Chapter IX: Act 1856: , is mainly declaratory of the English common law, as embodied (2)

The best edition of the _Pastor fido_ is the 20th, published at Venice
(Ciotti) in 1602. The most convenient is that of Barbera (Florence,
1866). For Guarini's miscellaneous _Rime_, the Ferrara edition, in 4
vols., 1737, may be consulted. His polemical writings, _Verato primo_
and _secondo_, and his prose comedy called _Idropica_, were published
at Venice, Florence and Rome, between 1588 and 1614. (J. A. S.)

GUARINO, also known as VARINUS, and surnamed from his birthplace FAVORINUS, PHAVORINUS or CAMERS (c. 1450-1537), Italian lexicographer and scholar, was born at Favera near Camerino, studied Greek and Latin at Florence under Politian, and afterwards became for a time the pupil of Lascaris. Having entered the Benedictine order, he now gave himself with great zeal to Greek lexicography; and in 1496 published his _Thesaurus cornucopiae et horti Adonidis_, a collection of thirty-four grammatical tracts in Greek. He for some time acted as tutor to Giovanni dei Medici (afterwards Leo X.), and also held the appointment of keeper of the Medicean library at Florence. In 1514 Leo appointed him bishop of Nocera. In 1517 he published a translation of the _Apophthegmata_ of Joannes Stobaeus, and in 1523 appeared his _Etymologicum magnum, sive thesaurus universae linguae Graecae ex multis variisque autoribus collectus_, a compilation which has been frequently reprinted, and which has laid subsequent scholars under great though not always acknowledged obligations.

GUARINO [GUARINUS] DA VERONA (1370-1460), one of the Italian restorers of classical learning, was born in 1370 at Verona, and studied Greek at Constantinople, where for five years he was the pupil of Manuel Chrysoloras. When he set out on his return to Italy he was the happy possessor of two cases of precious Greek MSS. which he had been at great pains to collect; it is said that the loss of one of these by shipwreck caused him such distress that his hair turned grey in a single night. He supported himself as a teacher of Greek, first at Verona and afterwards in Venice and Florence; in 1436 he became, through the patronage of Lionel, marquis of Este, professor of Greek at Ferrara; and in 1438 and following years he acted as interpreter for the Greeks at the councils of Ferrara and Florence. He died at Ferrara on the 14th of December 1460.

His principal works are translations of Strabo and of some of the
_Lives_ of Plutarch, a compendium of the Greek grammar of Chrysoloras,
and a series of commentaries on Persius, Juvenal, Martial and on some
of the writings of Aristotle and Cicero. See Rosmini, _Vita e
disciplina di Guarino_ (1805-1806); Sabbadini, _Guarino Veronese_
(1885); Sandys, _Hist. Class. Schol._ ii. (1908).

GUARNIERI, or GUARNERIUS, a celebrated family of violin-makers of Cremona. The first was Andreas (c. 1626-1698), who worked with Antonio Stradivari in the workshop of Nicolo Amati (son of Geronimo). Violins of a model original to him are dated from the sign of "St Theresa" in Cremona. His son Joseph (1666-c. 1739) made instruments at first like his father's, but later in a style of his own with a narrow waist; his son, Peter of Venice (b. 1695), was also a fine maker. Another son of Andreas, Peter (Pietro Giovanni), commonly known as "Peter of Cremona" (b. 1655), moved from Cremona and settled at Mantua, where he too worked "sub signo Sanctae Teresae." Peter's violins again showed considerable variations from those of the other Guarnieri. Hart, in his work on the violin, says, "There is increased breadth between the sound-holes; the sound-hole is rounder and more perpendicular; the middle bouts are more contracted, and the model is more raised."

The greatest of all the Guarnieri, however, was a nephew of Andreas, Joseph del Gesu (1687-1745), whose title originates in the I.H.S. inscribed on his tickets. His master was Gaspar di Salo. His conception follows that of the early Brescian makers in the boldness of outline and the massive construction which aim at the production of tone rather than visual perfection of form. The great variety of his work in size, model, &c., represents his various experiments in the direction of discovering this tone. A stain or sap-mark, parallel with the finger-board on both sides, appears on the bellies of most of his instruments. Since the middle of the 18th century a great many spurious instruments ascribed to this master have poured over Europe. It was not until Paganini played on a "Joseph" that the taste of amateurs turned from the sweetness of the Amati and the Stradivarius violins in favour of the robuster tone of the Joseph Guarnerius. See VIOLIN.

GUASTALLA, a town and episcopal see of Emilia, Italy, in the province of Reggio, from which it is 18 m. N. by road, on the S. bank of the Po, 79 ft. above sea-level. It is also connected by rail with Parma and Mantua (via Suzzara). Pop. (1901), 2658 (town); 11,091 (commune). It has 16th-century fortifications. The cathedral, dating from the 10th century, has been frequently restored. Guastalla was founded by the Lombards in the 7th century; in the church of the Pieve Pope Paschal II. held a council in 1106. In 1307 it was seized by Giberto da Correggio of Parma. In 1403 it passed to Guido Torello, cousin of Filippo Maria Visconti of Milan. In 1539 it was sold by the last female descendant of the Torelli to Ferrante Gonzaga. In 1621 it was made the seat of a duchy, but in 1748 it was added to those of Parma and Piacenza, whose history it subsequently followed.

GUATEMALA (sometimes incorrectly written GUATIMALA), a name now restricted to the republic of Guatemala and to its chief city, but formerly given to a captaincy-general of Spanish America, which included the fifteen provinces of Chiapas, Suchitepeques, Escuintla, Sonsonate, San Salvador, Vera Paz and Peten, Chiquimula, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Totonicapam, Quezaltenango, Solola, Chimaltenango and Sacatepeques,--or, in other words, the whole of Central America (except Panama) and part of Mexico. The name is probably of Aztec origin, and is said by some authorities to mean in its native form Quauhtematlan, "Land of the Eagle," or "Land of Forest"; others, writing it U-ha-tez-ma-la, connect it with the volcano of Agua (i.e. "water"), and interpret it as "mountain vomiting water."

