Chapter XXII: Act 1856: , is mainly declaratory of the English common law, as embodied (15)

Gustavus was inspired by a burning enthusiasm for the greatness and welfare of Sweden, and worked in the same reformatory direction as the other contemporary sovereigns of the "age of enlightenment." He took an active part in every department of business, but relied far more on extra-official counsellors of his own choosing than upon the senate. The effort to remedy the frightful corruption which had been fostered by the Hats and Caps engaged a considerable share of his time and he even found it necessary to put the whole of a supreme court of justice (_Gota Hofratt_) on its trial. Measures were also taken to reform the administration and the whole course of judicial procedure, and torture as an instrument of legal investigation was abolished. In 1774 an ordinance providing for the liberty of the press was even issued. The national defences were at the same time developed on a "Great Power" scale, and the navy was so enlarged as to become one of the most formidable in Europe. The dilapidated finances were set in good order by the "currency realization ordinance" of 1777. Gustavus also introduced new national economic principles. In 1775 free trade in corn was promoted and a number of oppressive export-tolls were abolished. The poor law was also amended, absolute religious liberty was proclaimed, and he even succeeded in inventing and popularizing a national costume which was in general use from 1778 till his death. His one great economic blunder was the attempt to make the sale of spirits a government monopoly, which was an obvious infringement upon the privileges of the estates. His foreign policy, on the other hand, was at first both wise and wary. Thus, when the king summoned the estates to assemble at Stockholm on the 3rd of September 1778, he could give a brilliant account of his six years' stewardship. Never was a parliament more obsequious or a king more gracious. "There was no room for a single No during the whole session." Yet, short as the session was, it was quite long enough to open the eyes of the deputies to the fact that their political supremacy had departed. They had changed places with the king. He was now indeed their sovereign lord; and, for all his gentleness, the jealousy with which he guarded, the vigour with which he enforced the prerogative, plainly showed that he meant to remain so. Even the few who were patriotic enough to acquiesce in the change by no means liked it. The diet of 1778 had been obsequious; the diet of 1786 was mutinous. The consequence was that nearly all the royal propositions were either rejected outright or so modified that Gustavus himself withdrew them.

The diet of 1786 marks a turning-point in Gustavus's history. Henceforth we observe a determination on his part to rule without a parliament; a passage, cautious and gradual, yet unflinching, from semi-constitutionalism to semi-absolutism. His opportunity came in 1788, when the political complications arising out of his war with Catherine II. of Russia enabled him by the Act of Unity and Security (on the 17th of February 1789) to override the opposition of the rebellious and grossly unpatriotic gentry, and, with the approbation of the three lower estates, establish a new and revolutionary constitution, in which, though the estates still held the power of the purse, the royal authority largely predominated. Throughout 1789 and 1790 Gustavus, in the national interests, gallantly conducted the unequal struggle with Russia, finally winning in the Svensksund (9th-10th July) the most glorious naval victory ever gained by the Swedish arms, the Russians losing one-third of their fleet and 7000 men. A month later, on the 14th of August 1790, peace was signed between Russia and Sweden at Varala. Only eight months before, Catherine had haughtily declared that "the odious and revolting aggression" of the king of Sweden would be "forgiven" only if he "testified his repentance" by agreeing to a peace granting a general and unlimited amnesty to all his rebels, and consenting to a guarantee by the Swedish diet ("as it would be imprudent to confide in his good faith alone") for the observance of peace in the future. The peace of Varala saved Sweden from any such humiliating concession, and in October 1791 Gustavus took the bold but by no means imprudent step of concluding an eight years' defensive alliance with the empress, who thereby bound herself to pay her new ally annual subsidies amounting to 300,000 roubles.

Gustavus now aimed at forming a league of princes against the Jacobins, and every other consideration was subordinated thereto. His profound knowledge of popular assemblies enabled him, alone among contemporary sovereigns, accurately to gauge from the first the scope and bearing of the French Revolution. But he was hampered by poverty and the jealousy of the other European Powers, and, after showing once more his unrivalled mastery over masses of men at the brief Gefle diet (22nd of January-24th of February 1792), he fell a victim to a widespread aristocratic conspiracy. Shot in the back by Anckarstrom at a midnight masquerade at the Stockholm opera-house, on the 16th of March 1792, he expired on the 29th.

