Chapter XIV: Act 1856: , is mainly declaratory of the English common law, as embodied (7)

In Bologna Guido lived in great splendour, and established a celebrated school, numbering more than two hundred scholars. He himself drew in it, even down to his latest years. On first returning to this city, he charged about L21 for a full-length figure (mere portraits are not here in question), half this sum for a half-length, and L5 for a head. These prices must be regarded as handsome, when we consider that Domenichino about the same time received only L10, 10s. for his very large and celebrated picture, the "Last Communion of St Jerome." But Guido's reputation was still on the increase, and in process of time he quintupled his prices. He now left Bologna hardly at all; in one instance, however, he went off to Ravenna, and, along with three pupils, he painted the chapel in the cathedral with his admired picture of the "Israelites gathering Manna." His shining prosperity was not to last till the end. Guido was dissipated, generously but indiscriminately profuse, and an inveterate gambler. The gambling propensity had been his from youth, but until he became elderly it did not noticeably damage his fortunes. It grew upon him, and in a couple of evenings he lost the enormous sum of 14,400 scudi. The vice told still more ruinously on his art than on his character. In his decline he sold his time at so much per hour to certain picture dealers; one of them, the Shylock of his craft, would stand by, watch in hand, and see him work. Half-heartedness, half-performance, blighted his product: self-repetition and mere mannerism, with affectation for sentiment and vapidity for beauty, became the art of Guido. Some of these trade-works, heads or half-figures, were turned out in three hours or even less. It is said that, tardily wise, Reni left off gambling for nearly two years; at last he relapsed, and his relapse was followed not long afterwards by his death, caused by malignant fever. This event took place in Bologna on the 18th of August 1642; he died in debt, but was buried with great pomp in the church of S. Domenico.

Guido was personally modest, although he valued himself on his
position in the art, and would tolerate no slight in that relation; he
was extremely upright, temperate in diet, nice in his person and his
dress. He was fond of stately houses, but could feel also the charm of
solitude. In his temper there was a large amount of suspiciousness;
and the jealousy which his abilities and his successes excited, now
from the Caracci, now from Albani, now from the monopolizing league of
Neapolitan painters, may naturally have kept this feeling in active
exercise. Of his numerous scholars, Simone Cantarini, named II
Pesarese, counts as the most distinguished; he painted an admirable
head of Reni, now in the Bolognese Gallery. The portrait in the Uffizi
Gallery of Florence is from Reni's own hand. Two other good scholars
were Giacomo Semenza and Francesco Gessi.

The character of Guido's art is so well known as hardly to call for
detailed analysis, beyond what we have already intimated. His most
characteristic style exhibits a prepense ideal, of form rather than
character, with a slight mode of handling, and silvery, somewhat cold,
colour. In working from the nude he aimed at perfection of form,
especially marked in the hands and feet. But he was far from always
going to choice nature for his model; he transmuted _ad libitum_, and
painted, it is averred, a Magdalene of demonstrative charms from a
vulgar-looking colour-grinder. His best works have beauty, great
amenity, artistic feeling and high accomplishment of manner, all
alloyed by a certain core of commonplace; in the worst pictures the
commonplace swamps everything, and Guido has flooded European
galleries with trashy and empty pretentiousness, all the more noxious
in that its apparent grace of sentiment and form misleads the unwary
into approval, and the dilettante dabbler into cheap raptures. Both in
Rome and wherever else he worked he introduced increased softness of
style, which was then designated as the modern method. His pictures
are mostly Scriptural or mythologic in subject, and between two and
three hundred of them are to be found in various European
collections--more than a hundred of these containing life-sized
figures. The portraits which he executed are few--those of Sixtus V.,
Cardinal Spada and the so-called Beatrice Cenci being among the most
noticeable. The identity of the last-named portrait is very dubious;
it certainly cannot have been painted direct from Beatrice, who had
been executed in Rome before Guido ever resided there. Many etchings
are attributed to him--some from his own works, and some after other
masters; they are spirited, but rather negligent.

Of other works not already noticed, the following should be named:--in
Rome (the Vatican), the "Crucifixion of St Peter," an example of the
painter's earlier manner; in S. Lorenzo in Lucina, "Christ Crucified";
in Forli, the "Conception"; in Bologna, the "Alms of St Roch" (early),
the "Massacre of the Innocents," and the "Pieta, or Lament over the
Body of Christ" (in the church of the Mendicanti), which is by many
regarded as Guido's prime executive work; in the Dresden Gallery, an
"Ecce Homo"; in Milan (Brera Gallery), "Saints Peter and Paul"; in
Genoa (church of S. Ambrogio), the "Assumption of the Virgin"; in
Berlin, "St Paul the Hermit and St Anthony in the Wilderness." The
celebrated picture of "Fortune" (in the Capitol) is one of Reni's
finest treatments of female form; as a specimen of male form, the
"Samson Drinking from the Jawbone of an Ass" might be named beside it.
One of his latest works of mark is the "Ariadne," which used to be in
the Gallery of the Capitol. The Louvre contains twenty of his
pictures, the National Gallery of London seven, and others were once
there, now removed to other public collections. The most interesting
of the seven is the small "Coronation of the Virgin," painted on
copper, an elegantly finished work, more pretty than beautiful. It was
probably painted before the master quitted Bologna for Rome.

For the life and works of Guido Reni, see Bolognini, _Vita di Guido
Reni_ (1839); Passeri, _Vite de' pittori_; and Malvasia, _Felsina
Pittrice_; also Lanzi, _Storia pitiorica_. (W. M. R.)