The republic of Guatemala is situated between 13 deg. 42' and 17 deg. 49' N., and 88 deg. 10' and 92 deg. 30' W. (For map, see CENTRAL AMERICA.) Pop. (1903), 1,842,134; area about 48,250 sq. m. Guatemala is bounded on the W. and N. by Mexico, N.E. by British Honduras, E. by the Gulf of Honduras, and the republic of Honduras, S.E. by Salvador and S. by the Pacific Ocean. The frontier towards Mexico was determined by conventions of the 27th of September 1882, the 17th of October 1883, the 1st of April 1895, and the 8th of May 1899. Starting from the Pacific, it ascends the river Suchiate, then follows an irregular line towards the north-east, till it reaches the parallel of 17 deg. 49[min] N., along which it runs to the frontier of British Honduras. This frontier, by the convention of the 9th of July 1893, coincides with the meridian of 89 deg. 20[min] W., till it meets the river Sarstoon or Sarstun, which it follows eastwards to the Gulf of Honduras.

_Physical Description._--Guatemala is naturally divided into five
regions--the lowlands of the Pacific coast, the volcanic mountains of
the Sierra Madre, the so-called plateaus immediately north of these,
the mountains of the Atlantic versant and the plain of Peten. (1) The
coastal plains extend along the entire southern seaboard, with a mean
breadth of 50 m., and link together the belts of similar territory in
Salvador and the district of Soconusco in Chiapas. Owing to their
tropical heat, low elevation above sea-level, and marshy soil, they
are thinly peopled, and contain few important towns except the
seaports. (2) The precipitous barrier of the Sierra Madre, which
closes in the coastal plains on the north, is similarly prolonged into
Salvador and Mexico. It is known near Guatemala city as the Sierra de
las Nubes, and enters Mexico as the Sierra de Istatan. It forms the
main watershed between the Pacific and Atlantic river systems. Its
summit is not a well-defined crest, but is often rounded or flattened
into a table-land. The direction of the great volcanic cones, which
rise in an irregular line above it, is not identical with the main
axis of the Sierra itself, except near the Mexican frontier, but has a
more southerly trend, especially towards Salvador; here the base of
many of the igneous peaks rests among the southern foothills of the
range. It is, however, impossible to subdivide the Sierra Madre into a
northern and a volcanic chain; for the volcanoes are isolated by
stretches of comparatively low country; at least thirteen considerable
streams flow down between them, from the main watershed to the sea.
Viewed from the coast, the volcanic cones seem to rise directly from
the central heights of the Sierra Madre, above which they tower; but
in reality their bases are, as a rule, farther south. East of Tacana,
which marks the Mexican frontier, and is variously estimated at 13,976
ft. and 13,090 ft., and if the higher estimate be correct is the
loftiest peak in Central America, the principal volcanoes
are--Tajamulco or Tajumulco (13,517 ft.); Santa Maria (12,467 ft.),
which was in eruption during 1902, after centuries of quiescence, in
which its slopes had been overgrown by dense forests; Atitlan
(11,719), overlooking the lake of that name; Acatenango (13,615).
which shares the claim of Tacana to be the highest mountain of Central
America; Fuego (i.e. "fire," variously estimated at 12,795 ft. and
12,582 ft.), which received its name from its activity at the time of
the Spanish conquest; Agua (i.e. "water," 12,139 ft.), so named in
1541 because it destroyed the former capital of Guatemala with a
deluge of water from its flooded crater; and Pacaya (8390), a group of
igneous peaks which were in eruption in 1870. (3) The so-called
plateaus which extend north of the Sierra Madre are in fact high
valleys, rather than table-lands, enclosed by mountains. A better idea
of this region is conveyed by the native name Altos, or highlands,
although that term includes the northern declivity of the Sierra
Madre. The mean elevation is greatest in the west (Altos of
Quezaltenango) and least in the east (Altos of Guatemala). A few of
the streams of the Pacific slope actually rise in the Altos, and force
a way through the Sierra Madre at the bottom of deep ravines. One
large river, the Chixoy, escapes northwards towards the Atlantic. (4)
The relief of the mountainous country which lies north of the Altos
and drains into the Atlantic is varied by innumerable terraces, ridges
and underfalls; but its general configuration is admirably compared by
E. Reclus with the appearance of "a stormy sea breaking into parallel
billows" (_Universal Geography_, ed. E. G. Ravenstein, div. xxxiii.,
p. 212). The parallel ranges extend east and west with a slight
southerly curve towards their centres. A range called the Sierra de
Chama, which, however, changes its name frequently from place to
place, strikes eastward towards British Honduras, and is connected by
low hills with the Cockscomb Mountains; another similar range, the
Sierra de Santa Cruz, continues east to Cape Cocoli between the
Polochic and the Sarstoon; and a third, the Sierra de las Minas or, in
its eastern portion, Sierra del Mico, stretches between the Polochic
and the Motagua. Between Honduras and Guatemala the frontier is formed
by the Sierra de Merendon. (5) The great plain of Peten, which
comprises about one-third of the whole area of Guatemala, belongs
geographically to the Yucatan Peninsula, and consists of level or
undulating country, covered with grass or forest. Its population
numbers less than two per sq. m., although many districts have a
wonderfully fertile soil and abundance of water. The greater part of
this region is uncultivated, and only utilized as pasture by the
Indians, who form the majority of its inhabitants.

Guatemala is richly watered. On the western side of the sierras the
versant is short, and the streams, while very numerous, are
consequently small and rapid; but on the eastern side a number of the
rivers attain a very considerable development. The Motagua, whose
principal head stream is called the Rio Grande, has a course of about
250 m., and is navigable to within 90 m. of the capital, which is
situated on one of its confluents, the Rio de las Vacas. It forms a
delta on the south of the Gulf of Honduras. Of similar importance is
the Polochic, which is about 180 m. in length, and navigable about 20
m. above the river-port of Teleman. Before reaching the Golfo Amatique
it passes through the Golfo Dulce, or Izabal Lake, and the Golfete
Dulce. A vast number of streams, among which are the Chixoy, the
Guadalupe, and the Rio de la Pasion, unite to form the Usumacinta,
whose noble current passes along the Mexican frontier, and flowing on
through Chiapas and Tabasco, falls into the Bay of Campeche. The
Chiapas follows a similar course.

