Chapter VII: Conclusions (4)

[Note to the American Edition: Upon feminine criminality in general see further the following recent works: for Germany: Aschaffenburg, op. cit., pp. 135 ff.; Wulffen, op. cit., I, pp. 402 ff., and II, pp. 258 ff.; O. Mönkemöller, “Korrektionsanstalt und Landarmenhaus”; Galle, op. cit., pp. 68 ff.; Stöwesand, op. cit., pp. 23 ff.; Sauer, op. cit., pp. 57 ff. For Austria: Herr, “Die Kriminalität des Weibes nach den Ergebnissen der neueren österreichischen Statistik” (“Archiv f. Krim. anthr. u. Krim.”, XVIII), and op. cit., pp. 78 ff.; Hoegel, op. cit., pp. 410 ff. For the Balkan States: Wadler, op. cit., pp. 93 ff. For Belgium: Jacquart, op. cit., pp. 67 ff. For France: C. Granier, “La femme criminelle”; de Lanessan, op. cit., pp. 145 ff.; H. Lacaze, “De la criminalité féminine en France”; H. Leale, “De la criminalité des sexes” (“Archives d’anthr. crim.”, XXV). For the Netherlands: de Roos, op. cit., pp. 76 ff.; Verrijn Stuart, op. cit., pp. 190 ff. For Rumania: Minovici, op. cit. Upon female criminality in relation to special occupations, see: R. de Rijcken, “La servante criminelle”.]

[681] Liszt, “Die gesellschaftlichen Ursachen des Verbrechens”. (See discussion of this work in Pt. I of the present work.)

[682] P. 96, chap. IV.

[683] “Nos jeunes détenus”, pp. 24, 25.

[684] See what is said in criticism of Professor Ferri in Pt. I of this work.

[685] “Schlaue und glückliche Verbrecher”, p. 34. See the whole section “L’hypocrisie dans l’éducation” (pp. 29–49), where the author criticises contemporary education severely.

[686] See Corre, “Crime et Suicide”, pp. 327, 328, and Ferriani, “Minderjährige Verbrecher”, pp. 284–295, 372, 373.

[687] There are other reasons for this, of course, besides better education: the absence of poverty, pleasures within easy reach, etc.

[688] Taken from Morrison, “Juvenile Offenders”, p. 160.

[689] Morrison, op. cit., p. 159.

[690] Figured from “L’annuaire statistique de la France”, V–IX.

[691] Figured from the “Statistique pénitentiaire,” 1890–1895.

[692] Raux (“Nos jeunes détenus”) and Grosmolard (“Criminalité juvénile”, p. 199) come to the same conclusion.

[693] “Minderjährige Verbrecher”, pp. 76 and 440.

[694] Plasz, “Fürsorgeerziehung” (Woche V, No. 51). According to the statistics upon the “Fürsorgeerziehung” there were between 1901 and 1906 among the parents of the children on an average: 7.1% without income, 71.5% with an income under 900 marks, 14.1% with an income between 900 and 3000 marks, 0.1% between 3000 and 6000 marks, and 7.2% with income unknown. See F. Frank, “Das Fürsorgeerziehungsgesetz in Preussen” (“Neue Zeit”, XXVII, p. 460).

[695] L. Braun, “Die Frauenfrage”, pp. 279–280.

[696] Op. cit., p. 320.

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. W. Feld, “Die Kinder der in Fabriken arbeitenden Frauen und ihre Verpflegung.”

[697] Braun, op. cit., p. 278.

[698] See Ducpetiaux, “De la condition physique et morale des jeunes ouvriers”, pp. 199 ff., and Corre, “Crime et Suicide”, pp. 330–332.

[699] Op. cit., p. 9.

[700] In the following list I do not give the statistics for Germany as a whole, as I have been able to procure them for certain states, only. For Germany see: Näcke, “Verbrechen und Wahnsinn beim Weibe”, pp. 161, 162; von Liszt, “Das Verbrechen als sozial-pathologische Erscheinung”, pp. 22, 23; W. Rein, “Jugendliches Verbrecherthum” (“Zeitschr. f. Socialwissenschaft”, III); H. Wetzker, “Die Zunahme der Verbrechen”; Aschaffenburg, op. cit., pp. 107–116; see also the section on Hirsch in Pt. I of this work.

[Note to the American Edition: Besides the works of Neumann, Spann, Pollitz, and Rühle, already cited, the following recent publications must be named: Mönkemöller, “Zur Kriminalität des Kindesalters” (“Archiv f. Krim. Anthrop. u. Kriminalstatistik”, XL); H. W. Gruhle, “Die Ursachen der jugendlichen Verwahrlosung und Kriminalität”; A. Hamburger, “Lebensschicksale geisteskranker Strafgefangener”.]

[701] “Statistisches Uebersicht der Verhältnisse der Oesterreichischen strafanstalten und der Gerichtsgefängnisse”, 1883 and 1884, Table IV and IVa.

[702] “Die Ergebnisse der Strafrechtspflege in den im Reichsrate vertretenen Königreichen und Ländern”, 1896 and 1899.

[703] Mayr, “Statistik und Gesellschaftslehre”, II, p. 197.

[704] Mayr, op. cit., p. 282. [Note to the American Edition: Upon Austria, cf. Baernreither, op. cit.]

[705] J. S., “Zur Verwahrlosung der Kinder in der kapitalistischen Gesellschaft” (“Neue Zeit”, 1893–94, II).

[706] Mayr, “Statistik und Gesellschaftslehre”, II, p. 197.

[707] Morrison, “Juvenile Offenders”, pp. 122–147.

[708] Tönnies, “Jugendliche Kriminalität und Verwahrlosung in Gross-Britannien”, p. 904 (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strw.”, XIII).

[709] Morrison, op. cit., pp. 148–151.

[710] W. H. Douglas, “The Criminal; Some Social and Economic Aspects”, p. 106 (“Proceedings of the Royal Philosophical Society of Glasgow”, vol. XXXIII, 1901–1902).

[711] Lenz, “Die Zwangserziehung in England”, p. 38.

[712] With regard to England see also: L. Gordon Rylands, “Crime, its Causes and Remedy”, pp. 18–19, 37–42.

[713] Figured from the “Statistique pénitentiaire”, 1890–1895.

[714] Mayr, op. cit., p. 197.

[715] Mayr, op. cit., p. 282.

[716] A. von Oettingen says that in 1864 there were in France, out of 8,006 young prisoners, 60% who were illegitimate children or orphans, and 38.5% who were descended from criminals, vagrants, and prostitutes (“Moralstatistik”, p. 335).

[717] P. 17.

[718] Op. cit., p. 48.

[719] Op. cit., p. 201.

[720] Joly, “L’enfance coupable”, p. 37. See the whole of chap. III.

[721] “Le crime dans la famille”, pp. 27, 38.

[722] Motet, “De l’éducation correctionnelle”, p. 186 (“Actes du IIe Congrès d’anthropologie criminelle”).

[723] Raux, op. cit., p. 181.

[724] Raux, op. cit., p. 211. See also the following authors with regard to France: Joly, “La France criminelle”, Ch. VI; Corre, “Crime et Suicide”, pp. 485–490; Tomel and Rollet, “Les enfants en prison”; and Aubry, “La Contagion du meurtre”, pp. 17–51.

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. further: Duprat and de Lanessan, op. cit.; E. Laurent, “La criminalité infantile”; L. Manouvrier, “Quelques cas de criminalité juvénile et commençante” (“Archives d’anthr. crim.” XXVII); E. Martin, “Études sur l’enfance coupable” (“Archives d’anthr. crim.” XXVIII).]

[725] Lenz, op. cit., p. 70.

[726] From Colajanni, “Sociologia criminale”, II, p. 107, and the “Statistica giudiziaria penale per l’anno 1889”, p. CXV.

[727] “Annuario statistico italiano 1900”, p. 95.

[728] Mayr, op. cit., p. 282.

[729] P. 164.

[730] P. 76.

[731] “I caratteri dei delinquenti”, pp. 237 and 250. For Italy see also: Carrara, “Les petits criminels de Cagliari” (“Compte rendu du Ve Congrès d’anthropologie criminelle”).

[732] Figured from “Gerechtelijke Statistiek van het Koningrijk der Nederlanden”, 1896, 1897, 1898, and 1899, and “Crimineele Statistiek”, 1900 and 1901.