GUIENNE, an old French province which corresponded roughly to the _Aquitania Secunda_ of the Romans and the archbishopric of Bordeaux. In the 12th century it formed with Gascony the duchy of Aquitaine, which passed under the dominion of the kings of England by the marriage of Eleanor of Aquitaine to Henry II.; but in the 13th, through the conquests of Philip Augustus, Louis VIII. and Louis IX., it was confined within the narrower limits fixed by the treaty of Paris (1259). It is at this point that Guienne becomes distinct from Aquitaine. It then comprised the Bordelais (the old countship of Bordeaux), the Bazadais, part of Perigord, Limousin, Quercy and Rouergue, the Agenais ceded by Philip III. (the Bold) to Edward I. (1279), and (still united with Gascony) formed a duchy extending from the Charente to the Pyrenees. This duchy was held on the terms of homage to the French kings, an onerous obligation; and both in 1296 and 1324 it was confiscated by the kings of France on the ground that there had been a failure in the feudal duties. At the treaty of Bretigny (1360) Edward III. acquired the full sovereignty of the duchy of Guienne, together with Aunis, Saintonge, Angoumois and Poitou. The victories of du Guesclin and Gaston Phoebus, count of Foix, restored the duchy soon after to its 13th-century limits. In 1451 it was conquered and finally united to the French crown by Charles VII. In 1469 Louis XI. gave it in exchange for Champagne and Brie to his brother Charles, duke of Berry, after whose death in 1472 it was again united to the royal dominion. Guienne then formed a government which from the 17th century onwards was united with Gascony. The government of Guienne and Gascony, with its capital at Bordeaux, lasted till the end of the _ancien regime_. Under the Revolution the departments formed from Guienne proper were those of Gironde, Lot-et-Garonne, Dordogne, Lot, Aveyron and the chief part of Tarn-et-Garonne.

GUIGNES, JOSEPH DE (1721-1800), French orientalist, was born at Pontoise on the 19th of October 1721. He succeeded Fourmont at the Royal Library as secretary interpreter of the Eastern languages. A _Memoire historique sur l'origine des Huns et des Turcs_, published by de Guignes in 1748, obtained his admission to the Royal Society of London in 1752, and he became an associate of the French Academy of Inscriptions in 1754. Two years later he began to publish his learned and laborious _Histoire generale des Huns, des Mongoles, des Turcs et des autres Tartares occidentaux_ (1756-1758); and in 1757 he was appointed to the chair of Syriac at the College de France. He maintained that the Chinese nation had originated in Egyptian colonization, an opinion to which, in spite of every argument, he obstinately clung. He died in Paris in 1800. The _Histoire_ had been translated into German by Dahnert (1768-1771). De Guignes left a son, Christian Louis Joseph (1759-1845), who, after learning Chinese from his father, went as consul to Canton, where he spent seventeen years. On his return to France he was charged by the government with the work of preparing a Chinese-French-Latin dictionary (1813). He was also the author of a work of travels (_Voyages a Pekin, Manille, et l'ile de France_, 1808).

See Querard, _La France litteraire_, where a list of the memoirs
contributed by de Guignes to the _Journal des savants_ is given.

GUILBERT, YVETTE (1869- ), French _diseuse_, was born in Paris. She served for two years until 1885 in the Magasin du Printemps, when, on the advice of the journalist, Edmond Stoullig, she trained for the stage under Landrol. She made her debut at the Bouffes du Nord, then played at the Varietes, and in 1890 she received a regular engagement at the Eldorado to sing a couple of songs at the beginning of the performance. She also sang at the Ambassadeurs. She soon won an immense vogue by her rendering of songs drawn from Parisian lower-class life, or from the humours of the Latin Quarter, "_Quatre z'etudiants_" and the "_Hotel du numero trois_" being among her early triumphs. Her adoption of an habitual yellow dress and long black gloves, her studied simplicity of diction, and her ingenuous delivery of songs charged with _risque_ meaning, made her famous. She owed something to M. Xanrof, who for a long time composed songs especially for her, and perhaps still more to Aristide Bruant, who wrote many of her _argot_ songs. She made successful tours in England, Germany and America, and was in great request as an entertainer in private houses. In 1895 she married Dr M. Schiller. In later years she discarded something of her earlier manner, and sang songs of the "pompadour" and the "crinoline" period in costume. She published the novels _La Vedette_ and _Les Demi-vieilles_, both in 1902.

GUILDFORD, a market town and municipal borough, and the county town of Surrey, England, in the Guildford parliamentary division, 29 m. S.W. of London by the London and South Western railway; served also by the London, Brighton, and South Coast and the South Eastern and Chatham railways. Pop. (1901) 15,938. It is beautifully situated on an acclivity of the northern chalk Downs and on the river Wey. Its older streets contain a number of picturesque gabled houses, with quaint lattices and curious doorways. The ruins of a Norman castle stand finely above the town and are well preserved; while the ground about them is laid out as a public garden. Beneath the Angel Inn and a house in the vicinity are extensive vaults, apparently of Early English date, and traditionally connected with the castle. The church of St Mary is Norman and Early English, with later additions and considerably restored; its aisles retain their eastward apses and it contains many interesting details. The church of St Nicholas is a modern building on an ancient site, and that of Holy Trinity is a brick structure of 1763, with later additions, also on the site of an earlier church, from which some of the monuments are preserved, including that of Archbishop Abbot (1640). The town hall dates from 1683 and contains a number of interesting pictures. Other public buildings are the county hall, corn-market and institute with museum and library. Abbot's Hospital, founded by Archbishop Abbot in 1619, is a beautiful Tudor brick building. The county hospital (1866) was erected as a memorial to Albert, Prince Consort. The Royal Free Grammar School, founded in 1509, and incorporated by Edward VI., is an important school for boys. At Cranleigh, 6 m. S.E., is a large middle-class county school. The town has flour mills, iron foundries and breweries, and a large trade in grain; while fairs are held for live stock. There is a manufacture of gunpowder in the neighbouring village of Chilworth. Guildford is a suffragan bishopric in the diocese of Winchester. The borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 2601 acres.

