Chapter IV: Front Matter (4)

GRUYERE (Ger. _Greyerz_), a district in the south-eastern portion of the Swiss canton of Fribourg, famed for its cattle and its cheese, and the original home of the "Ranz des Vaches," the melody by which the herdsmen call their cows home at milking time. It is composed of the middle reach (from Montbovon to beyond Bulle) of the Sarine or Saane valley, with its tributary glens of the Hongrin (left), the Jogne (right) and the Treme (left), and is a delightful pastoral region (in 1901 it contained 17,364 cattle). It forms an administrative district of the canton of Fribourg, its population in 1900 being 23,111, mainly French-speaking and Romanists. From Montbovon (11 m. by rail from Bulle) there are mountain railways leading S.W. past Les Avants to Montreux (14 m.), and E. up the Sarine valley past Chateau d'Oex to Saanen or Gessenay (14 m.), and by a tunnel below a low pass to the Simme valley and Spiez on the Lake of Thun. The modern capital of the district is the small town of Bulle [Ger. _Boll_], with a 13th-century castle and in 1900 3330 inhabitants, French-speaking and Romanists. But the historical capital is the very picturesque little town of _Gruyeres_ (which keeps its final "s" in order to distinguish it from the district), perched on a steep hill (S.E. of Bulle) above the left bank of the Sarine, and at a height of 2713 ft. above the sea-level. It is only accessible by a rough carriage road, and boasts of a very fine old castle, at the foot of which is the solitary street of the town, which in 1900 had 1389 inhabitants.

The castle was the seat of the counts of the Gruyere, who are first mentioned in 1073. The name is said to come from the word _gruyer_, meaning the officer of woods and forests, but the counts bore the canting arms of a crane (_grue_), which are seen all over the castle and the town. That valiant family ended (in the legitimate line) with Count Michel (d. 1575) whose extravagance and consequent indebtedness compelled him in 1555 to sell his domains to Bern and Fribourg. Bern took the upper Sarine valley (it still keeps Saanen at its head, but in 1798 lost the Pays d'En-Haut to the canton du Leman, which in 1803 became the canton of Vaud). Fribourg took the rest of the county, which it added to Bulle and Albeuve (taken in 1537 from the bishop of Lausanne), and to the lordship of Jaun in the Jaun or Jogne valley (bought in 1502-1504 from its lords), in order to form the present administrative district of Gruyere, which is not co-extensive with the historical county of that name.

See the materials collected by J. J. Hisely and published in
successive vols. of the _Memoires et documents de la suisse romande
... introa. a l'hist._ (1851); Histoire (2 vols., 1855-1857); and
Monuments de l'histoire (2 vols., 1867-1869); K. V. von Bonstetten,
_Briefe uber ein schweiz. Hirtenland_ (1781) (Eng. trans., 1784); J.
Reichlen, _La Gruyere illustree_ (1890), seq.; H. Raemy, _La Gruyere_
(1867); and _Les Alpes fribourgeoises_, by many authors (Lausanne,
1908). (W. A. B. C.)

GRYNAEUS (or GRYNER), JOHANN JAKOB (1540-1617), Swiss Protestant divine, was born on the 1st of October 1540 at Bern. His father, Thomas (1512-1564), was for a time professor of ancient languages at Basel and Bern, but afterwards became pastor of Roteln in Baden. He was nephew of the more eminent Simon Grynaeus (q.v.). Johann was educated at Basel, and in 1559 received an appointment as curate to his father. In 1563 he proceeded to Tubingen for the purpose of completing his theological studies, and in 1565 he returned to Roteln as successor to his father. Here he felt compelled to abjure the Lutheran doctrine of the Lord's Supper, and to renounce the _formula concordiae_. Called in 1575 to the chair of Old Testament exegesis at Basel, he became involved in unpleasant controversy with Simon Sulzer and other champions of Lutheran orthodoxy; and in 1584 he was glad to accept an invitation to assist in the restoration of the university of Heidelberg. Returning to Basel in 1586, after Simon Sulzer's death, as _antistes_ or superintendent of the church there and as professor of the New Testament, he exerted for upwards of twenty-five years a considerable influence upon both the church and the state affairs of that community, and acquired a wide reputation as a skilful theologian of the school of Ulrich Zwingli. Amongst other labours he helped to reorganize the gymnasium in 1588. Five years before his death he became totally blind, but continued to preach and lecture till his death on the 13th of August 1617.

His many works include commentaries on various books of the Old and
New Testament, _Theologica theoremata el problemata_ (1588), and a
collection of patristic literature entitled _Monumenta S. patrum
orthodoxographa_ (2 vols., fol., 1569).

GRYNAEUS, SIMON (1493-1541), German scholar and theologian of the Reformation, son of Jacob Gryner, a Swabian peasant, was born in 1493 at Vehringen, in Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. He adopted the name Grynaeus from the epithet of Apollo in Virgil. He was a schoolfellow with Melanchthon at Pforzheim, whence he went to the university of Vienna, distinguishing himself there as a Latinist and Grecian. His appointment as rector of a school at Buda was of no long continuance; his views excited the zeal of the Dominicans and he was thrown into prison. Gaining his freedom at the instance of Hungarian magnates, he visited Melanchthon at Wittenberg, and in 1524 became professor of Greek at the university of Heidelberg, being in addition professor of Latin from 1526. His Zwinglian view of the Eucharist disturbed his relations with his Catholic colleagues. From 1526 he had corresponded with Oecolampadius, who in 1529 invited him to Basel, which Erasmus had just left. The university being disorganized, Grynaeus pursued his studies, and in 1531 visited England for research in libraries. A commendatory letter from Erasmus gained him the good offices of Sir Thomas More. He returned to Basel charged with the task of collecting the opinions of continental reformers on the subject of Henry VIII.'s divorce, and was present at the death of Oecolampadius (Nov. 24, 1531). He now, while holding the chair of Greek, was appointed extraordinary professor of theology, and gave exegetical lectures on the New Testament. In 1534 Duke Ulrich called him to Wurttemberg in aid of the reformation there, as well as for the reconstitution of the university of Tubingen, which he carried out in concert with Ambrosius Blarer of Constanz. Two years later he had an active hand in the so-called First Helvetic Confession (the work of Swiss divines at Basel in January 1536); also in the conferences which urged the Swiss acceptance of the Wittenberg Concord (1536). At the Worms conference (1540) between Catholics and Protestants he was the sole representative of the Swiss churches, being deputed by the authorities of Basel. He was carried off suddenly in his prime by the plague at Basel on the 1st of August 1541. A brilliant scholar, a mediating theologian, and personally of lovable temperament, his influence was great and wisely exercised. Erasmus and Calvin were among his correspondents. His chief works were Latin versions of Plutarch, Aristotle and Chrysostom.

