Spencer, “Principles of Sociology”, I, p. 79, where he says “Sociality, strong in the civilized man, is less strong in the savage man.”

[494] Chap. iv, pp. 97–99. See also Kautsky, “Die sozialen Triebe in der Tierwelt” (“Neue Zeit”, 1883); Letourneau, “L’évolution de la morale”, pp. 59–64; and Kropotkin, “Mutual Aid among Animals” (“Nineteenth Century”, 1890).

[495] “Eskimo Life”, p. 101.

[496] Op. cit., p. 106.

[497] Op. cit., p. 158.

[498] Op. cit., p. 187.

[499] Op. cit., II, pp. 342, 343.

[500] “Illustrations of the Manners, Customs, and Conditions of the North American Indians”, pp. 9, 10.

[501] “Ancient Society”, pp. 85, 86.

[502] “Houses and House-life of the American Aborigines.” For the facts with regard to the North American Indians east of the Rocky Mountains, see Waitz, op. cit., III, pp. 160 ff.

[503] “The Malay Archipelago”, II, p. 283; see also Waitz, op. cit., III; Spencer, “Descriptive Sociology”, No. 6 (“American Races”), pp. 31, 32.

[504] Pp. 225, 226.

[505] “L’ethnologie et l’anthropologie criminelle”, pp. 100, 101.

[506] “Tableau des origines et de l’évolution de la famille et de la propriété”, p. 56. See also Kautsky, “Die sozialen Triebe in der Menschenwelt” (“Neue Zeit”, 1884); and Kropotkin, “Mutual Aid among Savages” (“Nineteenth Century”, 1891), and “Mutual Aid among the Barbarians” (ibid., 1892).

[507] See Morgan, “Ancient Society”, p. 505.

[Note to the American Edition: Upon the origin of slavery cf. H. J. Nieboer: “Slavery as an Industrial System.”]

[508] [Note to the American Edition: Cf. Kautsky, op. cit., pp. 99, 100.]

[509] See Maine, op. cit., pp. 227, 228.

[510] P. 50.

[511] See Kautsky, “Die sozialen Triebe in der Menschenwelt”, and also “Die Indianerfrage” (“Neue Zeit”, 1885) by the same author.

[512] See Steinmetz, “Classification des types sociaux et catalogue des peuples” (“Année sociologique”, III).

[513] Upon the dualism of ethics see: Kulischer, “Der Dualismus der Ethik bei den primitiven Völkern” (“Zeitschr. f. Ethnologie”, 1885); Kropotkin, “Mutual Aid among Savages”, pp. 558, 559; Kovalewsky, “Les origines du devoir”, pp. 85 ff. (“Revue internationale de sociologie”, II).

[514] See Sutherland, op. cit., I, x, for example, and compare Letourneau, “L’évolution de la morale”, p. 55.

[515] In the discussion which follows I have made large use of Kautsky’s “Die sozialen Triebe in der Tierwelt.”

[516] See Galton, “Inquiries into Human Faculty and its Development”, pp. 68–82.

[517] See Darwin, “Descent of Man”, p. 102; Sutherland, op. cit., I, x; Ammon, “Der Ursprung der sozialen Triebe” (“Zeitschr. f. Socialwissenschaft” IV); H. Schultz, “Altersklassen und Männerbünde”, I, 2.

[518] See the quotation from Darwin earlier in this section, in which he speaks of cases of self-sacrifice among animals.

[519] I make great use here of Kautsky’s “Die sozialen Triebe in der Menschenwelt.”

[520] See Darwin, “Descent of Man”, p. 105.

[Note to the American Edition: Upon the social origin of man see Müller-Lyer, “Die Familie”, pp. 12 ff.]

[521] “Die sozialen Triebe in der Tierwelt”, p. 27.

[522] See Darwin, “Descent of Man”, pp. 95, 96, 106.

[523] See Maine, “Village Communities”, p. 68.

[524] Dargun, “Egoismus und Altruismus in der Nationalökonomie”, pp. 100, 101.

[525] See Dargun, op. cit., p. 34.

[526] See Letourneau, “L’évolution de la propriété”, pp. 72–75.