Although he may be charged with many foibles and extravagances, Gustavus III. was indisputably one of the greatest sovereigns of the 18th century. Unfortunately his genius never had full scope, and his opportunity came too late. Gustavus was, moreover, a most distinguished author. He may be said to have created the Swedish theatre, and some of the best acting dramas in the literature are by his hand. His historical essays, notably the famous anonymous eulogy on Torstenson crowned by the Academy, are full of feeling and exquisite in style,--his letters to his friends are delightful. Every branch of literature and art interested him, every poet and artist of his day found in him a most liberal and sympathetic protector.

See R. N. Bain, _Gustavus III. and his Contemporaries_ (London, 1904);
E. G. Geijer, _Konung Gustaf III.'s efterlemnade papper_ (Upsala,
1843-1845); C. T. Odhner, _Sveriges politiska historia under Konung
Gustaf III.'s regering_ (Stockholm, 1885-1896); B. von Beskow, _Om
Gustaf III. sasom Konung och manniska_ (Stockholm, 1860-1861); O.
Levertin, _Gustaf III. som dramatisk forfattare_ (Stockholm, 1894);
_Gustaf III.'s bref till G. M. Armfelt_ (Fr.) (Stockholm, 1883); Y. K.
Grot, _Catharine II. and Gustavus III._ (Russ.) (St Petersburg, 1884).
(R. N. B.)

GUSTAVUS IV. (1778-1837), king of Sweden, the son of Gustavus III. and Queen Sophia Magdalena, was born at Stockholm on the 1st of November 1778. Carefully educated under the direction of Nils von Rosenstein, he grew up serious and conscientious. In August 1796 his uncle the regent Charles, duke of Sudermania, visited St Petersburg for the purpose of arranging a marriage between the young king and Catherine II.'s granddaughter, the grand-duchess Alexandra. The betrothal was actually fixed for the 22nd of September, when the whole arrangement foundered on the obstinate refusal of Gustavus to allow his destined bride liberty of worship according to the rites of the Greek Orthodox Church--a rebuff which undoubtedly accelerated the death of the Russian empress. Nobody seems to have even suspected at the time that serious mental derangement lay at the root of Gustavus's abnormal piety. On the contrary, there were many who prematurely congratulated themselves on the fact that Sweden had now no disturbing genius, but an economical, God-fearing, commonplace monarch to deal with. Gustavus's prompt dismissal of the generally detested Gustaf Reuterholm added still further to his popularity. On the 31st of October 1797 Gustavus married Frederica Dorothea, daughter of Charles Frederick, grand-duke of Baden, a marriage which might have led to a war with Russia but for the fanatical hatred of the French republic shared by the emperor Paul and Gustavus IV., which served as a bond of union between them. Indeed the king's horror of Jacobinism was morbid in its intensity, and drove him to adopt all sorts of reactionary measures and to postpone his coronation for some years, so as to avoid calling together a diet; but the disorder of the finances, caused partly by the continental war and partly by the almost total failure of the crops in 1798 and 1799, compelled him to summon the estates to Norrkoping in March 1800, and on the 3rd of April Gustavus was crowned. The notable change which now took place in Sweden's foreign policy and its fatal consequences to the country are elsewhere set forth (see SWEDEN, _History_). By the end of 1808 it was obvious to every thinking Swede that the king was insane. His violence had alienated his most faithful supporters, while his obstinate incompetence paralysed the national efforts. To remove a madman by force was the one remaining expedient; and this was successfully accomplished by a conspiracy of officers of the western army, headed by Adlersparre, the Anckarsvards, and Adlercreutz, who marched rapidly from Skane to Stockholm. On the 13th of March 1809 seven of the conspirators broke into the royal apartments in the palace unannounced, seized the king, and conducted him to the chateau of Gripsholm; Duke Charles was easily persuaded to accept the leadership of a provisional government, which was proclaimed the same day; and a diet, hastily summoned, solemnly approved of the revolution. On the 29th of March Gustavus, in order to save the crown for his son, voluntarily abdicated; but on the 10th of May the estates, dominated by the army, declared that not merely Gustavus but his whole family had forfeited the throne. On the 5th of June the duke regent was proclaimed king under the title of Charles XIII., after accepting the new liberal constitution, which was ratified by the diet the same day. In December Gustavus and his family were transported to Germany. Gustavus now assumed the title of count of Gottorp, but subsequently called himself Colonel Gustafsson, under which pseudonym he wrote most of his works. He led, separated from his family, an erratic life for some years; was divorced from his consort in 1812; and finally settled at St Gall in Switzerland in great loneliness and indigence. He died on the 7th of February 1837, and, at the suggestion of King Oscar II. his body was brought to Sweden and interred in the Riddarholmskyrka. From him descend both the Baden and the Oldenburg princely houses on the female side.