His son SAMUEL (1539-1599) was professor of jurisprudence at Basel. His nephew THOMAS (1512?-1564) was professor at Basel and minister in Baden, and left four distinguished sons of whom JOHANN JAKOB (1540-1617) was a leader in the religious affairs of Basel. The last of the direct descendants of Simon Grynaeus was his namesake SIMON (1725-1799), translator into German of French and English anti-deistical works, and author of a version of the Bible in modern German (1776).

See Bayle's _Dictionnaire_; W. T. Streuber in Hauck's
_Realencyklopadie_ (1899); and for bibliography, Streuber's _S.
Grynaei epistolae_ (1847). (A. Go.*)

GRYPHIUS, ANDREAS (1616-1664), German lyric poet and dramatist, was born on the 11th of October 1616, at Grossglogau in Silesia, where his father was a clergyman. The family name was Greif, latinized, according to the prevailing fashion, as Gryphius. Left early an orphan and driven from his native town by the troubles of the Thirty Years' War, he received his schooling in various places, but notably at Fraustadt, where he enjoyed an excellent classical education. In 1634 he became tutor to the sons of the eminent jurist Georg von Schonborn (1579-1637), a man of wide culture and considerable wealth, who, after filling various administrative posts and writing many erudite volumes on law, had been rewarded by the emperor Ferdinand II. with the title and office of imperial count-palatine (_Pfalzgraf_). Schonborn, who recognized Gryphius's genius, crowned him _poeta laureatus_, gave him the diploma of master of philosophy, and bestowed on him a patent of nobility, though Gryphius never used the title. A month later, on the 23rd of December 1637, Schonborn died; and next year Gryphius went to continue his studies at Leiden, where he remained six years, both hearing and delivering lectures. Here he fell under the influence of the great Dutch dramatists, Pieter Cornelissen Hooft (1581-1647) and Joost van den Vondel (1587-1679), who largely determined the character of his later dramatic works. After travelling in France, Italy and South Germany, Gryphius settled in 1647 at Fraustadt, where he began his dramatic work, and in 1650 was appointed syndic of Glogau, a post he held until his death on the 16th of July 1664. A short time previously he had been admitted under the title of "The Immortal" into the _Fruchtbringende Gesellschaft_, a literary society, founded in 1617 by Ludwig, prince of Anhalt-Kothen on the model of the Italian academies.

Gryphius was a man of morbid disposition, and his melancholy temperament, fostered by the misfortunes of his childhood, is largely reflected in his lyrics, of which the most famous are the _Kirchhofsgedanken_ (1656). His best works are his comedies, one of which, _Absurda Comica, oder Herr Peter Squentz_ (1663), is evidently based on the comic episode of Pyramus and Thisbe in _The Midsummer Night's Dream_. _Die geliebte Dornrose_ (1660), which is written in a Silesian dialect, contains many touches of natural simplicity and grace, and ranks high among the comparatively small number of German dramas of the 17th century. _Horribilicribrifax_ (1663), founded on the _Miles gloriosus_ of Plautus, is a rather laboured attack on pedantry. Besides these three comedies, Gryphius wrote five tragedies. In all of them his tendency is to become wild and bombastic, but he had the merit of at least attempting to work out artistically conceived plans, and there are occasional flashes both of passion and of imagination. His models seem to have been Seneca and Vondel. He had the courage, in _Carolus Stuardus_ (1649) to deal with events of his own day; his other tragedies are _Leo Armenius_ (1646); _Katharina von Georgien_ (1657), _Cardenio und Celinde_ (1657) and _Papinianus_ (1663). No German dramatic writer before him had risen to so high a level, nor had he worthy successors until about the middle of the 18th century.

A complete edition of Gryphius's dramas and lyric poetry has been
published by H. Palm in the series of the Stuttgart Literarische
Verein (3 vols., 1878, 1882, 1884). Volumes of selected works will be
found in W. Muller's _Bibliothek der deutschen Dichter des 17ten
Jahrhunderts_ (1822) and in J. Tittmann's _Deutsche Dichter des 17ten
Jahrhunderts_ (1870). There is also a good selection by H. Palm in
Kurschner's _Deutsche Nationalliteratur_.

See O. Klopp, _Andreas Gryphius als Dramatiker_ (1851); J. Hermann,
_Uber Andreas Gryphius_ (1851); T. Wissowa, _Beitrage zur Kenntnis von
Andreas Gryphius' Leben und Schriften_ (1876); J. Wysocki, _Andreas
Gryphius et la tragedie allemande au XVII^e siecle_; and V.
Mannheimer, _Die Lyrik des Andreas Gryphius_ (1904).