[527] See Kropotkin, “Mutual Aid among Savages”, pp. 552, 553; and Sutherland, op. cit., I, vi.

[528] See Kropotkin, op. cit., pp. 553, 554.

[529] Pp. 335, 336.

[530] Compare Morgan, “Ancient Society”, p. 527.

[531] See Dargun, “Egoismus und Altruismus in der Nationalökonomie”, pp. 36, 37; Jhering, “Der Zweck im Recht”, I, p. 117.

[532] Lassalle, “Die Feste, die Presse und der Frankfurter Abgeordnetentag”, II, p. 646; Schäffle, “Bau und Leben des sozialen Körpers”, I, pp. 461–466, and IV, pp. 68–70; Mandl, “Die Wiener Presskorruption” (“Neue Zeit”, 1884); Stern, “Einfluss der sozialen Zustände auf alle Zweige des Kulturlebens”, pp. 33–37.

[533] P. Moreau (of Tours), “L’homicide commis par les enfants”, p. 80; Cuénoud, “La criminalité à Genève au XIXe siècle”, pp. 93–96; Aubry, “La contagion du meurtre”, pp. 84–106; “De l’influence contagieuse de la publicité des faits criminels” (“Archives d’anthropologie criminelle”, VIII); Ferriani, “Minderjährige Verbrecher”, pp. 106, 107 and 282, 283; Lombroso, “Crime, its Causes and Remedies”, pp. 54, 55.

[Note to the American Edition: Besides the influence of the sensational press, and harmful literature, we must now mention the cinematograph.

From the literature upon the whole subject we select the following: S. Türkel, “Einfluss der Lektüre auf die Delikte phantastischer jugendlicher Psychopathen” (“Archiv f. Krim. anthr. u. Krim.” XLII); S. Sighele, “Littérature et criminalité”, chap. v; M. Homburger, “Der Einfluss der Schundlitteratur auf jugendliche Verbrecher und Selbstmörder” (“Monatschr. f. Krim. Psych. und Straf.”, VI); F. Fenton, “The Influence of Newspaper Presentations upon the Growth of Crime and Other Anti-social Activity”; A. Hellwig, “Die Beziehungen zwischen Schundlitteratur, Schundfilms, und Verbrechen” (“Archiv f. Krim. anthr. u. Krim.”, LI); Meyer, “Schundlitteratur und Schundfilm” (“Arch. f. Krim. anthr. u. Krim.”, LIII).]

[534] P. 242.

[535] “Fürsorgeerziehung” (Woche V, No. 51).

[536] From “Crimineele Statistiek” for the years given, and “Uitkomsten der achtste tienjaarlijksche volkstelling” and “Uitkomsten der beroepstelling van 1899.”

[537] This number is below the reality; they have classed among persons without trade those whose trade was unknown.

[538] [Note to the American Edition: For North America cf. Fehlinger, “Erwerbsarbeit und Kriminalität von Kindern u. Frauen in den Vereinigten Staaten.”]

[539] See “Kriminalstatistik für das Jahr 1898”, I, pp. 52 ff., and “Notizie complementari alle statistiche giudiziarie penali degli anni 1890–1895”, pp. xlix, l.

[540] [Note to the American Edition: For Germany the “Kriminalstatistik” of 1891, 1901, and 1902 contain data upon this point; see II, p. 32. For Austria, cf. Herz, “Verbrechen und Verbrechertum in Oesterreich”, pp. 121 ff.]

[541] “Die berufliche und soziale Gliederung des Deutschen Volkes nach der Berufszählung vom 14 Juni, 1895” (“Stat. des Deutschen Reichs. Neue Folge”, Band 111).

[542] Op. cit., pp. 143 and 144.

[543] “Kriminalstatistik für das Jahr 1896. Erläuterungen”, I, pp. 22, 23.

[544] [Note to the American Edition: Juvenile criminality in Germany increased up to 1906, when a fairly regular decrease began. The law upon the “Fürsorgeerziehung” dates from the beginning of the century.]

[545] Calculated from the work cited, I, pp. 18–21.