See H. G. Trolle-Wachtmeister, _Anteckningar och minnen_ (Stockholm,
1889); B. von Beskow, _Lefnadsminnen_ (Stockholm, 1870); K. V.
Key-Aberg, _De diplomatiska forbindelserna mellan Sverige och
Storbrittannien under Gustaf IV.'s Krig emot Napoleon_ (Upsala, 1890);
Colonel Gustafsson, _La Journee du treize mars_, &c. (St Gall, 1835);
_Memorial des Obersten Gustafsson_ (Leipzig, 1829). (R. N. B.)

GUSTAVUS V. (1858- ), king of Sweden, son of Oscar II., king of Sweden and Norway, and Queen Sophia Wilhelmina, was born at Drottningholm on the 16th of June 1858. He entered the army, and was, like his father, a great traveller. As crown prince he held the title of duke of Warmland. He married in 1881 Victoria (b. 1862), daughter of Frederick William Louis, grand duke of Baden, and of Louise, princess of Prussia. The duchess of Baden was the granddaughter of Sophia, princess of Sweden, and the marriage of the crown prince thus effected a union between the Bernadotte dynasty and the ancient Swedish royal house of Vasa. During the absence or illness of his father Gustavus repeatedly acted as regent, and was therefore already thoroughly versed in public affairs when he succeeded to the Swedish throne on the 8th of December 1907, the crown of Norway having been separated from that of Sweden in 1905. He took as his motto "With the people for the Fatherland."

The crown prince, Oscar Frederick William Gustavus Adolphus, duke of Scania (b. 1882), married in 1905 Princess Margaret of Connaught (b. 1882), niece of King Edward VII. A son was born to them at Stockholm on the 22nd of April 1906, and another son in the following year. The king's two younger sons were William, duke of Sudermania (b. 1884), and Eric, duke of Westmanland (b. 1889).

GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS UNION (GUSTAV-ADOLF-STIFTUNG, GUSTAV-ADOLF-VEREIN, EVANGELISCHER VEREIN DER GUSTAV-ADOLF-STIFTUNG), a society formed of members of the Evangelical Protestant churches of Germany, which has for its object the aid of feeble sister churches, especially in Roman Catholic countries. The project of forming such a society was first broached in connexion with the bicentennial celebration of the battle of Lutzen on the 6th of November 1832; a proposal to collect funds for a monument to Gustavus Adolphus having been agreed to, it was suggested by Superintendent Grossmann that the best memorial to the great champion of Protestantism would be the formation of a union for propagating his ideas. For some years the society was limited in its area and its operations, being practically confined to Leipzig and Dresden, but at the Reformation festival in 1841 it received a new impulse through the energy and eloquence of Karl Zimmermann (1803-1877), court preacher at Darmstadt, and in 1843 a general meeting was held at Frankfort-on-the-Main, where no fewer than twenty-nine branch associations belonging to all parts of Germany except Bavaria and Austria were represented. The want of a positive creed tended to make many of the stricter Protestant churchmen doubtful of the usefulness of the union, and the stricter Lutherans have always held aloof from it. On the other hand, its negative attitude in relation to Roman Catholicism secured for it the sympathy of the masses. At a general convention held in Berlin in September 1846 a keen dispute arose about the admission of the Konigsberg delegate, Julius Rupp (1809-1884), who in 1845 had been deprived for publicly repudiating the Athanasian Creed and became one of the founders of the "Free Congregations"; and at one time it seemed likely that the society would be completely broken up. Amid the political revolutions of the year 1848 the whole movement fell into stagnation; but in 1849 another general convention (the seventh), held at Breslau, showed that, although the society had lost both in membership and income, it was still possessed of considerable vitality. From that date the Gustav-Adolf-Verein has been more definitely "evangelical" in its tone than formerly; and under the direction of Karl Zimmermann it greatly increased both in numbers and in wealth. It has built over 2000 churches and assisted with some two million pounds over 5000 different communities. Apart from its influence in maintaining Protestantism in hostile areas, there can be no doubt that the union has had a great effect in helping the various Protestant churches of Germany to realize the number and importance of their common interests.