GUACHARO (said to be an obsolete Spanish word signifying one that cries, moans or laments loudly), the Spanish-American name of what English writers call the oil-bird, the _Steatornis caripensis_ of ornithologists, a very remarkable bird, first described by Alexander von Humboldt (_Voy. aux reg. equinoxiales_ i. 413, Eng. trans. iii. 119; _Obs. Zoologie_ ii. 141, pl. xliv.) from his own observation and from examples obtained by Aime J. A. Bonpland, on the visit of those two travellers, in September 1799, to a cave near Caripe (at that time a monastery of Aragonese Capuchins) some forty miles S.E. of Cumana on the northern coast of South America. A few years later it was discovered, says Latham (_Gen. Hist. Birds_, 1823, vii. 365), to inhabit Trinidad, where it appears to bear the name of _Diablotin_;[1] but by the receipt of specimens procured at Sarayacu in Peru, Cajamarca in the Peruvian Andes, and Antioquia in Colombia (_Proc. Zool. Society_, 1878, pp. 139, 140; 1879, p. 532), its range has been shown to be much greater than had been supposed. The singularity of its structure, its curious habits, and its peculiar economical value have naturally attracted no little attention from zoologists. First referring it to the genus _Caprimulgus_, its original describer soon saw that it was no true goatsucker. It was subsequently separated as forming a subfamily, and has at last been regarded as the type of a distinct family, _Steatornithidae_--a view which, though not put forth till 1870 (_Zool. Record_, vi. 67), seems now to be generally deemed correct. Its systematic position, however, can scarcely be considered settled, for though on the whole its predominating alliance may be with the _Caprimulgidae_, nearly as much affinity may be traced to the _Strigidae_, while it possesses some characters in which it differs from both (_Proc. Zool. Society_, 1873, pp. 526-535). About as big as a crow, its plumage exhibits the blended tints of chocolate-colour and grey, barred and pencilled with dark-brown or black, and spotted in places with white, that prevail in the two families just named. The beak is hard, strong and deeply notched, the nostrils are prominent, and the gape is furnished with twelve long hairs on each side. The legs and toes are comparatively feeble, but the wings are large. In habits the guacharo is wholly nocturnal, slumbering by day in deep and dark caverns which it frequents in vast numbers. Towards evening it arouses itself, and, with croaking and clattering which has been likened to that of castanets, it approaches the exit of its retreat, whence at nightfall it issues in search of its food, which, so far as is known, consists entirely of oily nuts or fruits, belonging especially to the genera _Achras_, _Aiphanas_, _Laurus_ and _Psichotria_, some of them sought, it would seem, at a very great distance, for Funck (_Bull. Acad. Sc. Bruxelles_ xi. pt. 2, pp. 371-377) states that in the stomach of one he obtained at Caripe he found the seed of a tree which he believed did not grow nearer than 80 leagues. The hard, indigestible seed swallowed by the guacharo are found in quantities on the floor and the ledges of the caverns it frequents, where many of them for a time vegetate, the plants thus growing being etiolated from want of light, and, according to travellers, forming a singular feature of the gloomy scene which these places present. The guacharo is said to build a bowl-like nest of clay, in which it lays from two to four white eggs, with a smooth but lustreless surface, resembling those of some owls. The young soon after they are hatched become a perfect mass of fat, and while yet in the nest are sought by the Indians, who at Caripe, and perhaps elsewhere, make a special business of taking them and extracting the oil they contain. This is done about midsummer, when by the aid of torches and long poles many thousands of the young birds are slaughtered, while their parents in alarm and rage hover over the destroyers' heads, uttering harsh and deafening cries. The grease is melted over fires kindled at the cavern's mouth, run into earthen pots, and preserved for use in cooking as well as for the lighting of lamps. It is said to be pure and limpid, free from any disagreeable taste or smell, and capable of being kept for a year without turning rancid. In Trinidad the young are esteemed s great delicacy for the table by many, though some persons object to their peculiar scent, which resembles that of a cockroach (_Blatta_), and consequently refuse to eat them. The old birds also, according to E. C. Taylor (_Ibis_, 1864, p. 90), have a strong crow-like odour. But one species of the genus _Steatornis_ is known.

In addition to the works above quoted valuable information about this
curious bird may be found under the following references: L'Herminier,
_Ann. Sc. Nat._ (1836), p. 60, and _Nouv. Ann. Mus._ (1838), p. 321;
Hautessier, Rev. Zool. (1838), p. 164; J. Muller, _Monatsb. Berl.
Acad._ (1841), p. 172, and _Archiv fur Anat._ (1862), pp. 1-11; des
Murs, _Rev. zool._ (1843), p. 32, and _Ool. Orn._ pp. 260-263;
Blanchard, _Ann. Mus._ (1859), xi. pl. 4, fig. 30; Konig-Warthausen,
_Journ. fur Orn._ (1868), pp. 384-387; Goering, _Vargasia_ (1869), pp.
124-128; Murie, _Ibis_ (1873), pp. 81-86. (A. N.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] Not to be confounded with the bird so called in the French
Antilles, which is a petrel (_Oestrelata_).

GUACO, HUACO or GUAO, also Vejuco and Bejuco, terms applied to various Central and South American and West Indian plants, in repute for curative virtues. The Indians and negroes of Colombia believe the plants known to them as guaco to have been so named after a species of kite, thus designated in imitation of its cry, which they say attracts to it the snakes that serve it principally for food; they further hold the tradition that their antidotal qualities were discovered through the observation that the bird eats of their leaves, and even spreads the juice of the same on its wings, during contests with its prey. The disputes that have arisen as to what is "the true guaco" are to be attributed mainly to the fact that the names of the American Indians for all natural objects are generic, and their genera not always in coincidence with those of naturalists. Thus any twining plant with a heart-shaped leaf, white and green above and purple beneath, is called by them guaco (R. Spruce, in Howard's _Neueva Quinologia_, "Cinchona succirubra," p. 22, note). What is most commonly recognized in Colombia as guaco, or _Vejuco del guaco_, would appear to be _Mikania Guaco_ (Humboldt and Bonpland, _Pl. equinox_, ii. 84, pl. 105, 1809), a climbing Composite plant of the tribe _Eupatoriaceae_, affecting moist and shady situations, and having a much-branched and deep-growing root, variegated, serrate, opposite leaves and dull-white flowers, in axillary clusters. The whole plant emits a disagreeable odour. It is stated that the Indians of Central America, after having "guaconized" themselves, i.e. taken guaco, catch with impunity the most dangerous snakes, which writhe in their hands as though touched by a hot iron (B. Seemann, _Hooker's Journ. of Bot._ v. 76, 1853). The odour alone of guaco has been said to cause in snakes a state of stupor and torpidity; and Humboldt, who observed that the near approach of a rod steeped in guaco-juice was obnoxious to the venomous _Coluber corallinus_, was of opinion that inoculation with it imparts to the perspiration an odour which makes reptiles unwilling to bite. The drug is not used in modern therapeutics.