There are several extensive lakes in Guatemala. The Lake of Peten or
Laguna de Flores, in the centre of the department of Peten, is an
irregular basin about 27 m. long, with an extreme breadth of 13 m. In
an island in the western portion stands Flores, a town well known to
American antiquaries for the number of ancient idols which have been
recovered from its soil. On the shore of the lake is the stalactite
cave of Jobitsinal, of great local celebrity; and in its depths,
according to the popular legend, may still be discerned the stone
image of a horse that belonged to Cortes. The Golfo Dulce is, as its
name implies, a fresh-water lake, although so near the Atlantic. It is
about 36 m. long, and would be of considerable value as a harbour if
the bar at the mouth of the Rio Dulce did not prevent the upward
passage of seafaring vessels. As a contrast the Lake of Atitlan (q.v.)
is a land-locked basin encompassed with lofty mountains. About 9 m. S.
of the capital lies the Lake of Amatitlan (q.v.) with the town of the
same name. On the borders of Salvador and Guatemala there is the Lake
of Guija, about 20 m. long and 12 broad, at a height of 2100 ft. above
the sea. It is connected by the river Ostuma with the Lake of Ayarza
which lies about 1000 ft. higher at the foot of the Sierra Madre.

The geology, fauna and flora of Guatemala are discussed under CENTRAL
AMERICA. The bird-life of the country is remarkably rich; one bird of
magnificent plumage, the quetzal, quijal or quesal (_Trogon
resplendens_), has been chosen as the national emblem.

_Climate._--The climate is healthy, except on the coasts, where
malarial fever is prevalent. The rainy season in the interior lasts
from May to October, but on the coast sometimes continues till
December. The coldest month is January, and the warmest is May. The
average temperatures for these months at places of different
altitudes, as given by Dr Karl Sapper, are shown on the following
page.

The average rainfall is very heavy, especially on the Atlantic slope,
where the prevailing winds are charged with moisture from the Gulf of
Mexico or the Caribbean Sea; at Tual, a high station on the Atlantic
slope, it reaches 195 in.; in central Guatemala it is only 27 in.
Towards the Atlantic rain often occurs in the dry season, and there is
a local saying near the Golfo Dulce that "it rains thirteen months in
the year." Fogs are not rare. In Guatemala, as in other parts of
Central America (q.v.), each of the three climatic zones, cold,
temperate and hot (_tierra fria_, _tierra templada_, _tierra
caliente_) has its special characteristics, and it is not easy to
generalize about the climate of the country as a whole.

+----------------+----------+--------------------+
| | Altitude | Fahrenheit Degrees.|
| Locality. | (Feet). +--------------------+
| | | January. | May. |
+----------------+----------+-----------+--------+
| Puerto Barrios | 6 | 74 | 81 |
| Salama | 3020 | 68 | 77 |
| Campur | 3050 | 64 | 73 |
| Chimax | 4280 | 61 | 68 |
| Guatemala | 4870 | 60 | 67 |
| Quezaltenango | 7710 | 50 | 62 |
+----------------+----------+-----------+--------+

_Natural Products._--The minerals discovered in Guatemala include
gold, silver, lead, tin, copper, mercury, antimony, coal, salt and
sulphur; but it is uncertain if many of these exist in quantities
sufficient to repay exploitation. Gold is obtained at Las Quebradas
near Izabal, silver in the departments of Santa Rosa and Chiquimula,
salt in those of Santa Rosa and Alta Vera Paz. During the 17th century
gold-washing was carried on by English miners in the Motagua valley,
and is said to have yielded rich profits; hence the name of "Gold
Coast" was not infrequently given to the Atlantic littoral near the
mouth of the Motagua.

The area of forest has only been seriously diminished in the west, and
amounted to 2030 sq. m. in 1904. Besides rubber, it yields many
valuable dye-woods and cabinet-woods, such as cedar, mahogany and
logwood. Fruits, grain and medicinal plants are obtained in great
abundance, especially where the soil is largely of volcanic origin, as
in the Altos and Sierra Madre. Parts of the Peten district are equally
fertile, maize in this region yielding two hundredfold from unmanured
soil. The vegetable products of Guatemala include coffee, cocoa,
sugar-cane, bananas, oranges, vanilla, aloes, agave, ipecacuanha,
castor-oil, sarsaparilla, cinchona, tobacco, indigo and the wax-plant
(_Myrica cerifera_).

_Inhabitants._--The inhabitants of Guatemala, who tend to increase rapidly owing to the high birth-rate, low mortality, and low rate of emigration, numbered in 1903 1,842,134, or more than one-third of the entire population of Central America. Fully 60% are pure Indians, and the remainder, classed as _Ladinos_ or "Latins" (i.e. Spaniards in speech and mode of life), comprise a large majority of half-castes (_mestizos_) and civilized Indians and a smaller proportion of whites. It includes a foreign population of about 12,000 Europeans and North Americans, among them being many Jews from the west of the United States. There are important German agricultural settlements, and many colonists from north Italy who are locally called _Tiroleses_, and despised by the Indians for their industry and thrift. About half the births among the Indians and one-third among the whites are illegitimate.