See K. Zimmermann, _Geschichte des Gustav-Adolf-Vereins_ (Darmstadt,
1877).

GUSTROW, a town of Germany, in the grand duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, on the Nebel and the railway from Lubeck to Stettin, 20 m. S. of Rostock. Pop. (1875), 10,923; (1905) 17,163. The principal buildings are the castle, erected in the middle of the 16th century and now used as a workhouse; the cathedral, dating from the 13th century and restored in 1868, containing many fine monuments and possessing a square tower 100 ft. high; the Pfarrkirche, with fine altar-paintings; the town hall (Rathaus), dating from the 16th century; the music hall, and the theatre. Among the educational establishments are the ducal gymnasium, which possesses a library of 15,000 volumes, a modern and a commercial school. The town is one of the most prosperous in the duchy, and has machine works, foundries, tanneries, sawmills, breweries, distilleries, and manufactories of tobacco, glue, candles and soap. There is also a considerable trade in wool, corn, wood, butter and cattle, and an annual cattle show and horse races are held.

Gustrow, capital of the Mecklenburg duchy of that name, or of the Wend district, was a place of some importance as early as the 12th century, and in 1219 it became the residence of Henry Borwin II., prince of Mecklenburg, from whom it received Schwerin privileges. From 1316 to 1436 the town was the residence of the princes of the Wends, and from 1556 to 1695 of the dukes of Mecklenburg-Gustrow. In 1628 it was occupied by the imperial troops, and Wallenstein resided in it during part of the years 1628 and 1629.

GUTENBERG, JOHANN (c. 1398-1468), German printer, is supposed to have been born c. 1398-1399 at Mainz of well-to-do parents, his father being Friele zum Gensfleisch and his mother Elsgen Wyrich (or, from her birthplace, zu Gutenberg, the name he adopted). He is assumed to be mentioned under the name of "Henchen" in a copy of a document of 1420, and again in a document of c. 1427-1428, but it is not stated where he then resided. On January 16, 1430, his mother arranged with the city of Mainz about an annuity belonging to him; but when, in the same year, some families who had been expelled a few years before were permitted to return to Mainz, Gutenberg appears not to have availed himself of the privilege, as he is described in the act of reconciliation (dated March 28) as "not being in Mainz." It is therefore assumed that the family had taken refuge in Strassburg, where Gutenberg was residing later. There he is said to have been in 1434, and to have seized and imprisoned the town clerk of Mainz for a debt due to him by the corporation of that city, releasing him, however, at the representations of the mayor and councillors of Strassburg, and relinquishing at the same time all claims to the money (310 Rhenish guilders = about 2400 mark).[1] Between 1436 and 1439 certain documents represent him as having been engaged there in some experiments requiring money, with Andreas Dritzehn, a fellow-citizen, who became not only security for him but his partner to carry out Gutenberg's plan for polishing stones and the manufacture of looking-glasses, for which a lucrative sale was expected at the approaching pilgrimage of 1440 (subsequently postponed, according to the documents, although there is no evidence for this postponement) to Aix-la-Chapelle. Money was lent for this purpose by two other friends. In 1438 another partnership was arranged between Gutenberg, Andreas Dritzehn, and Andreas and Anton Heilmann, and that this had in view the art of printing has been inferred from the word "drucken" used by one of the witnesses in the law proceedings which soon after followed. An action was brought, after the death of Dritzehn, by his two brothers to force Gutenberg to accept them as partners in their brother's place, but the decision was in favour of the latter. In 1441 Gutenberg became surety to the St Thomas Chapter at Strassburg for Johann Karle, who borrowed 100 guilders (about L16) from the chapter, and on November 17, 1442, he himself borrowed 80 livres through Martin Brechter (or Brehter) from the same chapter. Of his whereabouts from the 12th of March 1444 (when he paid a tax at Strassburg) to the 17th of October 1448 nothing certain is known. But on the latter date we find him at Mainz, borrowing 150 gold guilders of his kinsman, Arnold Gelthus, against an annual interest of 7-1/2 gold guilders. We do not know whether the interest on this debt has ever been paid, but the debt itself appears never to have been paid off, as the contract of this loan was renewed (_vidimused_) on August 23, 1503, for other parties. It is supposed that soon afterwards Gutenberg must have been able to show some convincing results of his work, for it appears that about 1450 Johann Fust (q.v.) advanced him 800 guilders to promote it, on no security except that of "tools" still to be made. Fust seems also to have undertaken to advance him 300 guilders a year for expenses, wages, house-rent, parchment, paper, ink, &c., but he does not appear to have ever done so. If at any time they disagreed, Gutenberg was to return the 800 guilders, and the "tools" were to cease to be security. It is not known to what purpose Gutenberg devoted the money advanced to him. In the minutes of the law-suit of 1455 he himself says that he had to make his "tools" with it. But he is presumed to have begun a large folio Latin Bible, and to have printed during its progress some smaller books[2] and likewise the Letter of Indulgence (granted on the 12th of April 1451 by Pope Nicholas V. in aid of John II., king of Cyprus, against the Turks), of 31 lines, having the earliest printed date 1454, of which several copies are preserved in various European libraries. A copy of the 1455 issue of the same Indulgence is in the Rylands Library at Manchester (from the Althorp Library).