GUADALAJARA, an inland city of Mexico and capital of the state of Jalisco, 275 m. (direct) W.N.W. of the Federal capital, in lat. 20 deg. 41' 10" N., long. 103 deg. 21' 15" W. Pop. (1895) 83,934; (1900) 101,208. Guadalajara is served by a short branch of the Mexican Central railway from Irapuato. The city is in the Antemarac valley near the Rio Grande de Santiago, 5092 ft. above sea-level. Its climate is dry, mild and healthy, though subject to sudden changes. The city is well built, with straight and well-paved streets, numerous plazas, public gardens and shady promenades. Its public services include tramways and electric lighting, the Juanacatlan falls of the Rio Grande near the city furnishing the electric power. Guadalajara is an episcopal see, and its cathedral, built between 1571 and 1618, is one of the largest and most elaborately decorated churches in Mexico. The government palace, which like the cathedral faces upon the _plaza mayor_, is generally considered one of the finest specimens of Spanish architecture in Mexico. Other important edifices and institutions are the university, with its schools of law and medicine, the mint, built in 1811, the modern national college and high schools, a public library of over 28,000 volumes, an episcopal seminary, an academy of fine arts, the Teatro Degollado, and the large modern granite building of the penitentiary. There are many interesting churches and eleven conventual establishments in the city. Charitable institutions of a high character are also prominent, among which are the Hospicio, which includes an asylum for the aged, infirm, blind, deaf and dumb, foundlings and orphans, a primary school for both sexes, and a girls' training school, and the Hospital de San Miguel de Belen, which is a hospital, an insane asylum, and a school for little children. One of the most popular public resorts of the city is the _Paseo_, a beautiful drive and promenade extending along both banks of the Rio San Juan de Dios for 1-1/4 m. and terminating in the _alameda_, or public garden. The city has a good water-supply, derived from springs and brought in through an aqueduct 8 m. long. Guadalajara is surrounded by a fertile agricultural district and is an important commercial town, but the city is chiefly distinguished as the centre of the iron, steel and glass industries of Mexico. It is also widely known for the artistic pottery manufactured by the Indians of the city and of its suburb, San Pedro. Among other prominent industries are the manufacture of cotton and woollen goods, leather, furniture, hats and sweetmeats. Guadalajara was founded in 1531 by Nuno de Guzman, and became the seat of a bishop in 1549. The Calderon bridge near the city was the scene of a serious defeat of the revolutionists under Hidalgo in January 1811. The severe earthquake of the 31st of May 1818 partially destroyed the two cathedral steeples; and that of the 11th of March 1875 damaged many of the larger buildings. The population includes large Indian and mestizo elements.

GUADALAJARA, a province of central Spain, formed in 1833 of districts taken from New Castile; bounded on the N. by Segovia, Soria and Saragossa, E. by Saragossa and Teruel, S. by Cuenca and W. by Madrid. Pop. (1900) 200,186; area, 4676 sq. m. Along the northern frontier of Guadalajara rise the lofty Guadarrama mountains, culminating in the peaks of La Cebollera (6955 ft.) and Ocejon (6775 ft.); the rest of the province, apart from several lower ranges in the east, belongs to the elevated plateau of New Castile, and has a level or slightly undulating surface, which forms the upper basin of the river Tagus, and is watered by its tributaries the Tajuna, Henares, Jarama and Gallo. The climate of this region, as of Castile generally, is marked by the extreme severity of its winter cold and summer heat; the soil varies very much in quality, but is fertile enough in many districts, notably the cornlands of the Alcarria, towards the south. Few of the cork and oak forests which formerly covered the mountains have escaped destruction; and the higher tracts of land are mainly pasture for the sheep and goats which form the principal wealth of the peasantry. Grain, olive oil, wine, saffron, silk and flax are produced, but agriculture makes little progress, owing to defective communications and unscientific farming. In 1903, the only minerals worked were common salt and silver, and the total output of the mines was valued at L25,000. Deposits of iron, lead and gold also exist and were worked by the Romans; but their exploitation proved unprofitable when renewed in the 19th century. Trade is stagnant and the local industries are those common to almost all Spanish towns and villages, such as the manufacture of coarse cloth and pottery. The Madrid-Saragossa railway traverses the province for 70 m.; the roads are ill-kept and insufficient. Guadalajara (11,144) is the capital, and the only town with more than 5000 inhabitants; Molina de Aragon, a fortified town built at the foot of the Parameras de Molina (2500-3500 ft.), and on the right bank of the Gallo, a tributary of the Tagus, is of some importance as an agricultural centre. Siguenza, on the railway, is an episcopal city, with a fine Romanesque cathedral dating from the 11th century. It is probably the ancient _Segontia_, founded in 218 B.C. by refugees from Saguntum. The population of the province, which numbers only 42 per sq. m., decreased slightly between 1870 and 1900, and extreme poverty compels many families to emigrate (see also CASTILE).

GUADALAJARA, the capital of the Spanish province of Guadalajara, on the left bank of the river Henares, and on the Madrid-Saragossa railway, 35 m. E.N.E. of Madrid. Pop. (1900) 11,144. Guadalajara is a picturesque town, occupying a somewhat sterile plain, 2100 ft. above the sea. A Roman aqueduct and the Roman foundations of the bridge built in 1758 across the Henares bear witness to its antiquity. Under Roman and Visigothic rule it was known as _Arriaca_ or _Caraca_; its present name, which sometimes appears in medieval chronicles as _Godelfare_, represents the _Wad-al-hajarah_, or "Valley of Stones," of the Moors, who occupied the town from 714 until 1081, when it was captured by Alvar Yanez de Minaya, a comrade of the more famous Cid. The church of Santa Maria contains the image of the "Virgin of Battles," which accompanied Alphonso VI. of Castile (1072-1109) on his campaigns against the Moors; and there are several other ancient and interesting churches in Guadalajara, besides two palaces, dating from the 15th century, and built with that blend of Christian and Moorish architecture which Spaniards call the _Mudejar_ style. The more important of these is the palace of the ducal house del Infantado, formerly owned by the Mendoza family, whose _panteon_, or mausoleum, added between 1696 and 1720 to the 13th-century church of San Francisco, is remarkable for the rich sculpture of its tombs. The town and provincial halls date from 1585, and the college of engineers was originally built by Philip V., early in the 18th century, as a cloth factory. Manufactures of soap, leather, woollen fabrics and bricks have superseded the original cloth-weaving industry for which Guadalajara was long celebrated; there is also a considerable trade in agricultural produce.