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. further the work of de Roos already cited, pp. 117 ff. Dr. J. P. F. A. Noorduijn, “De Observatie, na de invoering der Kinderwetten, etc.” (“Tijdschrift v. Strafrecht”, XXIII), and J. Feith, “Misdadige Kinderen”.]

[733] Mayr, op. cit., p. 197.

[734] Mayr, op. cit., p. 282.

[735] P. 85.

[736] See Drähms, “The Criminal”, Ch. XI.

[737] “Beretning om Rigets Strafarbeidsanstalter for 1897–1898, 1898–1899”, and for 1899–1900 from Weinberg, “Der werdende Verbrecher”, p. 16. (“Neue Zeit”, 1902–1903, II).

[738] Mayr, op. cit., p. 197.

[739] Mayr, op. cit., p. 282.

[740] Aschaffenburg, op. cit., p. 105.

[741] Mayr, op. cit., pp. 197 and 282.

[742] Based on Evert, “Zur Statistik rückfälliger Verbrecher in Preussen.”

[743] “Die Ergebnisse der Schweizerischen Kriminalstatistik während der Jahre 1892–1896”, p. 34.

[744] Mayr, op. cit., p. 282.

[745] “Die Ergebnisse etc.”, pp. 35, 37, 38.

[746] Weinberg, op. cit., p. 19.

[747] Mayr, op. cit., p. 283. The other data are taken from Sichart, “Ueber individuelle Faktoren des Verbrechens.” (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strafrw.” X.)

[748] P. 298.

[749] P. 10.

[750] Richelot, “La Prostitution en Angleterre”, p. 571.

[751] Mayr, “Statistik der gerichtlichen Polizei im Königreiche Bayern und in einigen anderen Ländern”, Table CXVIII.

[752] Parent-Duchatelet, “De la prostitution dans la ville de Paris”, II, p. 612.

[Note to the American Edition: The “Criminal Statistics, Ireland” (1905) even gives a percentage as high as 38.5, of prostitutes among female prisoners (p. 25).]

[753] G. S., “Die weibliche Lohnarbeit und ihr Einfluss auf die Sittlichkeit und Kriminalität”, p. 751 (“Neue Zeit”, 1899–1900, II).

[754] After “Notizie complementari alle statistiche giudiziarie penali degli anni 1890–95.”

[755] P. 173.

[756] See further: Parent-Duchatelet, op. cit., pp. 139–142; Faucher, “Études sur l’Angleterre”, I, pp. 77, 78; C. L. Brace, “The Dangerous Classes in New York”, pp. 116, 117; “Einiges über die Prostitution in Gegenwart und Zukunft”, p. 519 (“Neue Zeit”, 1891–92, I); Commenge, “La prostitution clandestine à Paris”, pp. 29–131; Blaschko, “Die Prostitution im XIX Jahrhundert”, pp. 27, 28.

[757] Upon “souteneurs” and the part they play in crime see: Parent-Duchatelet, op. cit., I, Chap. II, § 12; Frégier, “Les classes dangereuses”, I, pp. 168–170; Ladame, “De la prostitution dans ses rapports avec l’alcoolisme, le crime, et la folie”, p. 16; Sichart, “Ueber individuelle Faktoren des Verbrechens”, p. 44; Baumgarten, op. cit., pp. 17–19; Stursberg, “Die Prostitution in Deutschland und ihre Bekämpfung”, pp. 76–82.

[Note to the American Edition: See further Hermann, op. cit., pp. 68 ff.; Brusse, op. cit.; and H. Ostwald, “Das Zuhältertum in Berlin”.]

[758] P. 138. See also: Engels, “Der Ursprung der Familie, des Privateigenthums und des Staats”, p. 63; Stursberg, op. cit., pp. 28, 29; Faure, “Souvenirs de la Roquette”, p. 360; Baumgarten, op. cit., p. 20; Blaschko, op. cit., pp. 28, 29.

Upon the relation between prostitution and criminality in general see: Moreau-Christophe, “Du problème de la misère”, III, pp. 167–170; Richelot, op. cit., pp. 610–615; Avé-Lallemant, “Das Deutsche Gaunerthum”, II, pp. 28, 29, and 336, III, pp. 157 and 165; Oettingen, “Moralstatistik”, pp. 224–232; Ladame, op. cit., pp. 15 ff.; Lombroso and Ferrero, “La femme criminelle et la prostituée”, pp. 535–538.

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. further the recent studies: A. H. Hübner, “Ueber Prostituirte und ihre strafrechtliche Behandlung” (“Monatschr. f. krim. Psych. und Strafrechtsreform”, III); O. Mönkemöller, “Die Kriminalität der Korrigendin” (“Monatschr.” etc. V) and “Korrektionsanstalt und Landarmenhaus”, ch. III.]

[759] See among others: Krauss, “Die Psychologie des Verbrechens”, pp. 68, 69; Grotjahn, “Der Alkoholismus”, p. 87.

[760] “L’alcoolisme dans ses rapports avec la criminalité”, pp. 411, 413, 415 (“Bulletin de l’académie royale de médecine de Belgique”, 1896).

[761] “La prophylaxie et le traitement du criminel récidiviste”, p.64 (“Compte rendu Ve congrès d’anthropologie criminelle”).

[762] Löffler, “Alkohol und Verbrechen”, p. 511 (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strafrw.” XXIII).

[763] Dalhoff, “Rapport sur l’influence de l’alcoolisme sur la criminalité”, pp. 40, 41. (“Actes du Congrès pénitentiaire internat. de Bruxelles”, IV.)

[764] For the years 1858–1862 taken from Mayr, “Statistik der gerichtlichen Polizei im Königreiche Bayern und in einigen anderen Ländern”, Tab. CXVIII; and for the other years from “Criminal Statistics”, 1894–1897.

[765] In these tables the term “drinker” is used for one who drinks to excess.

[766] Upon England see further: L. Gordon Rylands, “Crime, its Causes and Remedy”, pp. 17, 20–22; J. Baker, “Rapport sur l’influence de l’alcoolisme sur la criminalité”, and W. C. Sullivan, id. (“Actes du Cong. pén. internat. de Brux.” 1900, IV).

[Note to the American Edition: The “Report on the Judicial Statistics of Scotland for the year 1908” contains data upon criminality and alcoholism.]

[767] “Actes,” p. 112.

[768] “Actes”, p. 106. See also upon France: Laurent, “Les habitués des prisons de Paris”, pp. 297 ff.; Corre, “Crime et suicide”, pp. 182 ff., and Verhaeghe, “De l’alcoolisation”, p. 144.

[Note to the American Edition: See also the “Compte général de l’administration de la justice criminelle pendant l’année 1907”, pp. xx ff.]

[769] “Der Alcoholismus”, p. 348.

[770] Op. cit., p. 351.

[771] “Ein Beitrag zur Kenntnis des grossstädtischen Bettel- und Vagabondentums” (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strw.” XXI).

[772] “I caratteri dei delinquenti”, p. 296.

[773] [Note to the American Edition: “The criminal statistics of the Netherlands for 1904” contain data upon the subject in question. Cf. further de Roos, op. cit., pp. 175 ff., and “Parallelismen tusschen alcoholisme en criminaliteit” (“Tijdschrift v. Strafrecht”, XXIII); Verrijn Stuart, op. cit., pp. 204 ff.; A. Ariëns, “Criminaliteit en drankmisbruik.”]

[774] P. 66.

[775] “The Jukes”, p. 85.

[776] Evert, “Zur Statistik rückfälliger Verbrecher in Preussen”, p. 198.

[777] Wieselgren, “L’influence de l’alcoolisme sur la criminalité”, p. 164 (“Actes du Congr. pénit. de Bruxelles”), cf. Kinberg, “Alcool et criminalité” (“Arch. d’anthr. crim.” XXVIII).

[778] Schaffroth, “L’influence de l’alcoolisme sur la criminalité”, p. 128 (“Actes du Cong. pén. intern. de Bruxelles”).

[779] “Die Ergebnisse der Schweizerischen Kriminalstatistik während der Jahre 1892–1896”, p. 36.

[780] “Ueber individuelle Faktoren des Verbrechens”, p. 42.