It is not known whether any books were printed while this partnership between Gutenberg and Fust lasted. Trithemius (_Ann. Hirsaug._ ii. 421) says they first printed, from wooden blocks, a vocabulary called _Catholicon_, which cannot have been the _Catholicon_ of Johannes de Janua, a folio of 748 pages in two columns of 66 lines each, printed in 1460, but was perhaps a small glossary now lost.[3] The Latin _Bible of 42 lines_, a folio of 1282 printed pages, in two columns with spaces left for illuminated initials (so called because each column contains 42 lines, and also known as the _Mazarin Bible_, because the first copy described was found in the library of Cardinal Mazarin), was finished before the 15th of August 1456;[4] German bibliographers now claim this Bible for Gutenberg, but, according to bibliographical rules, it must be ascribed to Peter Schoffer, perhaps in partnership with Fust. It is in smaller type than the _Bible of 36 lines_, which latter is called either (a) the _Bamberg Bible_, because nearly all the known copies were found in the neighbourhood of Bamberg, or (b) _Schelhorn's Bible_, because J. G. Schelhorn was the first who described it in 1760, or (c) _Pfister's Bible_, because its printing is ascribed to Albrecht Pfister of Bamberg, who used the same type for several small German books, the chief of which is Boner's _Edelstein_ (1461, 4to), 88 leaves, with 85 woodcuts, a book of fables in German rhyme. Some bibliographers believe this 36-line Bible to have been begun, if not entirely printed, by Gutenberg during his partnership with Fust, as its type occurs in the 31-line Letters of Indulgence of 1454, was used for the 27-line Donatus (of 1451?), and, finally, when found in Pfister's possession in 1461, appears to be old and worn, except the additional letters k, w, z required for German, which are clear and sharp like the types used in the Bible. Again, others profess to prove (Dziatzko, _Gutenberg's fruheste Druckerpraxis_) that B^36 was a reprint of B^42.

Gutenberg's work, whatever it may have been, was not a commercial success, and in 1452 Fust had to come forward with another 800 guilders to prevent a collapse. But some time before November 1455 the latter demanded repayment of his advances (see the Helmasperger Notarial Document of November 6, 1455, in Dziatzko's _Beitrage zur Gutenbergfrage_, Berlin, 1889), and took legal proceedings against Gutenberg. We do not know the end of these proceedings, but if Gutenberg had prepared any printing materials it would seem that he was compelled to yield up the whole of them to Fust; that the latter removed them to his own house at Mainz, and there, with the assistance of Peter Schoffer, issued various books until the sack of the city in 1462 by Adolphus II. caused a suspension of printing for three years, to be resumed again in 1465.