GUADALQUIVIR (ancient _Baetis_, Moorish _Wadi al Kebir_, "the Great River"), a river of southern Spain. What is regarded as the main stream rises 4475 ft. above sea-level between the Sierra de Cazorla and Sierra del Pozo, in the province of Jaen. It does not become a large river until it is joined by the Guadiana Menor (Guadianamenor) on the left, and the Guadalimar on the right. Lower down it receives many tributaries, the chief being the Genil or Jenil, from the left. The general direction of the river is west by south, but a few miles above Seville it changes to south by west. Below Coria it traverses the series of broad fens known as Las Marismas, the greatest area of swamp in the Iberian Peninsula. Here it forms two subsidiary channels, the western 31 m., the eastern 12 m. long, which rejoin the main stream on the borders of the province of Cadiz. Below Sanlucar the river enters the Atlantic after a total course of 360 m. It drains an area of 21,865 sq. m. Though the shortest of the great rivers of the peninsula, it is the only one which flows at all seasons with a full stream, being fed in winter by the rains, in summer by the melted snows of the Sierra Nevada. In the time of the Moors it was navigable up to Cordova, but owing to the accumulation of silt in its lower reaches it is now only navigable up to Seville by vessels of 1200 to 1500 tons.

GUADELOUPE, a French colony in the West Indies, lying between the British islands of Montserrat on the N., and Dominica on the S., between 15 deg. 59' and 16 deg. 20' N. and 61 deg. 31' and 61 deg. 50' W. It consists of two entirely distinct islands, separated by a narrow arm of the sea, Riviere Salee (Salt river), varying from 100 ft. to 400 ft. in width and navigable for small vessels. The western island, a rugged mass of ridges, peaks and lofty uplands, is called Basse-Terre, while the eastern and smaller island, the real low-land, is known as Grande-Terre. A sinuous ridge runs through Basse-Terre from N. to S. In the north-west rises the peak of Grosse Montagne (2370 ft.), from which sharp spurs radiate in all directions; near the middle of the west coast are the twin heights of Les Mamelles (2536 ft. and 2368 ft.). Farther south the highest elevation is attained in La Soufriere (4900 ft.). In 1797 this volcano was active, and in 1843 its convulsions laid several towns in ruins; but a few thermal springs and solfataras emitting vapour are now its only signs of activity. The range terminates in the extreme south in the jagged peak of Caraibe (2300 ft.). Basse-Terre is supremely beautiful, its cloud-capped mountains being clothed with a mantle of luxuriant vegetation. On Grande-Terre the highest elevation is only 450 ft., and this island is the seat of extensive sugar plantations. It consists of a plain composed mainly of limestone and a conglomerate of sand and broken shells known as _maconne de bon dieu_, much used for building. The bay between the two sections of Guadeloupe on the north is called Grand Cul-de-Sac Marin, that on the south being Petit Cul-de-Sac Marin. Basse-Terre (364 sq. m.) is 28 m. long by 12 m. to 15 m. wide; Grande-Terre (255 sq. m.) is 22 m. long from N. to S., of irregular shape, with a long peninsula, Chateaux Point, stretching from the south-eastern extremity. Basse-Terre is watered by a considerable number of streams, most of which in the rainy season are liable to sudden floods (locally called _galions_), but Grande-Terre is practically destitute of springs, and the water-supply is derived almost entirely from ponds and cisterns.

The west half of the island consists of a foundation of old eruptive rocks upon which rest the recent accumulations of the great volcanic cones, together with mechanical deposits derived from the denudation of the older rocks. Grande-Terre on the other hand, consists chiefly of nearly horizontal limestones lying conformably upon a series of fine tuffs and ashes, the whole belonging to the early part of the Tertiary system (probably Eocene and Oligocene). Occasional deposits of marl and limestone of late Pliocene age rest unconformably upon these older beds; and near the coast there are raised coral reefs of modern date.

The mean annual temperature is 78 deg. F., and the minimum 61 deg. F., and the maximum 101 deg. F. From July to November heavy rains fall, the annual average on the coast being 86 in., while in the interior it is much greater. Guadeloupe is subject to terrible storms. In 1825 a hurricane destroyed the town of Basse-Terre, and Grand Bourg in Marie Galante suffered a like fate in 1865. The soil is rich and fruitful, sugar having long been its staple product. The other crops include cereals, cocoa, cotton, manioc, yams and rubber; tobacco, vanilla, coffee and bananas are grown, but in smaller quantities. Over 30% of the total area is under cultivation, and of this more than 50% is under sugar. The centres of this industry are St Anne, Pointe-a-Pitre and Le Moule, where there are well-equipped _usines_, and there is also a large _usine_ at Basse-Terre. The forests, confined to the island of Basse-Terre, are extensive and rich in valuable woods, but, being difficult of access, are not worked. Salt and sulphur are the only minerals extracted, and in addition to the sugar _usines_, there are factories for the making of rum, liqueurs, chocolate, besides fruit-canning works and tanneries. France takes most of the exports; and next to France, the United States, Great Britain and India are the countries most interested in the import trade.

The inhabitants of Guadeloupe consist of a few white officials and planters, a few East Indian immigrants from the French possessions in India, and the rest negroes and mulattoes. These mulattoes are famous for their grace and beauty of both form and feature. The women greatly outnumber the men, and there is a very large percentage of illegitimate births. Pop. (1900) 182,112.

The governor is assisted by a privy council, a director of the interior, a procurator-general and a paymaster, and there is also an elected legislative council of 30 members. The colony forms a department of France and is represented in the French parliament by a senator and two deputies. Political elections are very eagerly contested, the mulatto element always striving to gain the preponderance of power.