[781] [Note to the American Edition: Cf. besides the works of de Roos, Verrijn Stuart, Ariëns, and Kinberg, already cited, the following of recent date: H. Hoppe, “Alkohol und Kriminalität”; A. Pistolese, “Alcoolismo e delinquenza”; Hoegel, op. cit., pp. 397 ff.; K. W. F. Boas, “Alkohol und Verbrechen nach neueren Statistiken”; Aull, “Alkohol und Verbrechen”; A. Ley et R. Charpentier, “Alcoolisme et criminalité”; G. B. Gruber, “Der Alkoholismus.” All these authors recognize, though not all in the same degree, that the influence of alcoholism upon crime is great; Pistolese alone denies it almost wholly.]

[782] The question must be looked at from the other side also, and it must be admitted that military service can have a favorable effect upon totally lawless individuals, who thus learn order and discipline; this, however, does not prevent the disadvantages from remaining.

[783] Quoted by Oettingen in his “Moralstatistik”, p. 481.

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. further: upon Germany: H. Dietz, “Die Militärstrafrechtspflege im Lichte der Kriminalstatistik”; for France: A. Corre, “Aperçu général de la criminalité militaire en France”; for Italy: L. Ferrero di Cavallerleone and C. Placido, “Essais de criminologie militaire.”]

[784] See also Oettingen, op. cit., p. 687; Colajanni, “Sociologia criminale”, II, pp. 572–589; Corre, “Crime et suicide”, p. 337; Lux, “Sozialpolitisches Handbuch”, p. 250; Wagner, “Die Sittlichkeit auf dem Lande”, pp. 77–81; Lombroso, “Crime, its Causes and Remedies”, pp. 201–203; Steinmetz, “Der Krieg als sociologisches Problem”, p. 37; Bleibtreu, op. cit., p. 16; Hamon, “Psychologie du Militaire professionnel”, Chs. V–VIII.

[785] See also: Corre, “Essai sur la criminalité”, p. 78 (“Journal des Economistes”, 1868); Colajanni, op. cit. II, pp. 572–589; Aubry, “La contagion du meurtre”, pp. 247–249; Prof. Fr. v. Liszt, “Das Verbrechen als sozial-pathologische Erscheinung”, p. 17.

[Note to the American Edition: See further upon the demoralizing consequences of war: Steinmetz, “Die Philosophie des Krieges”, ch. III, 5, and my criticism of this book under the title “An apology for war” (“Nieuwe Tijd”, XIII, pp. 488 ff.). Think of the horrible cruelties committed in the recent wars in the Balkans (see the report of the Commission of the Carnegie Foundation); no one can any longer deny the demoralizing consequences of war!] [It may be of interest to the reader to know that the author wrote the foregoing in the spring of 1914.—Transl.]

[786] Aubry, “La contagion du meurtre”, p. 70; see also Ch. III, and Aschaffenburg, op. cit., p. 229.

[787] “Kriminalstatistik für das Jahr 1895”, I, p. 31.

[788] “Kriminalstat. f. d. Jahr 1900”, I, pp. 18–19.

[789] “Kriminalstat. f. d. Jahr 1895”, I, p. 25.

[790] Drähms, “The Criminal”, p. 228, and “Criminal Statistics”, 1894–1900, Table XXXV.

[791] After “Criminal Statistics”, 1894–1900, Table IX.

[792] “Ergebnisse der Strafrechtspflege in den im Reichsrate vertretenen Königreichen und Ländern im Jahre 1899”, p. li.

[793] The figures for 1850–1880 are taken from Bournet, “De la criminalité en France et en Italie”, p. 31, for the Assizes, and from Joly, “La France criminelle”, p. 166, for the others; the figures for 1881–1900 are from the “Rapport sur l’administration de la justice criminelle de 1881 à 1900”, p. lxii.

[794] “Rapport etc.”, pp. lxiv and lxv.

[795] After Bournet “De la criminalité en France et en Italie”, p. 32, and “Statistica giudiziaria penale”, 1881–1889. The criminal statistics for 1890–95 contain all those convicted including those brought before the justices of the peace, which makes them not comparable with those given above. The average figure for 1891–95 was 25.27%, and for 1896–1900, 30.19% (“Notizie complementari etc.”, 1896–1900).

[796] After the “Jaarcijfers voor het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden”, 1901, p. 121.

[Note to the American Edition: The general percentage of recidivism in the Netherlands had risen to 44.5% in 1908.]

[797] On short imprisonments for minor offenses see von Liszt, “Kriminalpolitische Aufgaben”, V, “Die kurzzeitige Freiheitsstrafe” (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strw.” IX).

[798] See Gautier, “Le monde des prisons” (“Archives d’anthropologie criminelle”, III) p. 563; Colajanni, “Sociologia criminale”, II, pp. 671–679; Laurent, “Les habitués des prisons de Paris”, pp. 592–596; Havelock Ellis, “Verbrecher und Verbrechen”, pp. 266–276; Moreau, “Le monde des prisons”, pp. 280–282; Aubry, “La contagion du meurtre”, Ch. II; Lombroso, “Les palimpsestes des prisons”, pp. 379–381.

[799] Pp. 142, 143.

[800] Op. cit., p. 22.

[801] I will mention the following: Prins, “Criminalité et répression”, Ch. V; Ferri, “La sociologie criminelle”, pp. 546–554, and “Eine Verirrung des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts” (“Neue Zeit”, 1898–1899, II); Sacker, op. cit., pp. 70–74; Roos, “De strafmiddelen in de nieuwere strafrechtswetenschap”, Ch. VIII; Leuss, op. cit., pp. 176–193.

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. further: G. Gradnauer, “Das Elend des Strafvollzugs”, and A. Aletrino, “Is celstraf nog langer geoorloofd en gewenscht?”]

[802] See the Reports already cited, and Winter, “The New York State Reformatory in Elmira.”

[803] As was pointed out in Part I, Tarde is the author who has drawn attention to the rôle of imitation in the etiology of crime; but see also: Sighele, “Le crime à deux”, “La foule criminelle”, and “La psychologie des sectes”; Aubry, “La contagion du meurtre”; Ferriani, “Minderjährige Verbrecher”, pp. 203–211.

[804] P. 37.

[805] See Engels, “The Condition of the Working Class in England”, pp. 120 ff.

[806] “Criminal statistics”, 1894 and 1898, pp. 24 and 31.

[Note to the American Edition: In the “Crim. Stat. England and Wales, 1905” there is a special study of crime in some of the great cities (pp. 62 ff.).]

[807] Prinzing, “Soziale Faktoren der Kriminalität”, pp. 565, 566.

[808] “Rapport sur l’administration de la justice criminelle de 1881 à 1900”, p. xxix.

[809] “Rapport etc.”, p. xxx.

[810] “Crimineele statistiek over het jaar 1901”, pp. xvii and xviii.

[811] See also A. Mayer, “Die Verbrechen in ihrem Zusammenhang mit den wirtschaftlichen und sozialen Verhältnissen im Kanton Zürich.”

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. further: for Germany: J. Galle, “Die Kriminalität in Stadt und Land in ihrer Beziehung zur Berufsverteilung”; for the Balkan States: Wadler, op. cit., pp. 155 ff.; for Belgium: Jacquart, op. cit., pp. 86 ff.; for the Netherlands: de Roos, op. cit., pp. 222 ff., and Verrijn Stuart, op. cit., p. 239.]

[812] See, among others, de Vries, “Eenheid in Veranderlijkheid”, pp. 3–6.

[813] [Note to the American Edition: In present day sociology it is almost universally accepted that there is only a quantitative difference between criminals and other men, and that the “homo criminalis” does not exist. An interesting contribution to this question is given by Dr. Finkelnburg in his “Die Bestraften in Deutschland”. His statistical calculations bring him to the conclusion that in Germany there is one person out of every 12 (over 20 years of age) convicted!]

[814] I speak neither of all the crimes nor of all the motives of those of which I do treat. For a complete enumeration of the motives of crimes, see Starke, “Des éléments essentiels qui doivent figurer dans la statistique criminelle et des moyens de les rendre comparables”, pp. 77, 78 (“Bulletin de l’institut international de statistique”, 1889), and von Liszt, “Die psychologischen Grundlagen der Kriminalpolitik”, pp. 490–494 (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strw.” XVI).

[815] After the “Kriminalstatistik für das Jahr 1900”, II, pp. 7–13.