Guildford (Gyldeford, Geldeford), occurs among the possessions of King Alfred, and was a royal borough throughout the middle ages. It probably owed its rise to its position at the junction of trade routes. It is first mentioned as a borough in 1131. Henry III. granted a charter to the men of Guildford in 1256, by which they obtained freedom from toll throughout the kingdom, and the privilege of having the county court held always in their town. Edward III. granted charters to Guildford in 1340, 1346 and 1367; Henry VI. in 1423; Henry VII. in 1488. Elizabeth in 1580 confirmed earlier charters, and other charters were granted in 1603, 1626 and 1686. The borough was incorporated in 1486 under the title of the mayor and good men of Guildford. During the middle ages the government of the town rested with a powerful merchant gild. Two members for Guildford sat in the parliament of 1295, and the borough continued to return two representatives until 1867 when the number was reduced to one. By the Redistribution Act of 1885 Guildford became merged in the county for electoral purposes. Edward II. granted to the town the right of having two fairs, at the feast of St Matthew (21st of September) and at Trinity respectively. Henry VII. granted fairs on the feast of St Martin (11th of November) and St George (23rd of April). Fairs in May for the sale of sheep and in November for the sale of cattle are still held. The market rights date at least from 1276, and three weekly markets are still held for the sale of corn, cattle and vegetables respectively. The cloth trade which formed the staple industry at Guildford in the middle ages is now extinct.

GUILDHALL, the hall of the corporation of the city of London, England. It faces a courtyard opening out of Gresham Street. The date of its original foundation is not known. An ancient crypt remains, but the hall has otherwise undergone much alteration. It was rebuilt in 1411, beautified by the munificence of successive officials, damaged in the Great Fire of 1666, and restored in 1789 by George Dance; while the hall was again restored, with a new roof, in 1870. This fine chamber, 152 ft. in length, is the scene of the state banquets and entertainments of the corporation, and of the municipal meetings "in common hall." The building also contains a council chamber and various court rooms, with a splendid library, open to the public, a museum and art gallery adjoining. The hall contains several monuments and two giant figures of wood, known as Gog and Magog. These were set up in 1708, but the appearance of giants in city pageants is of much earlier date.

GUILFORD, BARONS AND EARLS OF. FRANCIS NORTH, 1st Baron Guilford (1637-1685), was the third son of the 4th Baron North (see NORTH, BARONS), and was created Baron Guilford in 1683, after becoming lord keeper in succession to Lord Nottingham. He had been an eminent lawyer, solicitor-general (1671), attorney-general (1673), and chief-justice of the common pleas (1675), and in 1679 was made a member of the council of thirty and on its dissolution of the cabinet. He was a man of wide culture and a stanch royalist. In 1672 he married Lady Frances Pope, daughter and co-heiress of the earl of Downe, who inherited the Wroxton estate; and he was succeeded as 2nd baron by his son Francis (1673-1729), whose eldest son Francis (1704-1790), after inheriting first his father's title as 3rd baron, and then (in 1734) the barony of North from his kinsman the 6th Baron North, was in 1752 created 1st earl of Guilford. His first wife was a daughter of the earl of Halifax, and his son and successor Frederick was the English prime minister, commonly known as Lord North, his courtesy title while the 1st earl was alive.

FREDERICK NORTH, 2nd earl of Guilford, but better known by his courtesy title of Lord North (1732-1792), prime minister of England during the important years of the American War, was born on the 13th of April 1732, and after being educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, was sent to make the grand tour of the continent. On his return he was, though only twenty-two years of age, at once elected M.P. for Banbury, of which town his father was high steward; and he sat for the same town in parliament for nearly forty years. In 1759 he was chosen by the duke of Newcastle to be a lord of the treasury, and continued in the same office under Lord Bute and George Grenville till 1765. He had shown himself such a ready debater that on the fall of the first Rockingham ministry in 1766 he was sworn of the privy council, and made paymaster-general by the duke of Grafton. His reputation for ability grew so high that in December 1767, on the death of the brilliant Charles Townshend, he was made chancellor of the exchequer. His popularity with both the House of Commons and the people continued to increase, for his temper was never ruffled, and his quiet humour perpetually displayed; and, when the retirement of the duke of Grafton was necessitated by the hatred he inspired and the attacks of Junius, no better successor could be found for the premiership than the chancellor of the exchequer. Lord North succeeded the duke in March 1770, and continued in office for twelve of the most eventful years in English history. George III. had at last overthrown the ascendancy of the great Whig families, under which he had so long groaned, and determined to govern as well as rule. He knew that he could only govern by obtaining a majority in parliament to carry out his wishes, and this he had at last obtained by a great expenditure of money in buying seats and by a careful exercise of his patronage. But in addition to a majority he must have a minister who would consent to act as his lieutenant, and such a minister he found in Lord North. How a man of undoubted ability such as Lord North was could allow himself to be thus used as a mere instrument cannot be explained; but the confidential tone of the king's letters seems to show that there was an unusual intimacy between them, which may account for North's compliance. The path of the minister in parliament was a hard one; he had to defend measures which he had not designed, and of which he had not approved, and this too in a House of Commons in which all the oratorical ability of Burke and Fox was against him, and when he had only the purchased help of Thurlow and Wedderburne to aid him. The most important events of his ministry were those of the American War of Independence. He cannot be accused of causing it, but one of his first acts was the retention of the tea-duty, and he it was also who introduced the Boston Port Bill in 1774. When the war had broken out he earnestly counselled peace, and it was only the earnest solicitations of the king not to leave his sovereign again at the mercy of the Whigs that induced him to defend a war which from 1779 he knew to be both hopeless and impolitic. At last, in March 1782, he insisted on resigning after the news of Cornwallis's surrender at Yorktown, and no man left office more blithely. He had been well rewarded for his assistance to the king: his children had good sinecures; his half-brother, Brownlow North (1741-1820), was bishop of Winchester; he himself was chancellor of the university of Oxford, lord-lieutenant of the county of Somerset, and had finally been made a knight of the Garter, an honour which has only been conferred on three other members of the House of Commons, Sir R. Walpole, Lord Castlereagh and Lord Palmerston. Lord North did not remain long out of office, but in April 1783 formed his famous coalition with his old subordinate, C. J. Fox (q.v.), and became secretary of state with him under the nominal premiership of the duke of Portland. He was probably urged to this coalition with his old opponent by a desire to show that he could act independently of the king, and was not a mere royal mouthpiece. The coalition ministry went out of office on Fox's India Bill in December 1783, and Lord North, who was losing his sight, then finally gave up political ambition. He played, when quite blind, a somewhat important part in the debates on the Regency Bill in 1789, and in the next year succeeded his father as earl of Guilford. He did not long survive his elevation, and died peacefully on the 5th of August 1792. It is impossible to consider Lord North a great statesman, but he was a most good-tempered and humorous member of the House of Commons. In a time of unexampled party feeling he won the esteem and almost the love of his most bitter opponents. Burke finely sums up his character in his _Letter to a Noble Lord_: "He was a man of admirable parts, of general knowledge, of a versatile understanding, fitted for every sort of business; of infinite wit and pleasantry, of a delightful temper, and with a mind most disinterested. But it would be only to degrade myself," he continues, "by a weak adulation, and not to honour the memory of a great man, to deny that he wanted something of the vigilance and spirit of command which the times required."