The seat of government, of the Apostolic administration and of the court of appeal is at Basse-Terre (7762), which is situated on the south-west coast of the island of that name. It is a picturesque, healthy town standing on an open roadstead. Pointe-a-Pitre (17,242), the largest town, lies in Grande-Terre near the mouth of the Riviere Salee. Its excellent harbour has made it the chief port and commercial capital of the colony. Le Moule (10,378) on the east coast of Grande-Terre does a considerable export trade in sugar, despite its poor harbour. Of the other towns, St Anne (9497), Morne a l'Eau (8442), Petit Canal (6748), St Francois (5265), Petit Bourg (5110) and Trois Rivieres (5016), are the most important.

Round Guadeloupe are grouped its dependencies, namely, La Desirade, 6 m. E., a narrow rugged island 10 sq. m. in area; Marie Galante 16 m. S.E. Les Saintes, a group of seven small islands, 7 m. S., one of the strategic points of the Antilles, with a magnificent and strongly fortified naval harbour; St Martin, 142 m. N.N.W.; and St Bartholomew, 130 m. N.N.W.

_History._--Guadeloupe was discovered by Columbus in 1493, and received its name in honour of the monastery of S. Maria de Guadalupe at Estremadura in Spain. In 1635 l'Olive and Duplessis took possession of it in the name of the French Company of the Islands of America, and l'Olive exterminated the Caribs with great cruelty. Four chartered companies were ruined in their attempts to colonize the island, and in 1674 it passed into the possession of the French crown and long remained a dependency of Martinique. After unsuccessful attempts in 1666, 1691 and 1703, the British captured the island in 1759, and held it for four years. Guadeloupe was finally separated from Martinique in 1775, but it remained under the governor of the French Windward Islands. In 1782 Rodney defeated the French fleet near the island, and the British again obtained possession in April 1794, but in the following summer they were driven out by Victor Hugues with the assistance of the slaves whom he had liberated for the purpose. In 1802 Bonaparte, then first consul, sent an expedition to the island in order to re-establish slavery, but, after a heroic defence, many of the negroes preferred suicide to submission. During the Hundred Days in 1810, the British once more occupied the island, but, in spite of its cession to Sweden by the treaty of 1813 and a French invasion in 1814, they did not withdraw till 1816. Between 1816 and 1825 the code of laws peculiar to the island was introduced. Municipal institutions were established in 1837; and slavery was finally abolished in 1848.

GUADET, MARGUERITE ELIE (1758-1794), French Revolutionist, was born at St Emilion near Bordeaux on the 20th of July 1758. When the Revolution broke out he had already gained a reputation as a brilliant advocate at Bordeaux. In 1790 he was made administrator of the Gironde and in 1791 president of the criminal tribunal. In this year he was elected to the Legislative Assembly as one of the brilliant group of deputies known subsequently as Girondins or Girondists. As a supporter of the constitution of 1791 he joined the Jacobin club, and here and in the Assembly became an eloquent advocate of all the measures directed against real or supposed traitors to the constitution. He bitterly attacked the ministers of Louis XVI., and was largely instrumental in forcing the king to accept the Girondist ministry of the 15th of March 1792. He was an ardent advocate of the policy of forcing Louis XVI. into harmony with the Revolution; moved (May 3) for the dismissal of the king's non-juring confessor, for the banishment of all non-juring priests (May 16), for the disbandment of the royal guard (May 30), and the formation in Paris of a camp of _federes_ (June 4). He remained a royalist, however, and with Gensonne and Vergniaud even addressed a letter to the king soliciting a private interview. Whatever negotiations may have resulted, however, were cut short by the insurrection of the 10th of August. Guadet, who presided over the Assembly during part of this fateful day, put himself into vigorous opposition to the insurrectionary Commune of Paris, and it was on his motion that on the 30th of August the Assembly voted its dissolution--a decision reversed on the following day. In September Guadet was returned by a large majority as deputy to the Convention. At the trial of Louis XVI. he voted for an appeal to the people and for the death sentence, but with a respite pending appeal. In March 1793 he had several conferences with Danton, who was anxious to bring about a _rapprochement_ between the Girondists and the Mountain during the war in La Vendee, but he unconditionally refused to join hands with the man whom he held responsible for the massacres of September. Involved in the fall of the Girondists, and his arrest being decreed on the 2nd of June 1793, he fled to Caen, and afterwards hid in his father's house at St Emilion. He was discovered and taken to Bordeaux, where, after his identity had been established, he was guillotined on the 17th of June 1794.

See J. Guadet, _Les Girondins_ (Paris, 1889); and F. A. Aulard, _Les
Orateurs de la legislative et de la convention_ (Paris, 2nd ed.,
1906).

GUADIANA (anc. _Anas_, Moorish _Wadi Ana_), a river of Spain and Portugal. The Guadiana was long believed to rise in the lowland known as the Campo de Montiel, where a chain of small lakes, the Lagunas de Ruidera (partly in Ciudad Real, partly in Albacete), are linked together by the Guadiana Alto or Upper Guadiana. This stream flows north-westward from the last lake and vanishes underground within 3 m. of the river Zancara or Giguela. About 22 m. S.W. of the point of disappearance, the Guadiana Alto was believed to re-emerge in the form of several large springs, which form numerous lakes near the Zancara and are known as the "eyes of the Guadiana" (_los ojos de Guadiana_). The stream which connects them with the Zancara is called the Guadiana Bajo or Lower Guadiana. It is now known that the Guadiana Alto has no such course, but flows underground to the Zancara itself, which is the true "Upper Guadiana." The Zancara rises near the source of the Jucar, in the east of the tableland of La Mancha; thence it flows westward, assuming the name of Guadiana near Ciudad Real, and reaching the Portuguese frontier 6 m. S.W. of Badajoz. In piercing the Sierra Morena it forms a series of foaming rapids, and only begins to be navigable at Mertola, 42 m. from its mouth. From the neighbourhood of Badajoz it forms the boundary between Spain and Portugal as far as a point near Monsaraz, where it receives the small river Priega Munoz on the left, and passes into Portuguese territory, with a southerly direction. At Pomarao it again becomes a frontier stream and forms a broad estuary 25 m. long. It enters the Gulf of Cadiz between the Portuguese town of Villa Real de Santo Antonio and the Spanish Ayamonte, after a total course of 510 m. Its mouth is divided by sandbanks into many channels. The Guadiana drains an area of 31,940 sq. m. Its principal tributaries are the Zujar, Jabalon, Matachel and Ardila from the left; the Bullaque, Ruecas, Botoa, Degebe and Cobres from the right.