[816]

[817] After the “Rapport sur l’administration etc.”, Tables 1, 2, and 7.

[818] After “Notizie complementari alle statistiche giudiziarie penali degli anni 1890–1895”, pp. x and xi.

[819] After the “Gerechtelijke Statistiek”, 1897–1899, and the “Crimineele Statistiek”, 1900–1901.

[820] “Rapport sur l’administration etc.”, p. xxxvii.

[821] Ferri, “Atlante antropologico-statistico dell’omicidio”, p. 328, for 1880, and for 1881, from “Statistica giudiziaria penale per l’anno 1881”, pp. xc and xci.

[822] [There seems no better way to designate a classification that does not exist in English than by taking over this French term.—Transl.]

[823] Pp. 6, 14–18.

[824] “Ueber individuelle Faktoren des Verbrechens”, pp. 40, 41. On the relation between vagrancy and mendicity, and criminality see also: Colajanni, “Sociologia criminale”, I, pp. 478, 479 (quoted in Part I of this work); Kurella, “Naturgeschichte des Verbrechers”, pp. 206, 207; Sacker, “Der Rückfall”, pp. 56, 57; Fornasari de Verce, “La criminalità e le vicende economiche d’Italia”, p. 19; A. Meyer, “Die Verbrechen in ihrem Zusammenhang mit den wirtschaftlichen und sozialen Verhältnissen im Kanton Zürich”, p. 59; Ferriani, “Minderjährige Verbrecher”, pp. 144 ff.; Bérard, “Le vagabondage en France”, pp. 609, 610 (“Arch. d’anthr. crim.” XIII); Florian and Cavaglieri, “I Vagabondi”, II, pp. 181–197; Löwenstimm, “Das Bettelgewerbe”, pp. 124–128 (“Kriminalistische Studien”); Rivière, “Mendiants et vagabonds”, pp. 227, 228.

[825] “Neue Zeit”, 1893–1894, II, p. 443.

[826] Ostwald, “Das Leben der Wanderarmen”, p. 313 (“Archiv f. Kriminalanthr. u. Kriminalstat.” XIII).

[827] “Neue Zeit”, 1893–1894, II, p. 58.

[828] Ostwald, op. cit., p. 313.

[829] Florian and Cavaglieri, op. cit., II, pp. xl and xli.

[830] See the works of Fornasari di Verce, Tugan-Baranowsky, and G. Mayr, cited in Part I.

[Note to the American Edition: In his “Statistik und Gesellschaftslehre”, III, p. 653, G. V. Mayr gives statistics of vagrancy and mendicity for Germany (1877–1888), in which there appears a formidable increase during the years 1877–1880 (the end of the economic crisis), and a decrease after 1880. For Austria cf. Herz, op. cit., pp. 49 ff.]

[831] [Note to the American Edition: Upon Bavaria, cf. F. Knoblauch, “Bettel und Landstreicherei im Königreiche Bayern”, 1893–99.]

[832] For France see also Bérard, op. cit., pp. 607, 608.

[833] Ostwald, op. cit., p. 313. Cf. upon the periods 1866–1870 and 1877–1884, H. Bennecke, “Bemerkungen zur Kriminalstatistik des Grossherzogtums Hessen”, pp. 369 ff.

[834] Cf. K. Böhmert, “Die Sächsische Kriminalstatistik mit besonderer Rücksicht auf die Jahre 1882–1887.”

[835] See Bérard, op. cit., pp. 605, 606.

[836] Flynt, op. cit., p. 170.

[837] “Ein Beitrag zur Kenntnis des grossstädtischen Bettel- und Vagabondentums” (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strafrw.” XXI).

[838] See Ostwald, op. cit., pp. 306, 307.

[839] After “Criminal Statistics”, 1894–1900, Table XIII. In studying these figures it must not be lost sight of that in general a workman is soon worn out and after that is no longer hired.

[840] After “de Gerechtelijke Statistiek”, 1896–1899 and “de Crimineele Statistiek”, 1901.

[841] After pp. 30, 31.

[842] Pp. 40, 41.

[843] “Naturgeschichte des Verbrechers”, p. 208.

[844] Florian and Cavaglieri, op. cit., II, p. 22. See also the whole of Sec. 5, IV, Chap. 2, of the same authors.

[Note to the American Edition: Upon this subject cf. K. Wilmanns, “Zur Psychopathologie des Landstreichers”, and Stelzner, op. cit., pp. 92 ff.]

[845] See Dugdale, “The Jukes”, pp. 47 and 49; and Flynt, op. cit., p. 6.

[846] See Florian and Cavaglieri, op. cit., II, pp. 34, 35, 177, 178.

[847] See Tomel and Rollet, “Les enfants en prison”, pp. 55–76; Puibaraud, “Les malfaiteurs de profession”, pp. 217–230; Albanel, “Le crime dans la famille”, p. 88; Löwenstimm, op. cit., pp. 89–99; Joly, “L’enfance coupable”, pp. 60 ff.

[848] Op. cit., pp. 31, 32.

[849] Florian and Cavaglieri, op. cit., II, p. 52. See also: Frégier, “Les classes dangereuses de la population dans les grandes villes”, I, pp. 199, 200; Tomel and Rollet, op. cit., pp. 28–45; and Albanel, op. cit., p. 78.

[850] Op. cit., p. 2.

[851] Flynt, op. cit., p. 49; Th. Holmes, “Pictures and Problems of London Police Courts”, p. 64; and others.

[852] Upon vagrancy and mendicity of children see further: J. Délie, “Le vagabondage des mineurs”; Ferriani, “Minderjährige Verbrecher”, pp. 144–155; and Flynt, op. cit., pp. 28–60.

[Note to the American Edition: Upon pathological children see P. Schroeder, “Das Fortlaufen der Kinder” (“Monatschr. f. Krim. Psychologie u. Strafr. reform”, VIII); and E. Stier, “Wandertrieb und pathologisches Fortlaufen bei Kindern.”]

[853] See Florian and Cavaglieri, op. cit., II, pp. 11–14.

[854] See, for example, Löwenstimm, op. cit., pp. 17 and 92.

[855] See Bérard, op. cit., p. 605.

[856] See Ferriani, “Minderjährige Verbrecher”, pp. 177 ff., and “Schlaue und glückliche Verbrecher”, pp. 460 ff.

[857] Op. cit., pp. 97, 103, 110, 182, and 244.

[858] Op. cit., p. 38.

[859] Op. cit., I, pp. 111, 112.

[860] Ferriani, “Minderjährige Verbrecher”, pp. 151–154. Tomel and Rollet, op. cit., pp. 24–27.

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. Haury, “La paresse pathologique” (“Archives d’anthrop. crim.” XXVIII).]

[861] “Die Vagabondage und ihre Behandlung”, p. 715 (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strafrw.” XI).

[862] [Note to the American Edition: Of the recent literature upon vagrancy and mendicity we would call attention to the following: K. Wilmanns, “Das Landstreichertum, seine Bekämpfung und Abhilfe”; A. Aletrino, “Handleiding bij de studie der crimineele anthropologie”, II, ch. VI; Rotering, “Das Landstreichertum der Gegenwart”; Riebeth, “Ueber den geistigen und körperlichen Zustand der Korrigenden”; de Roos, op. cit., pp. 151 ff.; A. Marie and R. Meunier, “Les vagabonds”; Pollitz, op. cit., pp. 95 ff.; A. Pagnier, “Le vagabond”; Kauffmann, op. cit., pp. 97 ff.; H. T. de Graaf, “Karakter en behandeling van veroordeelden wegens landlooperij en bedelarij.”]

[863] Marx, “Kapital”, I, ch. XXLV, pp. 699 ff.

[864] Upon the impossibility of innate moral concepts see Näcke, “Die neueren Erscheinungen auf kriminal-anthropologischen Gebiete und ihre Bedeutung”, p. 342 (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strafrw.” XIV).

[865] “Der Ursprung der Idee des Gerechten und Ungerechten”, pp. 470, 471. (“Neue Zeit”, 1898–1899, II.)

[866] “Kriminalstatistik für das Jahr 1894”, II, p. 53.

[867] The figures in the line a are the absolute figures (annual averages), those in the line b the relative numbers, i.e. what the daily average for that month would be if the daily average for the year were 100.