We have no Information as to Gutenberg's activity, and very little of his whereabouts, after his separation from Fust. In a document dated June 21, 1457, he appears as witness on behalf of one of his relatives, which shows that he was then still at Mainz. Entries in the registers of the St Thomas Church at Strassburg make it clear that the annual interest on the money which Gutenberg on the 17th of November 1442 (see above) had borrowed from the chapter of that church was regularly paid till the 11th of November 1457, either by himself or by his surety, Martin Brechter. But the payment due on the latter date appears to have been delayed, as an entry in the register of that year shows that the chapter had incurred expenses in taking steps to have both Gutenberg and Brechter arrested. This time the difficulties seem to have been removed, but on and after the 11th of November 1458 Gutenberg and Brechter remained in default. The chapter made various efforts, all recorded in their registers, to get their money, but in vain. Every year they recorded the arrears with the expenses to which they were put in their efforts to arrest the defaulters, till at last in 1474 (six years after Gutenberg's death) their names are no longer mentioned.

Meantime Gutenberg appears to have been _printing_, as we learn from a document dated February 26, 1468, that a syndic of Mainz, Dr Conrad Homery (who had formerly been in the service of the elector Count Diether of Ysenburg), had at one time supplied him, not with money, but with some formes, types, tools, implements and other things belonging to printing, which Gutenberg had left after his death, and which had, and still, belonged to him (Homery); this material had come into the hands of Adolf, the archbishop of Mainz, who handed or sent it back to Homery, the latter undertaking to use it in no other town but Mainz, nor to sell it to any person except a citizen of Mainz, even if a stranger should offer him a higher price for the things. This material has never yet been identified, so that we do not know what types Gutenberg may have had at his disposal; they could hardly have included the types of the _Catholicon_ of 1460, as is suggested, this work being probably executed by Heinrich Bechtermunze (d. 1467), who afterwards removed to Eltville, or perhaps by Peter Schoffer, who, about 1470, advertises the book as his property (see K. Burger, _Buchhandler-Anzeigen_). It is uncertain whether Gutenberg remained in Mainz or removed to the neighbouring town of Eltville, where he may have been engaged for a while with the brothers Bechtermunze, who printed there for some time with the types of the 1460 _Catholicon_. On the 17th of January 1465 he accepted the post of salaried courtier from the archbishop Adolf, and in this capacity received annually a suit of livery together with a fixed allowance of corn and wine. Gutenberg seems to have died at Mainz at the beginning of 1468, and was, according to tradition, buried in the Franciscan church in that city. His relative Arnold Gelthus erected a monument to his memory near his supposed grave, and forty years afterwards Ivo Wittig set up a memorial tablet at the legal college at Mainz. No books bearing the name of Gutenberg as printer are known, nor is any genuine portrait of him known, those appearing upon medals, statues or engraved plates being all fictitious.

In 1898 the firm of L. Rosenthal, at Munich, acquired a _Missale speciale_ on paper, which Otto Hupp, in two treatises published in 1898 and 1902, asserts to have been printed by Gutenberg about 1450, seven years before the 1457 Psalter. Various German bibliographers, however, think that it could not have been printed before 1480, and, judging from the facsimiles published by Hupp, this date seems to be approximately correct.

On the 24th of June 1900 the five-hundredth anniversary of Gutenberg's birth was celebrated in several German cities, notably in Mainz and Leipzig, and most of the recent literature on the invention of printing dates from that time.

So we may note that in 1902 a vellum fragment of an Astronomical Kalendar was discovered by the librarian of Wiesbaden, Dr G. Zedler (_Die alteste Gutenbergtype_, Mainz, 1902), apparently printed in the 36-line Bible type, and as the position of the sun, moon and other planets described in this document suits the years 1429, 1448 and 1467, he ascribes the printing of this Kalendar to the year 1447. A paper fragment of a poem in German, entitled _Weltgericht_, said to be printed in the 36-line Bible type, appears to have come into the possession of Herr Eduard Beck at Mainz in 1892, and was presented by him in 1903 to the Gutenberg Museum in that city. Zedler published a facsimile of it in 1904 (for the _Gutenberg Gesellschaft_), with a description, in which he places it before the 1447 _Kalendar_, c. 1444-1447. Moreover, fragments of two editions of Donatus different from that of 1451 (?) have recently been found; see Schwenke in _Centralbl. fur Bibliothekwesen_ (1908).