No part of Central America contains a greater diversity of tribes, and in 1883 Otto Stoll estimated the number of spoken languages as eighteen, although east of the meridian of Lake Amatitlan the native speech has almost entirely disappeared and been replaced by Spanish. The Indians belong chiefly to the Maya stock, which predominates throughout Peten, or to the allied Quiche race which is well represented in the Altos and central districts. The Itzas, Mopans, Lacandons, Chols, Pokonchi and the Pokomans who inhabit the large settlement of Mixco near the capital, all belong to the Maya family; but parts of central and eastern Guatemala are peopled by tribes distinct from the Mayas and not found in Mexico. In the 16th century the Mayas and Quiches had attained a high level of civilization (see CENTRAL AMERICA, _Archaeology_), and at least two of the Guatemalan languages, Quiche and Cakchiquel, possess the rudiments or the relics of a literature. The Quiche _Popol Vuh_, or "Book of History," which was translated into Spanish by the Dominican friar Ximenes, and edited with a French version by Brasseur de Bourbourg, is an important document for students of the local myths. In appearance the various Guatemalan tribes differ very little; in almost all the characteristic type of Indian is short but muscular, with low forehead, prominent cheek-bones and straight black hair. In character the Indians are, as a rule, peaceable, though conscious of their numerical superiority and at times driven to join in the revolutions which so often disturb the course of local politics; they are often intensely religious, but with a few exceptions are thriftless, indolent and inveterate gamblers. Their _confradias_, or brotherhoods, each with its patron saint and male and female chiefs, exist largely to organize public festivals, and to purchase wooden masks, costumes and decorations for the dances and dramas in which the Indians delight. These dramas, which deal with religious and historical subjects, are of Indian origin, and somewhat resemble the mystery-plays of medieval Europe, a resemblance heightened by the introduction, due to Spanish missionaries, of Christian saints and heroes such as Charlemagne. The Indians are devoted to bull-fighting and cock-fighting. Choral singing is a popular amusement, and is accompanied by the Spanish guitar and native wind-instruments. The Indians have a habit of consuming a yellowish edible earth containing sulphur; on pilgrimages they obtain images moulded of this earth at the shrines they visit, and eat the images as a prophylactic against disease. Maize, beans and bananas, varied occasionally with dried meat and fresh pork, form their staple diet; drunkenness is common on pay-days and festivals, when large quantities of a fiery brandy called _chicha_ are consumed.

_Chief Towns._--The capital of the republic, Guatemala or Guatemala la
Nueva (pop. 1905 about 97,000) and the cities of Quezaltenango
(31,000), Totonicapam (28,000), Coban (25,000), Solola (17,000),
Escuintla (12,000), Huehuetanango (12,000), Amatitlan (10,000) and
Atitlan (9000) are described under separate headings. All the chief
towns except the seaports are situated within the mountainous region
where the climate is temperate. Retalhuleu, among the southern
foothills of the Sierra Madre, is one of the centres of coffee
production, and is connected by rail with the Pacific port of
Champerico, a very unhealthy place in the wet season. Both Retalhuleu
and Champerico were, like Quezaltenango, Solola, and other towns,
temporarily ruined by the earthquake of the 18th of April 1902. Santa
Cruz Quiche, 25 m. N.E. of Totonicapam, was formerly the capital of
the Quiche kings, but has now a Ladino population. Livingston, a
seaport at the mouth of the Polochic (here called the Rio Dulce), was
founded in 1806, and subsequently named after the author of a code of
Guatemalan laws; few vestiges remain of the Spanish settlement of
Sevilla la Nueva, founded in 1844, and of the English colony of
Abbotsville, founded in 1825,--both near Livingston. La Libertad, also
called by its Indian name of Sacluc, is the principal town of Peten.

_Shipping and Communications._--The republic is in regular steam
communication on the Atlantic side with New Orleans, New York and
Hamburg, by vessels which visit the ports of Barrios (Santo Tomas) and
Livingston. On the southern side the ports of San Jose, Champerico and
Ocos are visited by the Pacific mail steamers, by the vessels of a
Hamburg company and by those of the South American (Chilean) and the
Pacific Steam Navigation Companies. Iztapa, formerly the principal
harbour on the south coast, has been almost entirely abandoned since
1853. Gualan, on the Motagua, and Panzos, on the Polochic, are small
river-ports. The principal towns are connected by wagon roads, towards
the construction and maintenance of which each male inhabitant is
required to pay two pesos or give four days' work a year. There are
coach routes between the capital and Quezaltenango, but over a great
portion of the country transport is still on mule-back. All the
railway lines have been built since 1875. The main lines are the
Southern, belonging to an American company and running from San Jose
to the capital; the Northern, a government line from the capital to
Puerto Barrios, which completes the interoceanic railroad; and the
Western, from Champerico to Quezaltenango, belonging to a Guatemalan
company, but largely under German management. For local traffic there
are several lines; one from Iztapa, near San Jose, to Naranjo, and
another from Ocos to the western coffee plantations. On the Atlantic
slope transport is effected mainly by river tow-boats from Livingston
along the Golfo Dulce and other lakes, and the Polochic river as far
as Panzos. The narrow-gauge railway that serves the German plantations
in the Vera Paz region is largely owned by Germans.

Guatemala joined the Postal Union in 1881; but its postal and
telegraphic services have suffered greatly from financial
difficulties. The telephonic systems of Guatemala la Nueva,
Quezaltenango and other cities are owned by private companies.

_Commerce and Industry._--The natural resources of Guatemala are rich
but undeveloped; and the capital necessary for their development is
not easily obtained in a country where war, revolution and economic
crises recur at frequent intervals, where the premium on gold has
varied by no less than 500% in a single year, and where many of the
wealthiest cities and agricultural districts have been destroyed by
earthquake in one day (18th of April 1902). At the beginning of the
19th century, Guatemala had practically no export trade; but between
1825 and 1850 cochineal was largely exported, the centre of production
being the Amatitlan district. This industry was ruined by the
competition of chemical dyes, and a substitute was found in the
cultivation of coffee. Guatemala is surpassed only by Brazil and the
East Indies in the quantity of coffee it exports. The chief
plantations are owned and managed by Germans; more than half of the
crop is sent to Germany, while three-fifths of the remainder go to the
United States and one-fifth to Great Britain. The average yearly
product is about 70,000,000 lb., worth approximately L1,300,000, and
subject to an export duty of one gold dollar (4s.) per quintal (101
lb.). Sugar, bananas, tobacco and cocoa are also cultivated; but much
of the sugar and bananas, most of the cocoa, and all the tobacco are
consumed in the country. During the colonial period, the cocoa of
western Guatemala and Soconusco was reserved on account of its fine
flavour for the Spanish court. The indigo and cotton plantations yield
little profit, owing to foreign competition, and have in most cases
been converted to other uses. The cultivation of bananas tends to
increase, though more slowly than in other Central American countries.
Grain, sweet potatoes and beans are grown for home consumption.
Cattle-farming is carried on in the high pasture-lands and the plains
of Peten; but the whole number of sheep (77,000 in 1900) and pigs
(30,000) in the republic is inferior to the number kept in many single
English counties. Much of the wool is sold, like the native cotton, to
Indian and Ladino women, who manufacture coarse cloth and linen in
their homes.