By his wife Anne (d. 1797), daughter of George Speke of White Lackington, Somerset, Guilford had four sons, the eldest of whom, George Augustus (1757-1802), became 3rd earl on his father's death. This earl was a member of parliament from 1778 to 1792 and was a member of his father's ministry and also of the royal household; he left no sons when he died on the 20th of April 1802 and was succeeded in the earldom by his brother Francis (1761-1817), who also left no sons. The youngest brother, Frederick (1766-1827), who now became 5th earl of Guilford, was remarkable for his great knowledge and love of Greece and of the Greek language. He had a good deal to do with the foundation of the Ionian university at Corfu, of which he was the first chancellor and to which he was very liberal. Guilford, who was governor of Ceylon from 1798 to 1805, died unmarried on the 14th of October 1827. His cousin, Francis (1772-1861), a son of Brownlow North, bishop of Winchester from 1781 to 1820, was the 6th earl, and the latter's descendant, Frederick George (b. 1876), became 8th earl in 1886.

On the death of the 3rd earl of Guilford in 1802 the barony of North fell into abeyance between his three daughters, the survivor of whom, Susan (1797-1884). wife of John Sidney Doyle, who took the name of North, was declared by the House of Lords in 1841 to be Baroness North, and the title passed to her son, William Henry John North, the 11th baron (b. 1836) (see NORTH, BARONS).

For the Lord Keeper Guilford see the _Lives_ by the Hon. R. North,
edited by A. Jessopp (1890); and E. Foss, _The Judges of England_,
vol. vii. (1848-1864). For the prime minister, Lord North, see
_Correspondence of George III._ with Lord North, edited by W. B. Donne
(1867); Horace Walpole, _Journal of the Reign of George III._ (1859),
and _Memoirs of the Reign of George III._, edited by G. F. R. Barker
(1894); Lord Brougham, _Historical Sketches of Statesmen_, vol. i.
(1839); Earl Stanhope, _History of England_ (1858); Sir T. E. May,
_Constitutional History of England_ (1863-1865); and W. E. H. Lecky,
_History of England in the 18th century_ (1878-1890).

GUILFORD, a township, including a borough of the same name, in New Haven county, Connecticut, U.S.A., on Long Island Sound and at the mouth of the Menunkatuck or West river, about 16 m. E. by S. of New Haven. Pop. of the township, including the borough (1900), 2785, of whom 387 were foreign-born; (1910) 3001; pop. of the borough (1910), 1608. The borough is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railroad. On a plain is the borough green of nearly 12 acres, which is shaded by some fine old elms and other trees, and in which there is a soldiers' monument. About the green are several churches and some of the better residences. On an eminence commanding a fine view of the Sound is an old stone house, erected in 1639 for a parsonage, meeting-house and fortification; it was made a state museum in 1898, when extensive alterations were made to restore the interior to its original appearance. The Point of Rocks, in the harbour, is an attractive resort during the summer season. There are about 12 ft. of water on the harbour bar at high tide. The principal industries of Guilford are coastwise trade, the manufacture of iron castings, brass castings, wagon wheels and school furniture, and the canning of vegetables. Near the coast are quarries of fine granite; the stone for the pedestal of the Statue of Liberty on Bedloe's Island, in New York Harbour, was taken from them.