[868] “Marche de la criminalité en France, 1825–1880” (“Revue scientifique”, 1881), to be found also in Levasseur’s “La population française”, II, p. 458.

[869] Taken from the “Kriminalstatistik”, 1895, 1907, 1908 and 1911, and from the “Statistisches Jahrbuch für das Deutsche Reich.”

[870] The figures from 1906 on are comparable with those preceding, only with reserve.

[871] The figures from 1907 on are not comparable with those preceding.

[872] For details see my study already cited, “Verbrechen und Sozialismus.”

[873] [Note to the American Edition: The English criminal statistics for 1905 show an interesting diagram upon the connection between the trend of economic crime and that of business from 1885 to 1905 (Int. p. 24).]

[874] [Note to the American Edition: Cf. Jacquart, op. cit. pp. 109 ff.]

[875] [Note to the American Edition: For the period 1896–1908 I have shown in my study “Crime et Socialisme” the striking parallel between economic crime and the business situation.]

[876] There are still to be mentioned as authors who have treated the dynamics of criminality: J. Sacker, “Der Rückfall” (pp. 39, 40); Aschaffenburg, “Das Verbrechen und seine Bekämpfung” (pp. 89 ff.); and H. Leuss, “Aus dem Zuchthause” (pp. 228 ff.).

[Note to the American Edition: See further: for Austria: Hoegel, op. cit., pp. 369 ff., Herz, op. cit., pp. 40 ff.; for Saxony: Böhmert, op. cit., and Wulffen, op. cit., I pp. 390 ff.; for Servia: Wadler, op. cit., p. 73 ff. Cf. also in general: V. Mancini, “Le varie specie di furto nella storia e nella sociologia”, III 3, Ch. IV.]

[877] Cf. further: Aschaffenburg, op. cit., pp. 98 ff.; Eggert, “Not und Verbrechen”; Wulffen, op. cit., I, pp. 395 ff.; v. Rohden in “Zeitschr. f. Sozialwissenschaft”, VII, pp. 522 ff., and IX, pp. 229 ff.

[878] Cf. the recent study of Prinzing, “Die soziale Lage der Witwe in Deutschland” (“Zeitschr. f. Sozialwissenschaft”, III).

[879] In general, criminals are distinguished as occasional, habitual, and professional. Habitual criminals, however, are also occasional criminals, for they do not seek the occasion for their crimes like criminals by profession, but profit by it whenever it presents itself. They are the bond of union between the first and third kind of criminals, and in my opinion, it is unnecessary to treat of them separately.

[880] See the passage from Mably, Pt. I, p. 14; also Lassalle, “Offenes Antwort-Schreiben” (“Reden und Schriften”, II, pp. 426–427).

[881] Cf. Földes, “Einige Ergebnisse der neueren Kriminalstatistik”, p. 548.

[882] Cf. Ryckère, “La servante criminelle”, ch. III.

[883] As to the literature upon theft in stores, etc., see especially Lacassagne, “Les vols à l’étalage et dans les grands magasins” (“Compte rendu du IVe Congrès d’anthr. crim.”) and Dubuisson, “Les voleuses des grands magasins” (“Arch. d’anthr. crim.”, XVI.); also Lombroso and Ferrero, “La femme criminelle et la prostituée”, pp. 481, 482; Albanel, op. cit., pp. 91–95.

[884] An interesting proof of the truth of this assertion may be found in an article by Dr. P. v. Gizycki, entitled “Wie urteilen Schulkinder über Funddiebstahl?” (“Zeitschrift für Kinderforschung”, VIII). One day this author gave young girls (between 11 and 15 years of age) in a school of the poor in Berlin, the following composition: “You are going to the Christmas fair without money, for your parents are poor. Your father is out of work. You find a pocket book containing a five-mark piece. What do you do with it?” The children had not been prepared for the subject and had received no indication of how they ought to treat it. Only five per cent. of the girls said that they would return the money, because they would pity the person who lost it, and who might also be poor. All the others among those who also wished to return the money (53%) had other motives. Those who, on the contrary, wished to retain the money, wanted, without exception, to use it to give their parents things they needed. Who will still dare to say that the children who wanted to keep the money (most of them believing in good faith that they had a right to it) in order to give it to others, had feelings less social than most of the rich who, without blushing, see the misery of the poor?

[885] Upon the bad surroundings of the childhood of thieves see further: Raux, “Nos jeunes détenus”, p. 42, and Ferriani, “Minderjährige Verbrecher”, pp. 264 ff.

[886] Op. cit., p. 28.

[887] “Das Verbrechen, etc.”, p. 123.

[888] Op. cit., p. 42.

[889] Cf. Ferriani, “Schlaue und glückliche Verbrecher”, p. 39, and Sighele, “Psychologie des sectes”, pp. 141, 142.

[890] Ferriani, op. cit. See also Zerboglio, “Les inconvénients de l’honnêteté” (“L’ère nouvelle”, 1894).

[891] “Aus dem Zuchthause”, p. 122.

[892] “Kriminalstatistik f. d. Jahr 1896”, I, p. 14.

[893] “Notizie complementari alle statistiche giudiziarie penali degli anni 1890–1895”, p. viii.

[894] Tönnies, “Das Verbrechen als soziale Erscheinung”, p. 334 (“Arch. f. Soz. Gesetzgeb. u. Stat.”, VIII).

[895] Tarde, “Les délits impoursuivis”, p. 207 (“Essais et mélanges sociologiques”).

[896] “Statistica giudiziaria penale per l’anno 1894”, p. lxxxii. See also the detailed statistics cited by Ferriani, op. cit., pp. 112–118.

[897] “Les malfaiteurs de profession”, 5. 139.

[898] “Les transformations de l’impunité”, p. 167 (published by Professor Lacassagne in “Vacher l’éventreur et les crimes sadiques”).

[899] “Betrachtungen über ein Sammeln der verbrecherischen Motive”, p. 278 (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strafrw.”, XVII). See also Földes, op. cit., pp. 516–519.

[900] In a work upon the etiology of crime it is unnecessary to set forth in detail the numerous ruses that professional criminals make use of to dupe the public and the police. We merely note here a few important works dealing with this subject: Frégier, “Les classes dangereuses de la population dans les grandes villes”, I, Part II, Chap. VII; Avé-Lallemant, “Das deutsche Gaunerthum”, III, pp. 118–340; O. S., “Die Verbrecherwelt von Berlin”, III (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strafrw.”, V); Puibaraud, “Les malfaiteurs de profession.”

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. Herz, op. cit., Ch. IVa, and E. Wulffen, “Gauner- und Verbrechertypen.”]

[901] Cf. the following passage from “Tramping with Tramps”, by Josiah Flynt: “One more regret which nearly all criminals of the class I am considering have experienced at one time or another in their lives, is that circumstances have led them into a criminal career. Their remorse may be only for a moment, and an exaggerated indifference often follows it; but while it lasts it is genuine and sincere. I have never known a criminal well who has not confessed to me something of this sort; and he has often capped it with a further confidence—his sorrow that it was now too late to try anything else” (pp. 25–26).

[902] Op. cit., pp. 131, 132. As regards the education of children in thieving, see also: Faucher, “Études sur l’Angleterre”, I, pp. 89 ff.; Tomel and Rollet, “Les enfants en prison”, pp. 195–197.

[903] Although there are some works upon this subject, criminal sociology would derive great profit from the publication of a great number of biographies of criminals, and especially of great criminals.

[Note to the American Edition: Dr. N. Muller in his work already referred to, “Biografisch-aetiologisch onderzoek etc.”, has made a noteworthy beginning in this field, by giving biographies of 24 great criminals. The “Verbrechertypen” edited by Gruhle and Wetzel, promises much.]

[904] See, among others, G. Moreau, “Souvenirs de la petite et de la grande Roquette”, I. p. 27, and “Le monde des prisons”, pp. 11, 16; L. Gordon Rylands, “Crime, its Causes and Remedy”, pp. 18 ff.

[905] Op. cit., pp. 21, 22.

[906] Op. cit., p. 22.

[907] Op. cit., pp. 23, 24. To the same effect see O. S., op. cit., pp. 136, 137.