By the Land Act of 1894 the state domains, except on the coasts and
frontiers, were divided into lots for sale. The largest holding
tenable by one person under this act was fixed at 50 caballerias, or
5625 acres; the price varies from L40 to L80 per caballeria of 112-1/2
acres. Free grants of uncultivated land are sometimes made to
immigrants (including foreign companies), to persons who undertake to
build roads or railways through their allotments, to towns, villages
and schools. The condition of the Indians on the plantations is often
akin to slavery, owing to the system adopted by some planters of
making payments in advance; for the Indians soon spend their earnings,
and thus contract debts which can only be repaid by long service.

In addition to the breweries, rum and brandy distilleries, sugar mills
and tobacco factories, which are sometimes worked as adjuncts to the
plantations, there are many purely urban industries, such as the
manufacture of woollen and cotton goods on a large scale, and
manufactures of building material and furniture; but these industries
are far less important than agriculture.

During the five years 1900 to 1904 inclusive, the average value of
Guatemalan imports, which consisted chiefly of textiles, iron and
machinery, sacks, provisions, flour, beer, wine and spirits, amounted
to L776,000; about one-half came from the United States, and nearly
one-fourth from the United Kingdom. The exports during the same period
had an average value of L1,528,000, and ranked as follows in order of
value: coffee (L1,300,000), timber, hides, rubber, sugar, bananas,
cocoa.

_Finance._--Within the republic there are six banks of issue, to which
the government is deeply indebted. There is practically neither gold
nor silver in circulation, and the value of the bank-notes is so
fluctuating that trade is seriously hampered. On the 25th of June
1903, the issue of bank-notes without a guarantee was restricted; and
thenceforward all banks were compelled to retain gold or silver to the
value of 10% of the notes issued in 1904, 20% in 1905 and 30% in 1906.
This reform has not, to any appreciable extent, rendered more stable
the value of the notes issued. The silver peso, or dollar, of 100
centavas is the monetary unit, weighs 25 grammes .900 fine, and has a
nominal value of 4s. Being no longer current it has been replaced by
the paper peso. The nickel coins include the real (nominal value 6d.),
half-real and quarter-real. The metric system of weights and measures
has been adopted, but the old Spanish standards remain in general use.

Of the revenue, about 64% is derived from customs and excise; 9% from
property, road, military, slaughter and salt taxes; 1.7% from the
gunpowder monopoly; and the remainder from various taxes, stamps,
government lands, and postal and telegraph services. The estimated
revenue for 1905-1906 was 23,000,000 pesos (about L328,500); the
estimated expenditure was 27,317,659 pesos (L390,200), of which
L242,800 were allotted to the public debt, L42,000 to internal
development and justice, L29,000 to the army and the remainder largely
to education. The gold value of the currency peso (75 = L1 in 1903, 70
= L1 in 1904, 58 = L1 in 1905) fluctuates between limits so wide that
conversion into sterling (especially for a series of years), with any
pretension to accuracy, is impracticable. In 1899 the rate of exchange
moved between 710% and 206% premium on gold. According to the official
statement, the gold debt, which runs chiefly at 4% and is held in
Germany and England, amounted to L1,987,905 on the 1st of January
1905; the currency debt (note issues, internal loans, &c.) amounted to
L704,730; total L2,692,635, a decrease since 1900 of about L300,000.

_Government._--According to the constitution of December 1879 (modified in 1885, 1887, 1889 and 1903) the legislative power is vested in a national assembly of 69 deputies (1 for every 20,000 inhabitants) chosen for 4 years by direct popular vote, under universal manhood suffrage. The president of the republic is elected in a similar manner, but for 6 years, and he is theoretically not eligible for the following term. He is assisted by 6 ministers, heads of government departments, and by a council of state of 13 members, partly appointed by himself and partly by the national assembly.

_Local Government._--Each of the twenty-two departments is administered by an official called a _jefe politico_, or political chief, appointed by the president, and each is subdivided into municipal districts. These districts are administered by one or more _alcaldes_ or mayors, assisted by municipal councils, both alcaldes and councils being chosen by the people.

_Justice._--The judicial power is vested in a supreme court, consisting of a chief justice and four associate justices elected by the people; six appeal courts, each with three judges, also elected by the people; and twenty-six courts of first instance, each consisting of one judge appointed by the president and two by the chief justice of the supreme court.

_Religion and Instruction._--The prevailing form of religion is the Roman Catholic, but the state recognizes no distinction of creed. The establishment of conventual or monastic institutions is prohibited. Of the population in 1893, 90% could neither read nor write, 2% could only read, and 8% could read and write. Primary instruction is nominally compulsory, and, in government schools, is provided at the cost of the state. In 1903 there were 1064 government primary schools. There are besides about 128 private (occasionally aided) schools of similar character, owners of plantations on which there are more than ten children being obliged to provide school accommodation. Higher instruction is given in two national institutes at the capital, one for men with 500 pupils and one for women with 300. At Quezaltenango there are two similar institutes, and at Chiquimula there are other two. To each of the six there is a school for teachers attached, and within the republic there are four other schools for teachers. For professional instruction (law, medicine, engineering) there are schools supported by private funds, but aided occasionally by the government. Other educational establishments are a school of art, a national conservatory of music, a commercial college, four trades' schools with more than 600 pupils and a national library. There is a German school, endowed by the German government.

_Defence._--For the white and mixed population military service is compulsory; from the eighteenth to the thirtieth year of age in the active army, and from the thirtieth to the fiftieth in the reserve. The effective force of the active army is 56,900, of the reserve 29,400. About 7000 officers and men are kept in regular service. Military training is given in all public and most private schools.