Guilford was founded In 1639 as an independent colony by a company of twenty-five or more families from Kent, Surrey and Sussex, England, under the leadership of Rev. Henry Whitfield (1597-1657). While still on shipboard twenty-five members of the company signed a plantation covenant whereby they agreed not to desert the plantation which they were about to establish. Arriving at New Haven early in July 1639, they soon began negotiations with the Indians for the purchase of land, and on the 29th of September a deed was signed by which the Indians conveyed to them the territory between East River and Stony Creek for "12 coates, 12 Fathoms of Wampam, 12 glasses (mirrors), 12 payer of shooes, 12 Hatchetts, 12 paire of Stockings, 12 Hooes, 4 kettles, 12 knives, 12 Hatts, 12 Porringers, 12 spoones, and 2 English coates." Other purchases of land from the Indians were made later. Before the close of the year the company removed from New Haven and established the new colony; it was known by the Indian name Menuncatuck for about four years and the name Guilford (from Guildford, England) was then substituted. As a provisional arrangement, civil power for the administration of justice and the preservation of the peace was vested in four persons until such time as a church should be organized. This was postponed until 1643 when considerations of safety demanded that the colony should become a member of the New Haven Jurisdiction, and then only to meet the requirements for admission to this union were the church and church state modelled after those of New Haven. Even then, though suffrage was restricted to church members, Guilford planters who were not church members were required to attend town meetings and were allowed to offer objections to any proposed order or law. From 1661 until the absorption of the members of the New Haven Jurisdiction by Connecticut, in 1664, William Leete (1611-1683), one of the founders of Guilford, was governor of the Jurisdiction, and under his leadership Guilford took a prominent part in furthering the submission to Connecticut, which did away with the church state and the restriction of suffrage to freemen. Guilford was the birthplace of Fitz-Greene Halleck (1790-1867), the poet; of Samuel Johnson (1696-1771), the first president of King's College (now Columbia University); of Abraham Baldwin (1754-1807), prominent as a statesman and the founder of the University of Georgia; and of Thomas Chittenden, the first governor of Vermont. The borough was incorporated in 1815.

See B. C. Steiner, _A History of the Plantation of Menunca-Tuck and of
the Original Town of Guilford, Connecticut_ (Baltimore, 1897), and
_Proceedings at the Celebration of the 250th Anniversary of the
Settlement of Guilford, Connecticut_ (New Haven, 1889).

GUILLAUME, JEAN BAPTISTE CLAUDE EUGENE (1822-1905), French sculptor, was born at Montbard on the 4th of July 1822, and studied under Cavelier, Millet, and Barrias, at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, which he entered in 1841, and where he gained the _prix de Rome_ in 1845 with "Theseus finding on a rock his Father's Sword." He became director of the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in 1864, and director-general of Fine Arts from 1878 to 1879, when the office was suppressed. Many of his works have been bought for public galleries, and his monuments are to be found in the public squares of the chief cities of France. At Rheims there is his bronze statue of "Colbert," at Dijon his "Rameau" monument. The Luxembourg Museum has his "Anacreon" (1852), "Les Gracques" (1853), "Faucheur" (1855), and the marble bust of "Mgr Darboy"; the Versailles Museum the portrait of "Thiers"; the Sorbonne Library the marble bust of "Victor le Clerc, doyen de la faculte des lettres." Other works of his are at Trinity Church, St Germain l'Auxerrois, and the church of St Clotilde, Paris. Guillaume was a prolific writer, principally on sculpture and architecture of the Classic period and of the Italian Renaissance. He was elected member of the Academie Francaise in 1862, and in 1891 was sent to Rome as director of the Academie de France in that city. He was also elected an honorary member of the Royal Academy, London, 1869, on the institution of that class.

GUILLAUME DE LORRIS (fl. 1230), the author of the earlier section of the _Roman de la rose_, derives his surname from a small town about equidistant from Montargis and Gien, in the present department of Loiret. This and the fact of his authorship may be said to be the only things positively known about him. The rubric of the poem, where his own part finishes, attributes Jean de Meun's continuation to a period forty years later than William's death and the consequent interruption of the romance. Arguing backwards, this death used to be put at about 1260; but Jean de Meun's own work has recently been dated earlier, and so the composition of the first part has been thrown back to a period before 1240. The author represents himself as having dreamed the dream which furnished the substance of the poem in his twentieth year, and as having set to work to "rhyme it" five years later. The later and longer part of the _Roman_ shows signs of greater intellectual vigour and wider knowledge than the earlier and shorter, but Guillaume de Lorris is to all appearance more original. The great features of his four or five thousand lines are, in the first place, the extraordinary vividness and beauty of his word-pictures, in which for colour, freshness and individuality he has not many rivals except in the greatest masters, and, secondly, the fashion of allegorical presentation, which, hackneyed and wearisome as it afterwards became, was evidently in his time new and striking. There are of course traces of it before, as in some romances, such as those of Raoul de Houdenc, in the troubadours, and in other writers; but it was unquestionably Guillaume de Lorris who fixed the style.

For an attempt to identify Guillaume de Lorris see L. Jarry,
_Guillaume de Lorris et le testament d'Alphonse de Poitiers_ (1881).
Also Paulin Paris in the _Hist. litt. de la France_, vol. xxiii.

GUILLAUME DE PALERME (WILLIAM OF PALERNE), hero of romance. The French verse romance was written at the desire of a Countess Yolande, generally identified with Yolande, daughter of Baldwin IV., count of Flanders. The English poem in alliterative verse was written about 1350 by a poet called William, at the desire of Humphrey Bohun, earl of Hereford, (d. 1361). Guillaume, a foundling supposed to be of low degree, is brought up at the court of the emperor of Rome, and loves his daughter Melior who is destined for a Greek prince. The lovers flee into the woods disguised in bear-skins. Alfonso, who is Guillaume's cousin and a Spanish prince, has been changed into a wolf by his step-mother's enchantments. He provides food and protection for the fugitives, and Guillaume eventually triumphs over Alfonso's father, and wins back from him his kingdom. The benevolent werwolf is disenchanted, and marries Guillaume's sister.

See _Guillaume de Palerne_, ed. H. Michelant (Soc. d. anc. textes fr.,
1876); _Hist. litt. de la France_, xxii. 829; _William of Palerme_,
ed. Sir F. Madden (Roxburghe Club, 1832), and W. W. Skeat (E. E. Text
Soc., extra series No. 1, 1867); M. Kaluza, in _Eng. Studien_
(Heilbronn, iv. 196). The prose version of the French romance, printed
by N. Bonfons, passed through several editions.