[908] Op. cit., pp. 5, 6; see also pp. 11–12. To the same effect: Starke, “Verbrechen und Verbrecher in Preussen”, p. 221; Havelock Ellis, “Verbrecher und Verbrechen”, pp. 24, 25; and Leuss, “Aus dem Zuchthause”, p. 125.

[909] [Note to the American Edition: Muller mentions further as a result of his researches that criminals by profession show in general an adventurous and unstable character. Cf. Kauffmann, op. cit., pp. 160 ff.]

[910] “Actes du IIe Congrès d’Anthr. Crim.”, p. 163.

[911] IV., pp. 386–388. See also Zerboglio, “Les inconvénients de l’honnêteté”, pp. 385 ff.

[912] [Note to the American Edition: Cf. further (besides the works of Muller and Kauffmann): Wulffen, II, pp. 284 ff.; Pollitz, op. cit., pp. 124 ff.; also Brusse’s brochure, already cited, “Het rosse”, etc.]

[913] Cf. A. H. Post, “Bausteine für eine allgemeine Rechtswissenschaft”, I, p. 293, and “Grundriss der ethnologischen Jurisprudenz”, II, pp. 421 ff.

[914] In his “Grundriss, etc.”, II, p. 213, Dr. Post names different peoples who do not consider theft as blamable but as praiseworthy. It is very probable that this relates to theft committed to the detriment of another group, and not to the prejudice of the members of the thief’s own group. It is plain that it is only the latter kind of theft that we treat of in a work upon crime. Cf. Kovalewsky, “Les origines du devoir”, pp. 88, 89 (“Revue internationale de sociologie”, II).

[915] To the same effect see Kovalewsky, op. cit., pp. 88, 89, note.

[916] “Bausteine etc.”, I, pp. 286, 287. See by the same author, “Grundriss etc.”, II, p. 429, and “Der Ursprung des Rechts”, pp. 114, 115. Cf. Steinmetz, “Ethnologische Studien zur ersten Entwicklung der Strafe”, II, p. 252.

[917] Cf. the quotation from Morgan on p. 386 of this work.

[918] See Dargun, “Ursprung und Entwicklungsgeschichte des Eigenthums”, pp. 81–83.

[919] Cf. Post, “Bausteine etc.”, I, p. 288 ff.

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. further: Westermarck, “Ursprung und Entwicklung der Moralbegriffe”, II, ch. 24.]

[920] Cf. v. Liszt, “Das gewerbmässige Verbrechen”, pp. 126, 127 (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strw.” XXI).

[921] “Statistica giudiziaria penale per l’anno 1889”, pp. cliv–clv.

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. further upon Austria: Herz, op. cit., pp. 39 ff.; upon the Balkan states: Wadler, op. cit., pp. 46 and 54.]

[922] “Della statistica dell’omicidio negli stati Uniti d’America” (“Bulletin de l’Institut intern. de statistique”, X), pp. 40 ff.

[923] Cf. Niceforo, “Les transformations du crime et la civilisation moderne”, pp. 642 ff. (“Scuola Positiva”, XI).

[924] “Kriminalstatistik für das Jahr 1894”, II, p. 53.

[925] H. Berg, “Getreidepreise und Kriminalität in Deutschland seit 1882”, pp. 10, 18.

[Note to the American Edition: After 1898, also, the influence of the economic situation made itself felt in these crimes.]

[926] P. 47. See plate, pp. 40, 41.

[927] [Note to the American Edition: Wadler has shown the connection of these two phenomena for Servia (op. cit., p. 83).]

[928] Taken from Sighele, “Le crime à deux”, pp. 122–125.

[929] Taken from “Archiv für Kriminal-Anthropologie und Kriminalstatistik”, XI, pp. 307 ff.

[930] Baer, “Ueber jugendliche Mörder und Todtschläger” (“Archiv f. Krim.-Anthr. und Krim.”, XI).

[931] Op. cit., pp. 166, 167.

[932] “Les enfants en prison”, p. 215.

[933] Cf. Ferriani, “Minderjährige Verbrecher”, pp. 279 ff.

[934] Taken from Moreau, “Souvenirs de la petite et de la grande Roquette”, II, ch. VIII. See also Joly, “Le crime”, pp. 97 ff.

[935] Cf. Manouvrier, “Les crânes des suppliciés” (“Arch. d’anthr. crim.”, I), where he shows that the conformation of the skulls of assassins is simply of a coarser type than others.

[936] Pp. 47–48.

[937] “Tramping with Tramps”, p. 24. Cf. Moreau, “Le monde des prisons”, p. 621, and Kauffmann, op. cit., pp. 163, 164 and 203–206.

[938] Cf. Post, “Der Ursprung des Rechts”, p. 116, “Bausteine etc.”, I, pp. 300–302, and “Grundriss der ethnologischen Jurisprudenz”, II, p. 444.

[939] P. 318.

[940] For Germany see also H. Berg, “Getreidepreise und Kriminalität in Deutschland seit 1882”, p. 18.

[941] Pp. 375, 376.

[942] Where capitalism is beginning to develop, adulteration, etc., is the order of the day (e.g. in Japan in our day. See “Zeitschr. f. Socialwissenschaft”, N. F. IV, p. 503); later a certain honesty, based upon interest, especially in the wholesale business, becomes the rule. (Cf. Engels, “Die Lage der arbeitenden Klassen in England”, Preface pp. vii–viii.)

[943] See Zerboglio, “Les inconvénients de l’honnêteté” (“L’ère nouvelle”, 1894); also Ferriani, “Glückliche und schlaue Verbrecher”, IV.

[944] Laschi, op. cit., pp. 72, 73.

[945] Laschi, op. cit., p. 106.

[946] Laschi, op. cit., pp. 97 ff.

[947] Pp. xx and xxi.

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. B. Kritschewsky, “Die Korruption in der französischen Demokratie” (“Neue Zeit”, XXVIII2), pp. 12 ff.]

[948] See Laschi, op. cit., p. 107.

[Note to the American Edition: Upon the way in which great fortunes have been amassed, see F. Kummer, “Die Geschichte der grossen amerikanischen Vermögen” (“Neue Zeit”, XXX2).]

[949] For descriptions of cases see Zola, “L’argent”, and Wulffen, op. cit., II, p. 334.

[950] Laschi, op. cit., p. 180.

[951] Pp. 147, 148.

[952] P. 128 (in the original, p. 131).

[953] Cf. Post, “Grundriss der ethnologischen Jurisprudenz”, II, p. 359; Letourneau, “L’évolution du mariage et de la famille”, p. 257; Lafargue, “Der Ehebruch in Gegenwart und Vergangenheit” (“Neue Zeit”, VII); and Ferrero, “Le crime d’adultère—son passé, son avenir” (“Archives d’anthrop. crim.”, IX).

[954] “Les criminels dans l’art et la littérature”, p. 141. Cf. also Letourneau, “Évolution du mariage”, pp. 282, 283.

[955] Pp. 444, 445.

[956] Aschaffenburg, “Das Verbrechen und seine Bekämpfung”, p. 13. Cf. A. v. Oettingen, “Moralstatistik”, pp. 221, 222; Prof. Tardieu, “Étude médico-légale sur les attentats aux mœurs”, pp. 22, 23; Dr. P. Bernard, “Des viols et attentats à la pudeur sur adultes”, p. 562 (“Arch. d’anthr. crim.” II); also the German criminal statistics.

[957] “Das Verbrechen in seiner Abhängigkeit von dem jährlichen Temperaturwechsel” (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strafrw.”, II).

[958] See G. v. Mayr, “Gesetzmässigkeit im Gesellschaftsleben”, pp. 239 ff., and “Statistik und Gesellschaftslehre”, II, pp. 170, 171.

[959] “Contribution à l’étude statistique de la criminalité en France”, p. 60. Dr. A. Bournet, in “De la criminalité en France et en Italie”, p. 68, and Ferri, op. cit., p. 39, and Bernard, op. cit., p. 566, come to the same conclusion.

[960] Socquet, op. cit., pp. 61 and 69. See also Ferri, op. cit., p. 43.

[961] Socquet, op. cit., p. 60.

[962] Cf. Bournet, op. cit., p. 68, and Bernard, op. cit., p. 567.

[963] The first two columns are taken from Bernard, op. cit., p. 569; the last is figured from the “Annuaire statistique de la France”, VII, p. 526.