[546] “Statistisches Jahrbuch für das Deutsche Reich”, 1896, p. 5.

[547] Morrison, “Juvenile Offenders”, p. 5.

[548] [Note to the American Edition: According to recent statistics juvenile delinquency in England has decreased rather than increased.]

[549] “Judicial Statistics, England and Wales, Part I, Criminal Statistics, 1899”, p. 64.

[550] The “Summary Jurisdiction Act” gives the English judges the right not to convict, even though the proof may be sufficient, when they deem the offense not grave enough. 20% of those so discharged are added to the figures to allow for this.

[551] Op. cit., p. 65.

[552] P. L., “Die Ergebnisse der Strafrechtspflege in den im Reichsrate vertretenen Königreichen und Ländern im Jahre 1899.”

[553] [Note to the American Edition: After the period cited juvenile crime in Austria has increased further. Cf. Herz, op. cit., pp. 107 ff. See also Hoegel, “Die Grenzen der Kriminalstatistik”, pp. 414 ff.]

[554] Op. cit., pp. l–li.

[555] Calculated from “Administration de la Justice criminelle et civile de la Belgique, période de 1881–1885. Résumé statistique”, p. 81.

[Note to the American Edition: In Belgium no criminal statistics appeared from 1886 to 1897. For the period after 1898 see Jacquart, “La criminalité belge.” Here there appears rather a decrease than an increase of juvenile delinquency for this period.]

[556] Figured from p. cix, Table No. 3 of the “Rapport sur l’administration de la justice criminelle de 1881 à 1900.” (Compte général de l’administration de la justice criminelle pendant l’année 1900.)

[557] Figured from op. cit., p. cxvi, Table No. 8.

[558] See Grosmolard, “Criminalité juvénile” (“Archives d’anthr. crim.”, XVIII), and Albanel, “Le crime dans la famille”, p. 194.

[559] [Note to the American Edition: Upon France cf. especially Dr. G. Jacquetty, “Étude statistique de la criminalité juvénile en France.” According to this study the crimes of minors under 16 years of age have remained stationary as regards crimes against persons, and have decreased as regards crimes against property; misdemeanors, however, have increased. The crimes committed by minors between 16 and 20 have remained the same in comparison with the criminality of adults; on the other hand there has been a constant increase of misdemeanors. The increase of crimes and misdemeanors of violence committed at this age has been considerable. See also: G. L. Duprat, “La criminalité dans l’adolescence.”]

[560] According to the “Compte Général de l’administration de la justice criminelle pendant l’année 1900”, p. 32, Table XVI.

[561] According to op. cit., p. 54, Table XXIX.

[562] “Statistica giudiziaria penale per l’anno 1899”, p. cxvii.

[563] “Notizie complementari alle statistiche giudiziarie penali degli anni 1890–1895”, p. xli. In the period from 1896–1900 juvenile criminality increased further in a striking manner.

[564] Op. cit., p. xlvii.

[565] I have not been able to get data for the United States. The American criminologist, A. Drähms, says that the criminality of the young is increasing in the United States (“The Criminal”, p. 279), and W. D. Morrison makes a similar statement (“Juvenile Offenders”, p. 17).

[566] From “De Gerechtelijke Statistiek van het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden” for the years 1896 to 1899, and from “Bijdragen tot de Statistiek van Nederland, Nieuwe volgreeks XVII, XXVII. Crimineele statistiek over de jaren 1900 en 1901.”

[567] Taken from “Crimineele Statistiek over het jaar 1901.” In the criminal statistics of the Netherlands the system was changed in 1901. Before this year convictions were counted, and from that year on, individuals convicted.

[568] See also Ducpetiaux, “De la condition physique et morale des jeunes ouvriers”, Bk. I, ch. 2; Starke, “Verbrechen und Verbrecher in Preussen”, pp. 210, 211; Ferriani, “Minderjährige Verbrecher”, pp. 144 ff., 177–185; “Entartete Mütter” and “Schlaue und glückliche Verbrecher”, pp. 443, 444, 458–475; Agahd, “Die Erwerbsthätigkeit schulpflichtiger Kinder im Deutschen Reiche” (“Archiv für soziale Gesetzgebung und Statistik”, XII); Struntz, “Die erwerbsmässige Kinderarbeit und die Schule” (“Neue Zeit”, 1898–1899, I); Dix, “Die Jugendlichen in der Sozial- und Kriminalpolitik”; Albanel, “Le crime dans la famille”, pp. 41–43; Aschaffenburg, “Das Verbrechen und seine Bekämpfung”, pp. 119–123; Joly, “L’enfance coupable”, pp. 24, 25, 126.