GUILLAUME D'ORANGE (d. 812), also known as Guillaume Fierabrace, St Guillaume de Gellone, and the Marquis au court nez, was the central figure of the southern cycle of French romance, called by the _trouveres_ the _geste_ of Garin de Monglane. The cycle of Guillaume has more unity than the other great cycles of Charlemagne or of Doon de Mayence, the various poems which compose it forming branches of the main story rather than independent epic poems. There exist numerous cyclic MSS. in which there is an attempt at presenting a continuous _histoire poetique_ of Guillaume and his family. MS. Royal 20 D xi. in the British Museum contains eighteen _chansons_ of the cycle. Guillaume, son of Thierry or Theodoric and of Alde, daughter of Charles Martel, was born in the north of France about the middle of the 8th century. He became one of the best soldiers and trusted counsellors of Charlemagne, and In 790 was made count of Toulouse, when Charles's son Louis the Pious was put under his charge. He subdued the Gascons, and defended Narbonne against the infidels. In 793 Hescham, the successor of Abd-al-Rahman II., proclaimed a holy war against the Christians, and collected an army of 100,000 men, half of which was directed against the kingdom of the Asturias, while the second invaded France, penetrating as far as Narbonne. Guillaume met the invaders near the river Orbieux, at Villedaigne, where he was defeated, but only after an obstinate resistance which so far exhausted the Saracens that they were compelled to retreat to Spain. He took Barcelona from the Saracens in 803, and in the next year founded the monastery of Gellone (now Saint Guilhem-le Desert), of which he became a member in 806. He died there in the odour of sanctity on the 28th of May 812.

No less than thirteen historical personages bearing the name of William (Guillaume) have been thought by various critics to have their share in the formation of the legend. William, count of Provence, son of Boso II., again delivered southern France from a Saracen invasion by his victory at Fraxinet in 973, and ended his life in a cloister. William Tow-head (_Tete d'etoupe_), duke of Aquitaine (d. 983), showed a fidelity to Louis IV. paralleled by Guillaume d'Orange's service to Louis the Pious. The cycle of twenty or more _chansons_ which form the _geste_ of Guillaume reposes on the traditions of the Arab invasions of the south of France, from the battle of Poitiers (732) under Charles Martel onwards, and on the French conquest of Catalonia from the Saracens. In the Norse version of the Carolingian epic Guillaume appears in his proper historical environment, as a chief under Charlemagne; but he plays a leading part in the _Couronnement Looys_, describing the formal associations of Louis the Pious in the empire at Aix (813, the year after Guillaume's death), and after the battle of Aliscans it is from the emperor Louis that he seeks reinforcements. This anachronism arises from the fusion of the epic Guillaume with the champion of Louis IV., and from the fact that he was the military and civil chief of Louis the Pious, who was titular king of Aquitaine under his father from the time when he was three years old. The inconsistencies between the real and the epic Guillaume are often left standing in the poems. The personages associated with Guillaume in his Spanish wars belong to Provence, and have names common in the south. The most famous of these are Beuves de Comarchis, Ernaud de Girone, Garin d'Anseun, Aimer le chetif, so called from his long captivity with the Saracens. The separate existence of Aimer, who refused to sleep under a roof, and spent his whole life in warring against the infidel, is proved. He was Hadhemar, count of Narbonne, who in 809 and 810 was one of the leaders sent by Louis against Tortosa. No doubt the others had historical prototypes. In the hands of the _trouveres_ they became all brothers of Guillaume, and sons of Aymeri de Narbonne,[1] the grandson of Garin de Monglane, and his wife Ermenjart. Nevertheless when Guillaume seeks help from Louis the emperor he finds all his relations in Laon, in accordance with his historic Frankish origin.

The central fact of the _geste_ of Guillaume is the battle of the Archamp or Aliscans, in which perished Guillaume's heroic nephew, Vezian or Vivien, a second Roland. At the eleventh hour he summoned Guillaume to his help against the overwhelming forces of the Saracens. Guillaume arrived too late to help Vivien, was himself defeated, and returned alone to his wife Guibourc, leaving his knights all dead or prisoners. This event is related in a Norman-French transcript of an old French _chanson de geste_, the _Chancun de Willame_--which only was brought to light in 1901 at the sale of the books of Sir Henry Hope Edwardes--in the _Covenant Vivien_, a recension of an older French chanson and in _Aliscans_. _Aliscans_ continues the story, telling how Guillaume obtained reinforcements from Laon, and how, with the help of the comic hero, the scullion Rainouart or Rennewart, he avenged the defeat of Aliscans and his nephew's death. Rainouart turns out to be the brother of Guillaume's wife Guibourc, who was before her marriage the Saracen princess and enchantress Orable. Two other poems are consecrated to his later exploits, _La Bataille Loquifer_, the work of a French Sicilian poet, Jendeu de Brie (fl. 1170), and _Le Moniage Rainouart_. The staring-point of Herbert le duc of Dammartin (fl. 1170) in _Foucon de Candie_ (Candie=Gandia in Spain?) is the return of Guillaume from the battle; and the Italian compilation _I Nerbonesi_, based on these and other _chansons_, seems in some cases to represent an earlier tradition than the later of the French _chansons_, although its author Andrea di Barberino wrote towards the end of the 14th century. The minnesinger Wolfram von Eschenbach based his _Willehalm_ on a French original which must have differed from the versions we have. The variations in the story of the defeat of Aliscans or the Archant, and the numerous inconsistencies of the narratives even when considered separately have occupied many critics. Aliscans (Aleschans, Alyscamps, Elysii Campi) was, however, generally taken to represent the battle of Villedaigne, and to take its name from the famous cemetery outside Arles. Wolfram von Eschenbach even mentions the tombs which studded the field of battle. Indications that this tradition was not unassailable were not lacking before the discovery of the _Chancun de Willame_, which, although preserved in a very corrupt form, represents the earliest recension we have of the story, dating at least from the beginning of the 12th century. It seems probable that the Archant was situated in Spain near Vivien's headquarters at Tortosa, and that Guillaume started from Barcelona, not from Orange, to his nephew's help. The account of the disaster was modified by successive _trouveres_, and the uncertainty of their methods may be judged by the fact that in the _Chancun de Willame_ two consecutive accounts (11. 450-1326 and 11. 1326-2420) of the fight appear to be set side by side as if they were separate episodes. _Le Couronnement Looys_, already mentioned, _Le Charroi de Nimes_ (12th century) in which Guillaume, who had been forgotten in the distribution of fiefs, enumerates his services to the terrified Louis, and _Aliscans_ (12th century), with the earlier _Chancun_, are among the finest of the French epic poems. The figure of Vivien is among the most heroic elaborated by the _trouveres_, and the giant Rainouart has more than a touch of Rabelaisian humour.