_History._--Guatemala was conquered by the Spaniards under Pedro de Alvarado between 1522 and 1524. Up to the years 1837-1839 its history differs only in minor details from that of the neighbouring states of Central America (q.v.). The colonial period was marked by the destruction of the ancient Indian civilization, the extermination of many entire tribes, and the enslavement of the survivors, who were exploited to the utmost for the benefit of Spanish officials and adventurers. But although the administration was weak, corrupt and cruel, it succeeded in establishing the Roman Catholic religion, and in introducing the Spanish language among the Indians and Ladinos, who thus obtained a tincture of civilization and ultimately a desire for more liberal institutions. The Central American provinces revolted in 1821, were annexed to the Mexican empire of Iturbide from 1822 to 1823, and united to form a federal republic from 1823 to 1839. In Guatemala the Clerical, Conservative or anti-Federal party was supreme; after a protracted struggle it overthrew the Liberals or Federalists, and declared the country an independent republic, with Rafael Carrera (1814-1865) as president. In 1845 an attempt to restore the federal union failed; in 1851 Carrera defeated the Federalist forces of Honduras and Salvador at La Arada near Chiquimula, and was recognized as the pacificator of the republic. In 1851 a new constitution was promulgated, and Carrera was appointed president till 1856, a dignity which was in 1854 bestowed upon him for life. His rivalry with Gerardo Barrios (d. 1865), president of Salvador, resulted in open war in 1863. At Coatepeque the Guatemalans suffered a severe defeat, which was followed by a truce. Honduras now joined with Salvador, and Nicaragua and Costa Rica with Guatemala. The contest was finally settled in favour of Carrera, who besieged and occupied San Salvador and made himself dominant also in Honduras and Nicaragua. During the rest of his rule, which lasted till his death in April 1865, he continued to act in concert with the Clerical party, and endeavoured to maintain friendly relations with the European governments. Carrera's successor was General Cerna, who had been recommended by him for election. The Liberal party began to rise in influence about 1870, and in May 1871 Cerna was deposed. The archbishop of Guatemala and the Jesuits were driven into exile as intriguers in the interests of the Clericals. Pres. Rufino Barrios (1835-1885), elected in 1873, governed the country after the manner of a dictator; he expelled the Jesuits, confiscated their property and disestablished and disendowed the church. But though he encouraged education, promoted railway and other enterprises, and succeeded in settling difficulties as to the Mexican boundary, the general result of his policy was baneful. Conspiracies against him were rife, and in 1884 he narrowly escaped assassination. His ambition was to be the restorer of the federal union of the Central American states, and when his efforts towards this end by peaceful means failed he had recourse to the sword. Counting on the support of Honduras and Salvador, he proclaimed himself, in February 1885, the supreme military chief of Central America, and claimed the command of all the forces within the five states. President Zaldivar, of Salvador, had been his friend, but after the issue of the decree of union he entered into a defensive alliance with Costa Rica and Nicaragua. In March Barrios invaded Salvador, and on the 2nd of April a battle was fought, in which the Guatemalan president was killed. He was succeeded by General Manuel Barillas. No further effort was made to force on the union, and on the 16th of April the war was formally ended. Peace, however, only provided opportunity for domestic conspiracy, with assassination and revolution in view. In 1892 General Jose Maria Reina Barrios was elected president, and in 1897 he was re-elected; but on the 8th of February 1898 he was assassinated. Senor Morales, vice-president, succeeded him; but in the same year Don Manuel Estrada Cabrera (b. 1857) was elected president for the term ending 1905. Cabrera promoted education, commerce and the improvement of communications, but his re-election for the term 1905-1911 caused widespread discontent. He was charged with aiming at a dictatorship, with permitting or even encouraging the imprisonment, torture and execution without trial of political opponents, with maladministration of the finances and with aggression against the neighbouring states. A well-armed force, which included a body of adventurers from San Francisco (U.S.A.) was organized by General Barillas, the ex-president, and invaded Guatemala in March 1906 from Mexico, British Honduras and Salvador. Barillas (1845-1907) proclaimed his intention of establishing a silver currency, and gained, to a great extent, the sympathy of the German and British residents; he had been the sole Guatemalan president who had not sought to prolong his own tenure of office. Ocos was captured by his lieutenant, General Castillo, and the revolution speedily became a war, in which Honduras, Costa Rica and Salvador were openly involved against Guatemala, while Nicaragua was hostile. But Cabrera held his ground, and even gained several indecisive victories. The intervention of President Roosevelt and of President Diaz of Mexico brought about an armistice on the 19th of July, and the so-called "Marblehead Pact" was signed on the following day on board the United States cruiser "Marblehead." Its terms were embodied in a treaty signed (28th of September) by representatives of the four belligerent states, Nicaragua taking no part in the negotiations. The treaty included regulations for the improvement of commerce and navigation in the area affected by the war, and provided for the settlement of subsequent disputes by the arbitration of the United States and Mexico.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Besides the works cited under CENTRAL AMERICA see the
interesting narrative of Thomas Gage, the English missionary, in
Juarros, _Compendio de la historia de Guatemala_ (1808-1818, 2 vols.;
new ed., 1857), which in Bailly's English translation (London, 1823)
long formed the chief authority. See also C. Juan Anino, _La Republica
de Guatemala_ (Guatemala, 1894); T. Brigham, _Guatemala, The Land of
the Quetzal_ (London, 1887); J. M. Caceres, _Geografia de
Centro-America_ (Paris, 1882); G. Lemale, _Guia geografica de los
centros de poblacion de la republica de Guatemala_ (Guatemala, 1882);
F. A. de Fuentes y Guzman, _Historia de Guatemala o Recordacion
Florida_ (Madrid, 1882); A. C. and A. P. Maudslay, _A Glimpse at
Guatemala, and some Notes on the Ancient Monuments of Central America_
(London, 1899); Gustavo Niederlein, _The Republic of Guatemala_
(Philadelphia, 1898); Ramon A. Salazar, _Historia del disenvolvimiento
intelectual de Guatemala_, vol. i. (Guatemala, 1897); Otto Stoll,
_Reisen und Schilderungen aus den Jahren 1878-1883_ (Leipzig, 1886);
J. Mendez, _Guia del immigrante en la republica de Guatemala_
(Guatemala, 1895); Karl Sapper, "Grundzuge der physikalischen
Geographie von Guatemala," Erganzungsheft No. 115, _Petermann's
Mitteilungen_ (Gotha, 1894); _Anuario de estadistica de la republica
de Guatemala_ (Guatemala); _Memoria de la Secretaria de Instruccion
Publica_ (Guatemala, 1899); _Handbook of Guatemala_, revised (Bureau
of the American Republics, Washington, 1897); _United States Consular
Reports_ (Washington); _British Foreign Office Diplomatic and Consular
Reports_ (London).