The GUADIANA MENOR (or _Guadianamenor_, i.e. "Lesser Guadiana") rises in the Sierra Nevada, receives two large tributaries, the Fardes from the right and Barbata from the left, and enters the Guadalquivir near Ubeda, after a course of 95 m.

GUADIX, a city of southern Spain, in the province of Granada; on the left bank of the river Guadix, a subtributary of the Guadiana Menor, and on the Madrid-Valdepenas-Almeria railway. Pop. (1900) 12,652. Guadix occupies part of an elevated plateau among the northern foothills of the Sierra Nevada. It is surrounded by ancient walls, and was formerly dominated by a Moorish castle, now in ruins. It is an episcopal see of great antiquity, but its cathedral, built in the 18th century on the site of a mosque, possesses little architectural merit. The city was once famous for its cutlery; but its modern manufactures (chiefly earthenware, hempen goods, and hats) are inconsiderable. It has some trade in wool, cotton, flax, corn and liqueurs. The warm mineral springs of Graena, much frequented during the summer, are 6 m. W. Guadix el Viejo, 5 m. N.W., was the Roman _Acci_, and, according to tradition, the seat of the first Iberian bishopric, in the 2nd century. After 711 it rose to some importance as a Moorish fortress and trading station, and was renamed _Wad Ash_, "Water of Life." It was surrendered without a siege to the Spaniards, under Ferdinand and Isabella, in 1489.

GUADUAS, a town of the department of Cundinamarca, Colombia, 53 m. N.W. of Bogota on the old road between that city and the Magdalena river port of Honda. Pop. (1900, estimate) 9000, chiefly Indians or of mixed blood. It stands in a narrow and picturesque valley formed by spurs of the Eastern Cordillera, and on a small stream bearing the same name, which is that of the South American bamboo (_guaduas_), found in great abundance along its banks. Sugar-cane and coffee are cultivated in the vicinity, and fruits of various kinds are produced in great abundance. The elevation of the town is 3353 ft. above the sea, and it has a remarkably uniform temperature throughout the whole year. Guaduas has a pretty church facing upon its _plaza_, and an old monastery now used for secular purposes. The importance of the town sprang from its position on the old _camino real_ between Bogota and Honda, an importance that has passed away with the completion of the railway from Girardot to the Bogota plateau. Guaduas was founded in 1614.

GUAIACUM, a genus of trees of the natural order _Zygophyllaceae_. The guaiacum or lignum-vitae tree (Ger. _Guajakbaum_, _Franzosenbaum_, _Pockenholzbaum_; Fr. _Gayac_, _Gaiac_), _G. officinale_, is a native of the West Indies and the north coast of South America, where it attains a height of 20 to 30 ft. Its branches are numerous, flexuous and knotted; the leaves opposite and pinnate, with caducous (falling early) stipules, and entire, glabrous, obovate or oval leaflets, arranged in 2 or, more rarely, 3 pairs; the flowers are in axillary clusters (cymes), and have 5 oval pubescent sepals, 5 distinct pale-blue petals three times the length of the sepals, 10 stamens, and a 2-celled superior ovary. The fruit is about 3/4 in. long, with a leathery pericarp, and contains in each of its two cells a single seed (see fig.). _G. sanctum_ grows in the Bahamas and Cuba, and at Key West in Florida. It is distinguished from _G. officinale_ by its smaller and narrow leaflets, which are in 4 to 5 pairs, by its shorter and glabrous sepals, and 5-celled and 5-winged fruit. _G. arboreum_, the guaiacum tree of Colombia, is found in the valley of the Magdalena up to altitudes 800 metres (2625 ft.) above sea-level, and reaches considerable dimensions. Its wood is of a yellow colour merging into green, and has an almost pulverulent fracture; the flowers are yellow and conspicuous; and the fruit is dry and 4-winged.

The lignum vitae of commerce, so named on account of its high repute as a medicinal agent in past times, when also it was known as _lignum sanctum_ and _lignum Indicum_, _lignum guaycanum_, or simply _guayacan_, is procured from _G. officinale_, and in smaller amount from _G. sanctum_. It is exported in large logs or blocks, generally divested of bark, and presents in transverse section very slightly marked concentric rings of growth, and scarcely any traces of pith; with the aid of a magnifying glass the medullary rays are seen to be equidistant and very numerous. The outer wood, the sapwood or alburnum, is of a pale yellow hue, and devoid of resin; the inner, the heartwood or duramen, which is by far the larger proportion, is of a dark greenish-brown, contains in its pores 26% of resin, and has a specific gravity of 1.333, and therefore sinks in water on which the alburnum floats. Owing to the diagonal and oblique arrangement of the successive layers of its fibres, the wood cannot be split; and on account of its hardness, density and durability it is much valued for the manufacture of ships' pulleys, rulers, skittle-balls, mallets and other articles.

Guaiacum or Lignum Vitae, _Guaiacum officinale_ shoot-bearing leaves and flowers. 1, Fruit; 2, Vertical section of fruit, showing the solitary pendulous seed in each chamber. All about 1/2 natural size.]

Chips or turnings of the heartwood of _G. officinale_ (_guaiaci lignum_) are employed in the preparation of the _liquor sarsae compositus concentratus_ of British pharmacy. They may be recognized by being either yellow of greenish-brown in colour, and by turning bluish-green when treated with nitric acid, or when heated with corrosive sublimate, and green with solution of chloride of lime. They are occasionally adulterated with boxwood shavings. Lignum vitae is imported chiefly from St Domingo, the Bahamas and Jamaica.