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. the following recent works: Baernreither, op. cit., passim; P. Pollitz, “Die Psychologie des Verbrechers”, pp. 112 ff.; Duprat, op. cit., pp. 125 ff.; M. Homburger, “Ueber den Zusammenhang zwischen den Zahlen der in den Fabriken beschäftigten Personen unter 18 Jahren und der Zahl der Verbrechen solcher Personen”; H. W. Gruhle, “Die Ursachen der jugendlichen Verwahrlosung und Kriminalität”, pp. 104 ff.]

[569] See also Engels, “The Condition of the Working Class in England,” pp. 118, 119.

[570] See: Brace, “The Dangerous Classes of New York”, pp. 51 ff.; O. S., “Die Verbrecherwelt von Berlin”, pp. 120 ff. (“Zeitschr. f. d. gesammte Strafrechtswissenschaft”, V); Földes, “Einige Ergebnisse der neueren Kriminalstatistik”, p. 548 (ibid., XI); Lux, “Sozialpolitisches Handbuch”, pp. 58 ff.; Philippovich, “Wiener Wohnungsverhältnisse”, p. 264 (“Archiv für soziale Gesetzgebung und Statistik”, VI); Dix, “Sozial-Moral”, pp. 15–18; Ferriani, “Schlaue und glückliche Verbrecher”, pp. 444 ff.; Liszt, “Das Verbrechen als sozial-pathologische Erscheinung”, p. 22; Th. Holmes, “Pictures and Problems from London Police Courts”, pp. 70 ff.; Albanel, op. cit., pp. 11 ff.; Aschaffenburg, op. cit., p. 115.

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. Baernreither, op. cit., passim.]

[571] P. 10.

[572] P. 12.

[573] P. 12.

[574] See Laspeyres, pp. 86–91.

[575] Laspeyres, op. cit., pp. 19 and 21.

[576] See Engels, “Condition of the Working Class in England”, pp. 76 ff.

[577] “Condition of the Working Class in England”, p. 116.

[578] For the different opinions see Dr. L. DelBaere, “De invloed van opvoeding en onderwijs op de criminaliteit”, pp. 23 ff., and Földes, “Einige Ergebnisse der neueren Kriminalstatistik”, pp. 552–559 (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strw.” XI).

[579] The figures for prisoners are from Drähms, “The Criminal”, p. 74; those in the last column from “The Statesman’s Year-Book”, 1902, p. 1203.

[580] From “Die Ergebnisse der Strafrechtspflege in den im Reichsrate vertretenen Königreichen und Ländern im Jahre 1899”, p. xlviii.

[581] Taken from the “Judicial Statistics of England and Wales”, Part I, Criminal Statistics, 1894–1900. The last two columns are taken from “The Statesman’s Year-Book”, 1892, p. 39.

[582] Figured from the table F. A II of the “Ergebnisse der Strafrechtspflege in den im Reichsrate vertretenen Königreichen und Ländern”, 1899. The number of illiterates in the total population 16 and over, was about 24%.

[583] Taken from Jacquart, op. cit., p. 104.

[584] “Statesman’s Year Book”, 1910, p. 31.

[585] The last two columns are taken from “l’Annuaire Statistique de la France,” xvi ff.; the others from the “Statistique pénitentiaire,” 1882–1898.

[586] From 1886 to 1891 women and men are reported together under this heading.

[587] After Table XXIV of the “Report of the Judicial Statistics of Scotland for the Year 1910.”

[588] “Rapport sur l’administration de la justice criminelle de 1881 à 1900.”

[589] “Judicial Statistics, Ireland”, 1905, I, “Criminal Statistics,” p. 24.