[Note to the American Edition: The same thing is shown by the criminal statistics of the Netherlands. Cf. de Roos, op. cit., p. 114, and my own study already cited, “Misdaad en Socialisme”, pp. 34–35.]

[964] “Die Sittlichkeitsverbrechen in Deutschland in kriminalstatistischer Beleuchtung”, p. 266. Cf. Wittenberg and Wagner, “Die geschlechtlich sittlichen Verhältnisse der evangelischen Landbewohner im Deutschen Reiche”, and Wagner, “Die Sittlichkeit auf dem Lande.” See also Ferriani, “Minderjährige Verbrecher”, pp. 96 ff., and L. Braun, “Die Frauenfrage”, pp. 385, 386.

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. Herz, op. cit., p. 35; Bonger, op. cit., pp. 33, 34; Baernreither, op. cit. passim; and Geill, “Kriminal-anthropologische Untersuchungen dänischer Sittlichkeitsverbrecher”, p. 358.]

[965] See among others Grotjahn, “Der Alkoholismus”, pp. 53 and 86.

[966] “Actes du congrès pénitentiaire international de Bruxelles.”

[967] Loeffler, “Alkohol und Verbrechen”, pp. 518–521 (“Zeitschrift f. d. ges. Strafrw.” XXIII).

[968] P. 113. See also Bournet, op. cit., p. 69.

[969] “Crimineele Statistiek voor het jaar 1901”, p. xxvii.

[970] “Actes etc.”, p. 167.

[Note to the American Edition: Upon the influence of alcohol upon sexual crimes see further Geill, op. cit., p. 362; Aschaffenburg, “Zur Psychologie der Sittlichkeitsverbrechen”, p. 408; Bonhoeffer, “Sittlichkeitsdelikt und Körperverletzung”, p. 469.]

[971] “Die Ergebnisse der schweizerischen Kriminalstatistik während der Jahre 1892–1896.”

[972] See “Der Ursprung des Rechts”, p. 112; “Die Grundlagen des Rechts etc.”, p. 377; and “Grundriss der ethnologischen Jurisprudenz”, II, p. 382.

[973] See among others Garraud and Bernard, “Des attentats à la pudeur et des viols sur les enfants”, pp. 404–405 (“Arch. d’anthr. crim.”, I).

[974] See Lafargue, p. 293; Garraud and Bernard, op. cit., pp. 408–409.

[975] Cf. “Reports on the law relating to the protection of young girls”, 1882, p. 37; Dr. Ladame, “De la prostitution dans ses rapports avec l’alcoolisme, le crime, et la folie”, pp. 24–26; and Amschl, “Aberglauben als Heilmittel”, pp. 397, 398 (“Archiv f. Krim.-Anthr. und Kriminalstatistik”, XV).

[976] Cf. Tardieu, op. cit., pp. 21, 22; Levasseur, “La population française”, II, p. 448; Starke, op. cit., pp. 172, 173.

[977] Socquet, op. cit., pp. 60 and 68.

[978] In his “Die Frau und der Sozialismus”, Bebel gives almost the same proportion for Germany without indicating the source from which he takes his figures. As he remarks the percentage of the rich and well-to-do would be larger if those interested did not often succeed in hushing the matter up. We need only recall the revelations made by the “Pall Mall Gazette” (see “Les scandales de Londres”).

[979] Garraud and Bernard, op. cit., p. 432.

[980] Socquet, op. cit., pp. 60 and 69.

[981] Cf. Bournet, op. cit., pp. 66–68; Socquet, op. cit., p. 73; Garraud and Bernard, op. cit., p. 435.

[982] The author makes the mistake of omitting here the words “of children.” Statistics show that it is especially the country, where the sexual life is characterized rather by grossness than by perversion, that produces these crimes. Dr. Després has been led to this error through studying the geography of rape upon children and upon adults at the same time—by which method they are seen to be most numerous in the cities where prostitution exists exclusively. An examination of the two crimes separately gives different results.

[983] P. 43.

[984] Op. cit., p. 24. Cf. Tarde, “Penal Philosophy”, p. 355, and Leuss, op. cit., p. 106.

[985] Op. cit., p. 36.

[986] Cf. Bérard des Glajeux, “Les passions criminelles”, pp. 121, 122.

[Note to the American Edition: Additional works that have appeared recently are: R. Quanter, “Die Sittlichkeitsverbrechen”; F. Leppmann, “Die Sittlichkeitsverbrecher” (very interesting!); de Roos, “De sexueele criminaliteit”; L. Wachholz, “Zur Lehre von den sexuellen Delikten”; E. Wulffen, “Der Sexualverbrecher”; L. Ferrante Capetti, “Reati e psicopatie sessuali”; J. Werthauer, “Sittlichkeits-Delikte der Gross-Stadt”; Kauffmann, op. cit., pp. 133 ff.; M. R. Senf, “Geschlechtstrieb und Verbrechen.”]

[987] For a complete enumeration of the motives of crime see: Liszt, “Die psychologischen Grundlagen der Kriminalpolitik”, pp. 490–494 (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strw.”, XVI) and Starke, “Des éléments essentiels qui doivent figurer dans la statistique criminelle et des moyens de les rendre comparables”, pp. 77, 78 (“Bulletin de l’inst. intern. de statistique”, 1889).

[Note to the American Edition: See further the recent studies upon superstition and crime: Löwenstimm, “Aberglaube und Verbrechen”, “Aberglaube und Gesetz”; Wulffen, “Psychologie des Verbrechens”, II, pp. 219–229; Helling, “Verbrechen und Aberglaube”.]

[988] Upon the psychology of vengeance see Steinmetz, “Ethnologische Studien zur ersten Entwicklung der Strafe”, I, pp. 99 ff.

[989] Upon the instinct of vengeance see: A. H. Post, “Bausteine für eine allgemeine Rechtswissenschaft”, I, pp. 140 ff.; Colajanni, “Sociologia criminale”, II, p. 64; Letourneau, “L’évolution juridique”, pp. 7 ff.; Lafargue, “Der Ursprung der Idee des Gerechten und Ungerechten”, p. 421 (“Neue Zeit”, 1898–1899, II).

[990] Cf. Prinzing, “Soziale Faktoren der Kriminalität”, p. 558, and Aschaffenburg, “Das Verbrechen und seine Bekämpfung”, p. 135.

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. especially: Müller-Lyer, “Phasen der Liebe”, pp. 47 ff.]

[991] See Ferriani, “L’amore in tribunali”, and L. Holtz, “Les crimes passionels”, upon crimes of this class.

[992] II, p. 131.

[993] “Eskimo Life.”

[994] See Letourneau, “L’évolution du mariage et de la famille”, p. 275.

[995] See Steinmetz, op. cit., II, p. 303, and Sutherland, op. cit., I, chap. VIII.

[996] It is plain that this influences also those relationships that are not sanctioned by law.

[997] There is almost no mention of sexual jealousy where men and women both occupy an independent position. Cf. Morgan, “Ancient Society”, p. 431.

[998] Cf. Holtz, op. cit., pp. 52–54.

[999] Cf. Holtz, op. cit., pp. 147–149.

[1000] “Kriminalstatistik für das Jahr 1894”, II, p. 52.

[1001] In his “Getreidepreise und Kriminalität in Deutschland”, H. Berg shows that crimes against persons in Germany were not influenced by economic occurrences during the years 1882–1898 (pp. 31 ff.).

[Note to the American Edition: I have proved the same for 1898–1908. (See my study, “Verbrechen und Socialismus”, p. 808.)]

[1002] [Note to the American Edition: The same is true in the Netherlands. In Austria, Herz has shown a certain relation between the phenomena in question after 1863, but not in recent years.]

[1003] The figures for homicide, etc., are taken from Ferri, “Atlante antropologico-statistico dell’omicidio”, pp. 246–248. The figures for illiteracy in Italy, Belgium, France, Germany, and Holland are taken from the official statistics, the others from the “Statesman’s Year Book, 1902.”

[1004] [Note to the American Edition: Cf. further: Wadler, op. cit., pp. 176 ff., upon the Balkan States, where the crimes in question are very frequent, and the degree of civilization is very low. (In Servia, for example, in 1900 there was a percentage of illiteracy of about 79!)]

[1005] From Colajanni, “L’homicide en Italie”, p. 49 (“Revue Socialiste”, 1901).