The bark was formerly used in medicine; it contains much calcium
oxalate, and yields on incineration 23% of ash. Guaiacum resin, the
_guaiaci resina_ of pharmacopoeias, is obtained from the wood as an
exudation from natural fissures or from incisions; by heating billets
about 3 ft. in length, bored to permit of the outflow of the resin; or
by boiling chips and raspings in water to which salt has been added to
raise the temperature of ebullition. It occurs in rounded or oval
tears, commonly coated with a greyish-green dust, and supposed to be
the produce of _G. sanctum_, or in large brownish or greenish-brown
masses, translucent at the edges; fuses at 85 deg. C.; is brittle, and
has a vitreous fracture, and a slightly balsamic odour, increased by
pulverization and by heat; and is at first tasteless when chewed, but
produces subsequently a sense of heat in the throat. It is readily
soluble in alcohol, ether, chloroform, creosote, oil of cloves and
solutions of caustic alkalies; and its solution gives a blue colour
with gluten, raw potato parings and the roots of horse-radish, carrot
and various other plants. The alcoholic tincture becomes green with
sodium hypochlorite, and with nitric acid turns in succession green,
blue and brown. With glycerin it gives a clear solution, and with
nitrous ether a bluish-green gelatinous mass. It is blued by various
oxidizing agents, e.g. ozone, and, as Schonbein discovered, by the
juice of certain fungi. The chief constituents are three distinct
resins, _guaiaconic acid_, C19H20O5 (70%), _guaiac acid_, which is
closely allied to benzoic acid, and _guaiaretic acid_. Like all
resins, these are insoluble in water, soluble in alkalies, but
precipitated on neutralization of the alkaline solution.

Guaiacum wood was first introduced into Europe by the Spaniards in
1508, and Nicolaus Poll, writing in 1517 (see Luisinus, _De morbo
gallico_, p. 210, Ven., 1566), states that some three thousand persons
in Spain had already been restored to health by it. The virtues of the
resin, however, were not known until a later period, and in Thomas
Paynel's translation (_Of the Wood called Guaiacum_, &c., p. 9, ed. of
1540) of Ulrich von Hutten's treatise _De morbi gallici curatione per
administrationem ligni guaiaci_ (1519) we read of the wood: "There
followeth fro it, whan it bourneth a gomme, which we yet knowe not,
for what pourpose it serueth." Fluckiger and Hanbury
(_Pharmacographia_, p. 95) state that the first edition of the _London
Pharmacopoeia_ in which they find the resin mentioned is that of 1677.
The decoction of the wood was administered in gout, the stone, palsy,
leprosy, dropsy, epilepsy, and other diseases, but principally in the
"morbus gallicus," or syphilis, for which it was reckoned a certain
specific, insomuch that at first "the physitions wolde not allowe it,
perceyuynge that theyr profite wolde decay therby" (Paynel, _op. cit._
p. 8). Minute instructions are given in old works as to the mode of
administering guaiacum. The patient was confined in a closed and
heated chamber, was placed on the lowest possible diet, and, after
liberal purgation, was made twice a day to drink a milk-warm decoction
of the wood. The use of salt was specially to be avoided. A decoction
of 1 lb. of guaiacum was held to be sufficient for the four first days
of the treatment. The earlier opinions as to the efficacy of guaiacum
came to be much modified in the course of time, and Dr Pearson
(_Observations on the Effects of Various Articles of the Mat. Med. in
the Cure of Lues Venerea_, c. i., 2nd ed., 1807) says:--"I never saw
one single instance in which the powers of this medicine eradicated
the venereal virus." He found its beneficial effects to be most marked
in cases of secondary symptoms. Guaiacum resin is given medicinally in
doses of 5-15 grains. Its important preparations in the British
Pharmacopoeia are the _mistura guiaci_ (dose 1/2-1 oz.), the
ammoniated tincture of guaiacum (dose 1/2-1 drachm), in which the
resin is dissolved by means of ammonia, and the trochiscus or lozenge,
containing 3 grains of the resin. This lozenge is undoubtedly of value
when given early in cases of sore throat, especially of rheumatic
origin. Powdered guaiacum is also used.

Guaiacum resin differs pharmacologically from other resins in being
less irritant, so that it is absorbed from the bowel and exerts remote
stimulant actions, notably upon the skin and kidneys. It affects the
bronchi but slightly, since it contains no volatile oil.

The drug is useful both in acute and chronic sore throat, the mixture,
according to Sir Lauder Brunton, being more effective than the
tincture. The aperient action, which it exerts less markedly than
other members of its class, renders it useful in the treatment of
chronic constipation. Sir Alfred Garrod has urged the claims of this
drug in the treatment of chronic gout. Both in this disease and in
other forms of chronic arthritis guaiacum may be given in combination
with iodides, which it often enables the patient to tolerate. Guaiacum
is not now used in the treatment of syphilis.

The tincture of guaiacum is universally used as a test for the
presence of blood, or rather of haemoglobin, the red colouring matter
of the blood, in urine or other secretions. This test was first
suggested by Dr John Day of Geelong, Australia. A _single drop_ of the
tincture should be added to, say, an inch of urine in a test-tube. The
resin is at once precipitated, yielding a milky fluid. If "ozonic
ether"--an ethereal solution of hydrogen peroxide--be now poured
gently into the test-tube, a deep blue coloration is produced along
the line of contact if haemoglobin be present. The reaction is due to
the oxidation of the resin by the peroxide of hydrogen--such oxidation
occurring only if haemoglobin be present to act as an oxygen-carrier.

GUALDO TADINO (anc. _Tadinum_, 1 m. to the W.), a town and episcopal see of Umbria, Italy, 1755 ft. above sea-level, in the province of Perugia, 22 m. N. of Foligno by rail. Pop. (1901), town, 4440; commune, 10,756. The suffix Tadino distinguishes it from Gualdo in the province of Macerata, and Gualdo Cattaneo, S.W. of Foligno. The cathedral has a good rose-window and possesses, like several of the other churches, 15th-century paintings by Umbrian artists, especially works by Niccolo Alunno. The town is still surrounded by walls. The ancient Tadinum lay 1 m. to the W. of the modern town. It is mentioned in the Eugubine tablets (see IGUVIUM) as a hostile city against which imprecations are directed. In its neighbourhood Narses defeated and slew Totila in 552. No ruins are now visible, though they seem to have been extant in the 17th century. The new town seems to have been founded in 1237. It was at first independent, but passed under Perugia in 1292, and later became dependent on the duchy of Spoleto.