[590] The last two columns are taken from the “Annuario Statistico Italiano”, 1900, p. 214; the others from the “Statistica giudiziaria penale”, 1881 to 1889.

[591] Men playing a larger part in crime than women, I have thought it well to give the figures for illiterate men also.

[592] Figured from Table XXVIII of the “Statistica giudiziaria penale”, 1889.]

[593] From the “Year-Book of the New York State Reformatory”, for the years in question. In “The Dangerous Classes of New York” (p. 32), Brace mentions that in 1870 about 31% of the adult criminals in the State of New York were illiterate, while of the adult non-criminals of the population only 6.08% were illiterate.

[594] Taken from the “Jaarcijfers voor het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden. Rijk in Europa”, 1901, p. 47.

[595] de Roos, op. cit., p. 108.

[596] Figured from Table II of the “Crimineele Statistiek”, 1900.

[597] Evert, “Zur Statistik rückfälliger Verbrecher in Preussen” (“Zeitschr. des Kön. Preuss. Stat. Bureaus”, XXXIX), p. 197; the last figure from “Stat. Jahrb. f. d. Deutsche Reich”, 1896, 1897, and 1898.

[598] “Die Ergebnisse der Schweizerischen Kriminalstatistik während der Jahre 1892–1896”, p. 38 (“Schweizerische Statistik”, Pt. 125).

[599] Ibid.

[600] [Note to the American Edition: Upon the Balkan states see Wadler, op. cit., pp. 176 ff.]

[601] Taken from “Statistica giudiziaria penale”, 1887, 1888, 1889.

[602] Figured from Table XXVIII of the “Statistica giudiziaria penale”, 1889.

[603] From “Die Ergebnisse der Strafrechtspflege in den im Reichsrate vertretenen Königreichen und Ländern im Jahre 1899”, p. xlviii.

[604] Figured from Table F. a. II in “Die Ergebnisse der Strafrechtspflege in den im Reichsrate vertretenen Königreichen und Ländern im Jahre 1899.”

[605] [“Fortune” here has not exactly the connotation of our English word, but as “money” and “property” would be equally inexact it seems better to keep the author’s term. Transl.]

[606] [Note to the American Edition: Upon Austria cf. Herz, op. cit., pp. 8 ff.]

[607] Figured from the table on p. 199 of Evert’s “Zur Statistik rückfälliger Verbrecher in Preussen.”

[608] From “Die Ergebnisse der Schweizerischen Kriminalstatistik während der Jahre 1892–1896”, p. 37.

[609] Concerning Hungary Prof. Földes says (without giving the year) that 92% of the crimes are committed by persons without fortune, while these represent only 85% of the population in general (“Einige Ergebnisse der neueren Kriminalstatistik”, Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strw., XI, p. 545).

[Note to the American Edition: Upon the Balkan States cf. Wadler, op. cit., pp. 164 ff.]

[610] Taken from Prinzing, “Soziale Faktoren der Kriminalität” (Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strafrw. XXII). The figures for criminality are the average figures for the years 1894–1896. The figures for the occupations are those of the census of occupations of June 14, 1895.

[611] Servants only.

[612] Taken from “Kriminalstatistik für das Jahr 1896” (Erläuterungen) II, pp. 38, 39.

[613] This category includes the unskilled workmen, as the author of this table says himself, this heading is not very exact, since it includes those who without following a fixed occupation call themselves working-men.

[Note to the American Edition: The “Kriminalstatistik 1908” gives the statistics of the criminality of the different occupations, figured from the census of occupations of 1907.]

[614] Pp. 585, 586.

[615] Figured from the “Judicial Statistics, England and Wales, Pt. I Criminal Statistics”, 1894–1900.

[Note to the American Edition: The English Criminal Statistics for 1905 contain a table upon the occupations of prisoners convicted during the years 1896–1905.]

[616] From the “Rapport au Président de la république française sur l’administration de la justice criminelle de 1881 à 1900”, p. xxvi.

[617] From the “Statistique pénitentiaire”, 1890–1895.

[618] Furnishing trade only.

[619] Vagrants and prostitutes.