[1006] The first column is taken from “Kriminalstatistik f. d. Jahr 1898”, II, pp. 27–30; the second from “Statistisches Jahrbuch f. d. Deutsche Reich, 1894”, p. 151; the last is figured from “Statistik der Reichstagswahlen von 1898”, p. 3.

[Note to the American Edition: In my study already quoted, “Verbrechen und Socialismus”, I have given figures for 1903–1907, which show in general the same results.]

[1007] I have chosen the crime of serious assault, because it is committed especially out of revenge, and because the figures for homicide are too small in Germany to answer for this table.

[1008] Later I will explain why these figures are added.

[1009] From Boies, “Science of Penology”, Appendix B.

[1010] From Ferri, “Atlante dell’omicidio”, pp. 250, 251; the figures for illiteracy are from “Annuario statistico italiano, 1900”, pp. 177, 178.

[1011] To my regret I have been unable to procure the figures for 1880–1883; the differences between the provinces were, however, probably the same as for 1896.

[1012] The first column is from “De crimineele statistiek van 1901”, the second from “Jaarcijfers voor het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden, 1901”, p. 47.

[Note to the American Edition: In my study, “Misdaad en socialisme”, I have given the figures for a longer period (1901–1905), which confirm in general the results given above (p. 35).]

[1013] Cf. Moreau (of Tours), “L’homicide commis par les enfants”, pp. 53 and 77; Ferriani, “Entartete Mütter”, pp. 73 and 167, and “Minderjährige Verbrecher”, pp. 134 ff.

[1014] Cf. E. Key, “Das Jahrhundert des Kindes”, p. 149.

[1015] Steinmetz, “Ethnologische Studien zur ersten Entwicklung der Strafe”, I, pp. 299 ff.

[1016] Cf. Colajanni, op. cit., p. 39.

[1017] For Italy, in addition to the official statistics already cited, see Colajanni, “L’homicide en Italie”, pp. 43, 44, 51–52. I have not been able to procure figures for the movement of these crimes in other countries.

[Note to the American Edition: Herz mentions, for Austria (1862–1899) a decrease of crimes in their most serious form and an increase in the less serious. For Scotland and Ireland the criminal statistics show a remarkable decrease; in England this decrease has been very considerable in recent years, and for all forms of these crimes. In Belgium there is a decrease for the more serious forms, the others remaining stationary. In the Netherlands there has been a decrease in recent years. In the United States the crimes in question seem to be increasing (cf. J. W. Garner, “Homicide in American Cities” (“Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology”, III, p. 675).]

[1018] Cf. Starke, “Verbrechen und Verbrecher in Preussen”, p. 236, and Berg, “Getreidepreise und Kriminalität in Deutschland seit 1882”, pp. 34 ff.

[1019] Cf. Lux, “Sozialpolitisches Handbuch”, p. 152.

[1020] [Note to the American Edition: Later it has been shown that the last remark is perfectly correct. In recent years (about the beginning of the century), the consumption of alcohol has decreased, and also the crimes in question: cf. my study “Verbrechen und Sozialismus”, pp. 807 ff.]

[1021] “Der Alkoholismus”, p. 57. Cf. O. Lang, “Alkoholgenuss und Verbrechen”, pp. 50, 51.

[1022] See A. Baer, “Der Alcoholismus”, pp. 30 ff.; Grotjahn, op. cit., pp. 52 ff.; Aschaffenburg, “Alkoholgenuss und Verbrechen”, pp. 73–77 (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strafrw.”, XX. This is also to be found in “Das Verbrechen und seine Bekämpfung”, pp. 69–72).

[1023] “Sociologie criminelle”, p. 222.

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. for Germany Bonger, op. cit., pp. 807 ff.; for Austria: Herz, op. cit., pp. 57 ff.; for Belgium: Jacquart, op. cit., pp. 98 ff.; and for the Netherlands: Bonger, op. cit., p. 27.]

[1024] The first two columns have been taken from Löffler, “Alkohol und Verbrechen”, pp. 533, 534; the third from Lang, op. cit., p. 43; and the two others from Aschaffenburg, op. cit., pp. 86 and 88.

[Note to the American Edition: See also: E. Kürz, “Zur Prophylaxe der Roheitsdelikte”, and C. Hotter, “Alkohol und Verbrechen in Niederbayern.”]

[1025] P. 92. See also Merens, “Over het onderzoek naar den invloed der dronkenschap op de criminaliteit”, pp. 170–200.

[1026] See the criticism of these methods in Merens, op. cit., pp. 128 ff.

[1027] Löffler, op. cit., pp. 518–521.

[1028] Aschaffenburg, op. cit., p. 85.

[1029] Masoin, “L’alcoolisme dans ses rapports avec la criminalité”, pp. 410–414 (“Bulletin de l’académie royale de médecine de Belgique”, 1896).

[Note to the American Edition: For Austria see Herz, op. cit., pp. 31 ff., and for the Netherlands: Bonger, op. cit., p. 35.]

[1030] “Actes etc.”, p. 113.

[Note to the American Edition: For France see also M. Yvernès, “L’alcoolisme et la criminalité” (“Archives d’anthr. crim.”, XXVII).]

[1031] “Actes etc.”, p. 58.

[1032] Merens, op. cit., p. 126.

[1033] Merens, op. cit., p. 107.

[1034] “Crimineele Statistiek, 1901”, pp. xxvi–xxvii.

[1035] Wieselgren, “Rapport sur l’influence de l’alcoolisme sur la criminalité” (“Actes du Congrès pénitent. de Bruxelles”).

[1036] P. 36.

[1037] [Note to the American Edition: In his “Anthropologie der nichtbesitzenden Klassen”, Niceforo defends the thesis that the crimes in question are caused by the physiological poverty of the poor classes, in its turn a consequence of environment (pp. 369 ff.).]

[1038] Cf. Steinmetz, op. cit., I, Pt. III.

[1039] T. W. Teifen, “Das soziale Elend und die besitzenden Klassen in Oesterreich”, p. 171.

[1040] Socquet, “Contribution à l’étude statistique de la criminalité en France, 1876–1880”, p. 41.

[1041] Op. cit., p. 36.

[1042] Cf. Dr. Audiffrent, “Quelques considérations sur l’infanticide”, p. 5 (“Archives d’anthrop. crim.”, XVII).

[1043] Cf. Starke, “Verbrechen und Verbrecher in Preussen”, p. 156; Loosjes, “Bijdrage tot de studie van de criminaliteit der vrouw”, pp. 164, 165; Lombroso, “La femme criminelle et la prostituée”, p. 494; Joly, “Le crime”, pp. 263, 264.

[1044] In his “L’évolution de la morale”, Letourneau points out that in countries where public opinion is very indulgent to female frailty, infanticide is almost unknown (p. 73).

[1045] Cf. Brissot de Warville, “Théorie des lois criminelles”, I, p. 95. Of a literature that has long been copious may be named, especially, the interesting work of Pestalozzi, “Ueber Gesetzgebung und Kindermord.”

[1046] Cf. Sutherland, “Origin and Growth of the Moral Instinct”, I, pp. 113 ff.

[1047] [Note to the American Edition: Of the recent literature upon infanticide I would call attention to: W. Gleispach, “Ueber Kindesmord”; A. Amschl, “Das Verbrechen des Kindesmordes nach oesterreichischem Recht”; G. van Dijck, “Eenige beschouwingen over het misdrijf van kindermoord”; W. Kürbitz-Sonnenschein, “Der Geisteszustand der Kindermörderinnen.”]

[1048] It seems to me that Lombroso and Laschi extend the conception of political crime too much in making it any revolt against the authorities, as they do in their work, “Der politische Verbrecher und die Revolutionen”. Very often these troubles are only more or less serious fights with the police and have no political character at all. Opinions may differ as to the value of Professor Lombroso’s works, but I cannot imagine how any one can admire his work upon political crime. It is full of mistakes and superficial observations.

[1049] [Note to the American Edition: Cf. Vallon and Genil-Perrin, “Crime et altruisme” (“Archives d’anthr. crim.”, XXVIII).]

[1050] [Note to the American Edition: Cf. upon political crimes in Russia: E. Tarnowsky, “Les crimes politiques en Russie” (“Archives d’anthr. crim.” XII), and A. Wadler, “Die politische Verbrechen in Russland” (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strafrw.” XXIX).]