GUATEMALA, or GUATEMALA LA NUEVA (i.e. "New Guatemala," sometimes written Nueva Guatemala, and formerly Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala), the capital of the republic of Guatemala, and until 1821 of the Spanish captaincy-general of Guatemala, which comprised Chiapas in Mexico and all Central America except Panama. Pop. (1905) about 97,000. Guatemala is built more than 5000 ft. above sea-level, in a wide table-land traversed by the Rio de las Vacas, or Cow River, so called from the cattle introduced here by Spanish colonists in the 16th century. Deep ravines mark the edge of the table-land, and beyond it lofty mountains rise on every side, the highest peaks being on the south, where the volcanic summits of the Sierra Madre exceed 12,000 ft. Guatemala has a station on the transcontinental railway from Puerto Barrios on the Atlantic (190 m. N.E.) to San Jose on the Pacific (75 m. S. by W.). It is thrice the size of any other city in the republic, and has a corresponding commercial superiority. Its archbishop is the primate of Central America (excluding Panama). Like most Spanish-American towns Guatemala is laid out in wide and regular streets, often planted with avenues of trees, and it has extensive suburbs. The houses, though usually of only one storey, are solidly and comfortably constructed; many of them are surrounded by large gardens and courts. Among the open spaces the chief are the Plaza Mayor, which contains the cathedral, erected in 1730, the archiepiscopal palace, the government buildings, the mint and other public offices; and the more modern Reforma Park and Plaza de la Concordia, now the favourite resorts of the inhabitants. There are many large schools for both sexes, besides hospitals and an orphanage. Many of the principal buildings, such as the military academy, were originally convents. The theatre, founded in 1858, is one of the best in Central America. A museum, founded in 1831, is maintained by the Sociedad Economica, which in various ways has done great service to the city and the country. There are two fortresses, the Castello Matamoros, built by Rafael Carrera (see GUATEMALA [republic] under _History_), and the Castello de San Jose. Water is brought from a distance of about 8 m. by two old aqueducts from the towns of Mixco and Pinula; fuel and provisions are largely supplied by the Pokoman Indians of Mixco. The general prosperity, and to some extent the appearance, of Guatemala have procured it the name of the Paris of Central America. It is lighted by electricity and has a good telephone service. Its trade is chiefly in coffee, but it also possesses cigar factories, wool and cotton factories, breweries, tanneries and other industrial establishments. The foreign trade is chiefly controlled by Germans.

The first city named Guatemala, now called Ciudad Vieja or "Old City," was founded in 1527 by Pedro de Alvarado, the conqueror of the country, on the banks of the Rio Pensativo, and at the foot of the volcano of Agua (i.e. "Water"). In 1541 it was overwhelmed by a deluge of water from the flooded crater of Agua; and in 1542 Alvarado founded Santiago de los Caballeros la Nueva, now Antigua. This city flourished greatly, and by the middle of the 18th century had become the most populous place in Central America, with 60,000 inhabitants and more than 100 churches and convents. But in 1773 it was ruined by an earthquake. It was rebuilt, and ultimately became capital of the department of Sacatepeques, and a health-resort locally celebrated for its thermal springs. But the Guatemalans determined to found a new capital on the site occupied by the hamlet of Ermita, 27 m. N.E. Here the third and last city of Guatemala was built, and became the seat of government in 1779. The remarkable regularity of the streets is due to the construction of the city on a uniform plan. The wide area covered, and the lowness of the houses, were similarly due to an ordinance which, in order to minimize the danger from earthquakes, forbade the erection of any building more than 20 ft. high. Many of the belfries of convents or churches, added after the ordinance had fallen into abeyance, were overthrown by the earthquake of 1874, which also destroyed a large part of Antigua.

GUATOS, a tribe of South American Indians of the upper Paraguay. They are of a European fairness and wear beards. They live almost entirely in canoes, building rough shelters in the swamps. They aided the Brazilians in the war with Paraguay 1865-70. Very few survive.

GUATUSOS, a tribe of American Indians of Costa Rica. They are an active, hardy people, who have always maintained hostility towards the Spaniards and retain their independence. From their language they appear to be a distinct stock. They were described by old writers as being very fair, with flaxen hair, and these reports led to a belief, since exploded, that they were European hybrids. There are very few surviving.

GUAVA (from the Mexican _guayaba_), the name applied to the fruits of species of _Psidium_, a genus belonging to the natural order _Myrtaceae_. The species which produces the bulk of the guava fruits of commerce is _Psidium Guajava_, a small tree from 15 to 20 ft. high, a native of the tropical parts of America and the West Indies. It bears short-stalked ovate or oblong leaves, with strongly marked veins, and covered with a soft tomentum or down. The flowers are borne on axillary stalks, and the fruits vary much in size, shape and colour, numerous forms and varieties being known and cultivated. The variety of which the fruits are most valued is that which is sometimes called the white guava (_P. Guajava_, var. _pyriferum_). The fruits are pear-shaped, about the size of a hen's egg, covered with a thin bright yellow or whitish skin filled with soft pulp, also of a light yellowish tinge, and having a pleasant sweet-acid and somewhat aromatic flavour. _P. Guajava_, var. _pomiferum_, produces a more globular or apple-shaped fruit, sometimes called the red guava. The pulp of this variety is mostly of a darker colour than the former and not of so fine a flavour, therefore the first named is most esteemed for eating in a raw state; both, however, are used in the preparation of two kinds of preserve known as guava jelly and guava cheese, which are made in the West Indies and imported thence to England; the fruits are of much too perishable a nature to allow of their importation in their natural state. Both varieties have been introduced into various parts of India, as well as in other countries of the East, where they have become perfectly naturalized. Though of course much too tender for outdoor planting in England, the guava thrives there in hothouses or stoves.