[620] “Notizie complementari alle statistiche giudiziarie penali degli anni 1890–1895”, p. lxi. As the calculations are based upon the census of 1881 the accuracy of the table is not absolute.

[621] Op. cit., p. lxxxii.

[622] Op. cit., pp. lxxxiii–lxxxiv.

[623] [Note to the American Edition: Cf. the recent works upon the relation between occupation and criminality: for Germany: Aschaffenburg, op. cit., pp. 56 ff.; H. Lindenau, “Beruf und Verbrechen”; Peterselie, op. cit., pp. 106 ff.; Wassermann, “Beruf, Konfession, und Verbrechen”; Galle, op. cit., pp. 93 ff.; Stöwesand, op. cit., pp. 99 ff.; for Austria: Hoegel, op. cit., pp. 449 ff.; and pp. 134 ff.; for the Balkan States: Wadler, op. cit., pp. 137 ff.; for the Netherlands: de Roos, op. cit., pp. 132 ff.; Verrijn Stuart, op. cit. II, pp. 244 ff.; for France: G. Bertrin, “De la criminalité en France dans les congrégations, le clergé et les principales professions.”]

[624] “Die Ergebnisse der Strafrechtspflege in den im Reichsrate vertretenen Königreichen und Ländern im Jahre 1899”, p. lxviii.

[625] Prinzing, “Der Einfluss der Ehe auf die Kriminalität des Mannes”, p. 41; and “Die Erhöhung der Kriminalität des Weibes durch die Ehe” (“Zeitschrift f. Sozialwissenschaft”, II), p. 437.

[626] “Notizie complementari alle statistiche giudiziarie penali degli anni 1890–1895”, p. lii.

[627] “Rapport au Président de la République française sur l’administration de la justice criminelle de 1881–1900”, p. xxiii.

[628] Figured from “Uitkomsten der achtste tienjaarlijksche volkstelling”, and the “Gerechtelijke Statistiek over 1899.”

[629] “Die Ergebnisse der Schweizerischen Kriminalstatistik während der Jahre 1892–1896”, p. 21.

[630] Prinzing, “Soziale Faktoren der Kriminalität”, pp. 556–557.

[631] “Der Einfluss der Ehe auf die Kriminalität des Mannes”, p. 42.

[632] Op. cit., p. 117. The figures for criminality are the average figures for the years 1882–1893. They all give the number to 100,000 persons of each category.

[633] Op. cit., p. 117.

[634] Op. cit., p. 119.

[635] Op. cit., p. 111.

[636] Op. cit., p. 112.

[637] Op. cit., p. 109.

[638] Op. cit., p. 113.

[639] Op. cit., p. 114.

[640] Op. cit., p. 114.

[641] Prinzing, “Soziale Faktoren der Kriminalität”, p. 559.

[642] “Die Erhöhung der Kriminalität des Weibes durch die Ehe”, p. 437.

[643] This table and those which follow all belong to the period from 1882 to 1893, and are figured for 100,000 of each category. They are taken from the work cited, pp. 438–444.

[644] [“Rebellion” has a wider significance in French than in English, any violence to public officials being so designated. The word is retained, however, for brevity.—Transl.]

[645] Cf. F. Prinzing, “Ueber frühzeitige Heiraten, deren Vorzüge und Nachteile.” See also Durkheim, “Le suicide”, pp. 186 ff.

[646] P. 40.

[647] Note to the American Edition: Cf. the following recent works upon the relation between marriage and criminality: for Germany: Aschaffenburg, op. cit., pp. 139 ff.; Pollitz, op. cit., pp. 34 ff.; for Austria: Hoegel, op. cit., pp. 16 ff.; Herz, op. cit., pp. 127 ff.; for the Balkan States: Wadler, op. cit., pp. 128 ff.; for Belgium: Jacquart, op. cit., pp. 80 ff.; for the Netherlands: de Roos, op. cit., pp. 122 ff. See further N. Muller, “Biografisch-aetiologisch onderzoek over occidivie, etc.”

[648] “Kriminalstatistik f. d. Jahr 1896”, Erläuterungen, II, p. 33.