The _chansons de geste_ of the cycle of Guillaume are: _Enfances Garin
de Monglane_ (15th century) and _Garin de Monglane_ (13th century), on
which is founded the prose romance of _Guerin de Monglane_, printed in
the 15th century by Jehan Trepperel and often later; _Girars de Viane_
(13th century, by Bertrand de Bar-sur-Aube), ed. P. Tarbe (Reims,
1850); _Hernaut de Beaulande_ (fragment 14th century); _Renier de
Gennes_, which only survives in its prose form; _Aymeri de Narbonne_
(c. 1210) by Bertrand de Bar-sur-Aube, ed. L. Demaison (Soc. des anc.
textes fr., Paris, 2 vols., 1887); _Les Enfances Guillaume_ (13th
century); _Les Narbonnais_, ed. H. Suchier (Soc. des anc. textes fr.,
2 vols., 1898), with a Latin fragment dating from the 11th century,
preserved at the Hague; _Le Couronnement Looys_ (ed. E. Langlois,
1888), _Le Charroi de Nimes_, _La Prise d'Orange_, _Le Covenant
Vivien_, _Aliscans_, which were edited by W. J. A. Jonckbloet in vol.
i. of his _Guillaume d'Orange_ (The Hague, 1854); a critical text of
_Aliscans_ (Halle, 1903, vol. i.) is edited by E. Wienbeck, W.
Hartnacke and P. Rasch; _Loquifer_ and _Le Moniage Rainouart_ (12th
century); _Bovon de Commarchis_ (13th century), recension of the
earlier Siege de Barbastre, by Adenes li Rois, ed. A. Scheler
(Brussels, 1874); _Guibert d'Andrenas_ (13th century); _La Prise de
Cordres_ (13th century); _La Mort Aimeri de Narbonne_, ed. J. Couraye
de Parc (Soc. des Anciens Textes francais, Paris, 1884); _Foulque de
Candie_ (ed. P. Tarbe, Reims, 1860); _Le Moniage Guillaume_ (12th
century); _Les Enfances Vivien_ (ed. C. Wahlund and H. v. Feilitzen,
Upsala and Paris, 1895); _Chancun de Willame_ (Chiswick Press, 1903),
described by P. Meyer in _Romania_ (xxxiii. 597-618). The ninth branch
of the _Karlamagnus Saga_ (ed. C. R. Unger, Christiania, 1860) deals
with the _geste_ of Guillaume. _I Nerbonesi_ is edited by J. G. Isola
(Bologna, 1877, &c.).

See C. Revillout, _Etude hist. et litt. sur la vita sancti Willelmi_
(Montpellier, 1876); W. J. A. Jonckbloet, _Guillaume d'Orange_ (2
vols., 1854, The Hague); L. Clarus (ps. for W. Volk), _Herzog Wilhelm
von Aquitanien_ (Munster, 1865); P. Paris, _in Hist. litt. de la
France_ (vol. xxii., 1852); L. Gautier, _Epopees francaises_ (vol.
iv., 2nd ed., 1882); R. Weeks, _The newly discovered Chancun de
Willame_ (Chicago, 1904); A. Thomas, _Etudes romanes_ (Paris, 1891),
on Vivien; L. Saltet, "S. Vidian de Martres-Tolosanes" in _Bull. de
litt. eccles._ (Toulouse, 1902); P. Becker, _Die altfrz. Wilhelmsage
u. ihre Beziehung zu Wilhelm dem Heiligen_ (Halle, 1896), and _Der
sudfranzosische Sagenkreis und seine Probleme_ (Halle, 1898); A.
Jeanroy, "Etudes sur le cycle de Guillaume au court nez" (in
_Romania_, vols. 25 and 26, 1896-1897); H. Suchier, "Recherches sur
... Guillaume d'Orange" (in _Romania_, vol. 32, 1903). The conclusions
arrived at by earlier writers are combated by Joseph Bedier in the
first volume, "Le Cycle de Guillaume d'Orange" (1908), of his
_Legendes epiques_, in which he constructs a theory that the cycle of
Guillaume d'Orange grew up round the various shrines on the pilgrim
route to Saint Gilles of Provence and Saint James of Compostella--that
the _chansons de geste_ were, in fact, the product of 11th and 12th
century trouveres, exploiting local ecclesiastical traditions, and
were not developed from earlier poems dating back perhaps to the
lifetime of Guillaume of Toulouse, the saint of Gellone.

FOOTNOTE:

[1] The poem of _Aymeri de Narbonne_ contains the account of the
young Aymeri's brilliant capture of Narbonne, which he then receives
as a fief from Charlemagne, of his marriage with Ermenjart, sister of
Boniface, king of the Lombards, and of their children. The fifth
daughter, Blanchefleur, is represented as the wife of Louis the
Pious. The opening of this poem furnished, though indirectly, the
matter of the _Aymerillot_ of Victor Hugo's _Legende des siecles_.