_Psidium variabile_ (also known as _P. Cattleyanum_), a tree of from 10 to 20 ft. high, a native of Brazil (the Araca or Araca de Praya), is known as the purple guava. The fruit, which is very abundantly produced in the axils of the leaves, is large, spherical, of a fine deep claret colour; the rind is pitted, and the pulp is soft, fleshy, purplish, reddish next the skin, but becoming paler towards the middle and in the centre almost or quite white. It has a very agreeable acid-sweet flavour, which has been likened to that of a strawberry.

GUAYAMA, a small city and the capital of a municipal district and department of the same name, on the southern coast of Porto Rico, 53 m. S. of San Juan. Pop. (1899) of the city, 5334; (1910) 8321; (1899) of the district, 12,749. The district (156 sq. m.) includes Arroyo and Salinas. The city stands about 230 ft. above the sea and has a mild, healthy climate. It is connected with Ponce by railway (1910), and with the port of Arroyo by an excellent road, part of the military road extending to Cayey, and it exports sugar, rum, tobacco, coffee, cattle, fruit and other products of the department, which is very fertile. The city was founded in 1736, but was completely destroyed by fire in 1832. It was rebuilt on a rectangular plan and possesses several buildings of note. Drinking-water is brought in through an aqueduct.

GUAYAQUIL, or SANTIAGO DE GUAYAQUIL, a city and port of Ecuador, capital of the province of Guayas, on the right bank of the Guayas river, 33 m. above its entrance into the Gulf of Guayaquil, in 2 deg. 12' S., 79 deg. 51' W. Pop. (1890) 44,772; (1897, estimate) 51,000, mostly half-breeds. The city is built on a comparatively level _pajonal_ or savanna, extending southward from the base of three low hills, called Los Cerros de la Cruz, between the river and the partially filled waters of the Estero Salado. It is about 30 ft. above sea-level, and the lower parts of the town are partially flooded in the rainy season. The old town is the upper or northern part, and is inhabited by the poorer classes, its streets being badly paved, crooked, undrained, dirty and pestilential. The great fire of 1896 destroyed a large part of the old town, and some of its insanitary conditions were improved in rebuilding. The new town, or southern part, is the business and residential quarter of the better classes, but the buildings are chiefly of wood and the streets are provided with surface drainage only. Among the public buildings are the governor's and bishop's palaces, town-hall, cathedral and 9 churches, national college, episcopal seminary and schools of law and medicine, theatre, two hospitals, custom-house, and several asylums and charitable institutions. Guayaquil is also the seat of a university corporation with faculties of law and medicine. A peculiarity of Guayaquil is that the upper floors in the business streets project over the walks, forming covered arcades. The year is divided into a wet and dry season, the former from January to June, when the hot days are followed by nights of drenching rain. The mean annual temperature is about 82 deg. to 83 deg. F.; malarial and bilious fevers are common, the latter being known as "Guayaquil fever," and epidemics of yellow fever are frequent. The dry or summer season is considered pleasant and healthy. The water-supply is now brought in through iron mains from the Cordilleras 53 m. distant. The mains pass under the Guayas river and discharge into a large distributing reservoir on one of the hills N. of the city. The city is provided with tramway and telephone services, the streets are lighted with gas and electricity, and telegraph communication with the outside world is maintained by means of the West Coast cable, which lands at the small port of Santa Elena, on the Pacific coast, about 65 m. W. of Guayaquil. Railway connexion with Quito (290 m.) was established in June 1908. There is also steamboat connexion with the producing districts of the province on the Guayas river and its tributaries, on which boats run regularly as far up as Bodegas (80 m.) in the dry season, and for a distance of 40 m. on the Daule. For smaller boats there are about 200 m. of navigation on this system of rivers. The exports of the province are almost wholly transported on these rivers, and are shipped either at Guayaquil, or at Puna, its deep-water port, 6-1/2 m. outside the Guayas bar, on the E. end of Puna Island. The Guayas river is navigable up to Guayaquil for steamers drawing 22 ft. of water; larger vessels anchor at Puna, 40 m. from Guayaquil, where cargoes and passengers are transferred to lighters and tenders. There is a quay on the river front, but the depth alongside does not exceed 18 ft. The principal exports are cacao, rubber, coffee, tobacco, hides, cotton, Panama hats, cinchona bark and ivory nuts, the value of all exports for the year 1905 being 14,148,877 _sucres_, in a total of 18,565,668 _sucres_ for the whole republic. In 1908 the exports were: cacao, about 64,000,000 lb., valued at $6,400,000; hides, valued at $135,000; rubber, valued at $235,000; coffee, valued at $273,000; and vegetable ivory, valued at $102,000. There are some small industries in the city, including a shipyard, saw-mills, foundry, sugar refineries, cotton and woollen mills, brewery, and manufactures of soap, cigars, chocolate, ice, soda-water and liqueurs.

Santiago de Guayaquil was founded on St James's day, the 25th of July 1535, by Sebastian de Benalcazar, but was twice abandoned before its permanent settlement in 1537 by Francesco de Orellana. It was captured and sacked several times in the 17th and 18th centuries by pirates and freebooters--by Jacob Clark in 1624, by French pirates in 1686, by English freebooters under Edward David in 1687, by William Dampier in 1707 and by Clapperton in 1709. Defensive works were erected in 1730, and in 1763, when the town was made a governor's residence, a castle and other fortifications were constructed. Owing to the flimsy construction of its buildings Guayaquil has been repeatedly burned, the greater fires occurring in 1707, 1764, 1865, 1896 and 1899. The city was made the see of a bishopric in 1837.