[649] [Note to the American Edition: The “Kriminalstatistik für das Jahr 1903” contains very important data bearing upon the period 1882–1902, with regard to feminine criminality in Germany.]

[650] “Judicial Statistics, England and Wales, Pt. I, Criminal Statistics, 1899”, p. 55, with separate calculations made for 1900.

[651] “The Statesman’s Yearbook, 1902”, p. 14.

[652] “Judicial Statistics, England and Wales, Criminal Statistics, 1894”, p. 19.

[653] “Die Ergebnisse der Strafrechtspflege in den im Reichsrate vertretenen Königreichen und Ländern im Jahre 1899”, p. xlix.

[654] “Rapport au président de la république française sur l’administration de la justice criminelle de 1881–1900”, pp. xix, cxvi.

[655] Figured from “Compte général de l’administration de la justice criminelle pendant l’année 1900”, pp. 30–31.

[656] Op. cit., pp. 54–62, Tab. XXIX.

[657] For the years 1884–1889 taken from the “Statistica giudiziaria penale per l’anno 1889”, and for the years following from the “Notizie complementari alle statistiche giudiziarie penali degli anni 1890–95.”

[658] The fact that a new penal code went into effect in 1890 makes a noticeable change in the total figures.

[659] Op. cit., p. xxxvii.

[660] “Statesman’s Year Book”, 1910, p. 948.

[661] Taken from “de Gerechtelijke Statistiek van het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden”, 1896–1899, and “de Crimineele Statistiek”, 1900. For more detailed information upon the Netherlands see Loosjes, “Bijdrage tot de studie van de criminaliteit der vrouw”, pp. 8–30.

[662] Figured from “Crimineele statistiek over het jaar 1901.”

[663] “Criminal Statistics, 1899”, p. 27. See in the same place the reason for thinking that the figures quoted for the number of women acquitted are too small. Morrison says that in England one woman in four is acquitted, and one man in six. (“Juvenile Offenders”, p. 46.)

[664] “Rapport”, etc., p. xxxiv.

[665] Op. cit., p. lvi.

[666] See Colajanni, “Sociologia criminale”, II, p. 83; Földes, op. cit., pp. 630, 631; and Morrison, op. cit., p. 46.

[667] “Criminal Statistics of England and Wales, 1899”, p. 54.

[668] Loosjes, op. cit., p. 50.

[669] Figured from Tables 23 and 24 of the “Rapport au président de la république française”, etc.

[Note to the American Edition: Wadler tells us that in Servia the percentage of feminine criminality is between 3.71 (1893) and 6.25 (1903); in Greece, about 2 (1899–1902); in Bulgaria, about 3.2 (1899–1906); in Bosnia and Herzegovina, between 5.07 (1899) and 6.69 (1902) (op. cit., pp. 94, 102–104). In Rumania, Minovici tells us, the percentage is 2.42 (1874–1890).]

[670] “Kriminalstatistik für das Jahr 1898”, II, p. 73.

[671] “Juvenile Offenders”, p. 47.

[672] “Die Straffälligkeit des Weibes”, p. 253 (Archiv f. Krim. Anthr. u. Kriminalstatistik, V).

[673] Galicia, Western and Eastern separately.

[674] Tyrol and Vorarlberg separately.

[675] From “Kriminalstatistik”, 1888, 1894, 1896, 1898, and 1900.

[676] “Die Ergebnisse, etc.”, p. xlviii.

[677] [Note to the American Edition: Wadler points out that in the Balkan States the percentage of feminine criminality is rapidly increasing.]

[678] See Loosjes, op. cit., pp. 11, 12.

[679] See Loosjes, op. cit., p. 12, where he demonstrates that the decrease in the percentage of female criminality is in great measure due to the diminution of mendicity.

[Note to the American Edition: French and German statistics bearing upon a long period show that the economic criminality of woman tends to decrease, and that against persons to increase. The last fact corresponds, therefore, with the thesis that the social situation of woman explains her criminality. The first fact is explained perhaps by the decrease of poverty resulting from the greater participation of woman in the economic life.]

[680] For opinions of other authors see Loosjes, op. cit., pp. 75–108.