GUILLEMOT (Fr. _guillemot_[1]), the name accepted by nearly all modern authors for a sea-bird, the _Colymbus troile_ of Linnaeus and the _Uria troile_ of Latham, which nowadays it seems seldom if ever to bear among those who, from their vocation, are most conversant with it, though, according to Willughby and Ray his translator, it was in their time so called "by those of Northumberland and Durham." Around the coasts of Britain it is variously known as the frowl, kiddaw or skiddaw, langy (cf. Ice. _Langvia_), lavy, marrock, murre, scout (cf. COOT), scuttock, strany, tinker or tinkershire and willock. In former days the guillemot yearly frequented the cliffs on many parts of the British coasts in countless multitudes, and this is still the case in the northern parts of the United Kingdom; but more to the southward nearly all its smaller settlements have been rendered utterly desolate by the wanton and cruel destruction of their tenants during the breeding season, and even the inhabitants of those which were more crowded had become so thinned that, but for the intervention of the Sea Birds Preservation Act (32 & 33 Vict. cap. 17), which provided under penalty for the safety of this and certain other species at the time of year when they were most exposed to danger, they would unquestionably by this time have been exterminated so far as England is concerned.

Part of the guillemot's history is still little understood. We know that it arrives at its wonted breeding stations on its accustomed day in spring, that it remains there till, towards the end of the summer, its young are hatched and able, as they soon are, to encounter the perils of a seafaring life, when away go all, parents and progeny. After that time it commonly happens that a few examples are occasionally met with in bays and shallow waters. Tempestuous weather will drive ashore a large number in a state of utter destitution--many of them indeed are not unfrequently washed up dead--but what becomes of the bulk of the birds, not merely the comparatively few thousands that are natives of Britain, but the tens and hundreds of thousands, not to say millions, that are in summer denizens of more northern latitudes, no one can say. This mystery is not peculiar to the guillemot, but is shared by all the _Alcidae_ that inhabit the Atlantic Ocean. Examples stray every season across the Bay of Biscay, are found off the coasts of Spain and Portugal, enter the Mediterranean and reach Italian waters, or, keeping farther south, may even touch the Madeiras, Canaries or Azores; but these bear no proportion whatever to the mighty hosts of whom they are literally the "scouts," and whose position and movements they no more reveal than do the vedettes of a well-appointed army. The common guillemot of both sides of the Atlantic is replaced farther northward by a species with a stouter bill, the _U. arra_ or _U. bruennichi_ of ornithologists, and on the west coast of North America by the _U. californica_. The habits of all these are essentially the same, and the structural resemblance between all of them and the Auks is so great that several systematists have relegated them to the genus _Alca_, confining the genus _Uria_ to the guillemots of another group, of which the type is the _U. grylla_, the black guillemot of British authors, the dovekey or Greenland dove of sailors, the tysty of Shetlanders. This bird assumes in summer an entirely black plumage with the exception of a white patch on each wing, while in winter it is beautifully marbled with white and black. Allied to it as species or geographical races are the _U. mandti_, _U. columba_ and _U. carbo_. All these differ from the larger guillemots by laying two or three eggs, which are generally placed in some secure niche, while the members of the other group lay but a single egg, which is invariably exposed on a bare ledge. (A. N.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] The word, however, seems to be cognate with or derived from the
Welsh and Manx _Guillem_, or _Gwilym_ as Pennant spells it. The
association may have no real meaning, but one cannot help comparing
the resemblance between the French _guillemot_ and _Guillaume_ with
that between the English willock (another name for the bird) and
William.

GUILLOCHE, a French word for an ornament, either painted or carved, which was one of the principal decorative bands employed by the Greeks in their temples or on their vases. Guilloches are single, double or triple; they consist of a series of circles equidistant one from the other and enclosed in a band which winds round them and interlaces. This guilloche is of Asiatic origin and was largely employed in the decoration of the Assyrian palaces, where it was probably copied from Chaldaean work, as there is an early example at Erech which dates from the time of Gudea (2294 B.C.). The ornament as painted by the Greeks has almost entirely disappeared, but traces are found in the temple of Nemesis at Rhamnus; and on the terra-cotta slabs by which the timber roofs of Greek temples were protected, it is painted in colours which are almost as brilliant as when first produced, those of the Treasury of Gela at Olympia being of great beauty. These examples are double guilloches, with two rows of circles, each with an independent interlacing band and united by a small arc with palmette inside; in both the single and double guilloches of Greek work there is a flower in the centre of the circles. In the triple guilloche, the centre row of circles comes half-way between the others, and the enclosing band crosses diagonally both ways, interlacing alternately. The best example of the triple guilloche is that which is carved on the torus moulding of the base and on the small convex moulding above the echinus of the capitals of the columns of the Erechtheum at Athens. It was largely employed in Roman work, and the single guilloche is found almost universally as a border in mosaic pavements, not only in Italy but throughout Europe. In the Renaissance in Italy it was also a favourite enrichment for borders and occasionally in France and England.

GUILLON, MARIE NICOLAS SYLVESTRE (1760-1847), French ecclesiastic, was born in Paris on the 1st of January 1760. He was librarian and almoner in the household of the princess de Lamballe, and when in 1792 she was executed, he fled to the provinces, where under the name of Pastel he practised medicine. A man of facile conscience, he afterwards served in turn under Napoleon, the Bourbons and the Orleanists, and became canon of St Denis, bishop of Morocco and dean of the Sorbonne.

Among his many literary works are a _Collection des brefs du pape Pie
VI_ (1798), _Bibliotheque choisie des peres grecs et latins_ (1822, 26
vols.) and a French translation of Cyprian with notes (1837, 2 vols.).