The recent literature upon Gutenberg's life and work and early
printing in general includes the following: A. von der Linde,
_Geschichte und Erdichtung_ (Stuttgart, 1878); _id. Geschichte der
Buchdruckerkunst_ (Berlin, 1886); J. H. Hessels, _Gutenberg, Was he
the Inventor of Printing?_ (London, 1882); _id. Haarlem, the
Birthplace of Printing, not Mentz_ (London, 1886); O. Hartwig,
_Festschrift zum funfhundertjahrigen Geburtstag von Johann Gutenberg_
(Leipzig, 1900), which includes various treatises by Schenk zu
Schweinsberg, K. Schorbach, &c.; P. Schwenke, _Untersuchungen zur
Geschichte des ersten Buchdrucks_ (Berlin, 1900); A. Borckel,
_Gutenberg, sein Leben_, &c. (Giessen, 1897); _id. Gutenberg und seine
beruhmten Nachfolger im ersten Jahrhundert der Typographie_
(Frankfort, 1900); F. Schneider, _Mainz und seine Drucker_ (1900); G.
Zedler, _Gutenberg-Forschungen_ (Leipzig, 1901); J. H. Hessels, _The
so-called Gutenberg Documents_ (London, 1910). For other works on the
subject see TYPOGRAPHY. (J. H. H.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] It is difficult to know which of the Gutenberg documents can be
trusted and which not. Schorbach, in his recent biography of
Gutenberg, accepts and describes 27 of them (_Festschrift_, 1900, p.
163 sqq.), 17 of which are known only from (not always accurate)
copies or transcripts. Under ordinary circumstances history might be
based on them. But it is certain that some so-called Gutenberg
documents, not included in the above 27, are forgeries. Fr. J.
Bodmann (1754-1820), for many years professor and librarian at Mainz,
forged at least two; one (dated July 20, 1459) he even provided with
four forged seals; the other (dated Strassburg, March 24, 1424)
purported to be an autograph letter of Gutenberg to a fictitious
sister of his named Bertha. Of these two documents French and German
texts were published about 1800-1802; the forger lived for twenty
years afterwards but never undeceived the public. He enriched the
Gutenberg literature with other fabrications. In fact Bodmann had
trained himself for counterfeiting MSS. and documents; he openly
boasted of his abilities in this respect, and used them, sometimes to
amuse his friends who were searching for Gutenberg documents,
sometimes for himself to fill up gaps in Gutenberg's life. (For two
or three more specimens of his capacities see A. Wyss in _Zeitschr.
fur Altert. u. Gesch. Schlesiens_, xv. 9 sqq.) To one of his friends
(Professor Gotthelf Fischer, who preceded him as librarian of Mainz)
one or two other fabrications may be ascribed. There are, moreover,
serious misgivings as to documents said to have been _discovered_
about 1740 (when the citizens of Strassburg claimed the honour of the
invention for their city) by Jacob Wencker (the then archivist of
Strassburg) and J. D. Schoepflin (professor and canon of St Thomas's
at Strassburg). For instance, of the above document of 1434 no
original has ever come to light; while the draft of the transaction,
alleged to have been written at the time in a register of contracts,
and to have been found about 1740 by Wencker, has also disappeared
with the register itself. The document (now only known from a copy
said to have been taken by Wencker from the draft) is upheld as
genuine by Schorbach, who favours an invention of printing at
Strassburg, but Bockenheimer, though supporting Gutenberg and Mainz,
declares it to be a fiction (_Gutenberg-Feier_, Mainz, 1900, pp.
24-33). Again, suspicions are justified with respect to the documents
recording Gutenberg's lawsuit of 1439 at Strassburg. Bockenheimer
explains at great length (_l.c._ pp. 41-72) that they are forgeries.
He even explains (_ibid._ pp. 97-107) that the so-called Helmasperger
document of November 6, 1455, may be a fabrication of the Faust von
Aschaffenburg family, who endeavoured to claim Johann Fust as their
ancestor. There are also (1) a fragment of a fictitious "press," said
to have been constructed by Gutenberg in 1441, and to have been
discovered (!) at Mainz in 1856; (2) a forged imprint with the date
1458 in a copy of Pope Gregory's _Dialogues_, really printed at
Strassburg about 1470; (3) a forged rubric in a copy of the
_Tractatus de celebratione missarum_, from which it would appear that
Johann Gutenberg and Johann Nummeister had presented it on June 19,
1463, to the Carthusian monastery near Mainz: (4) four forged copies
of the Indulgence of 1455, in the Culemann Collection in the Kastner
Museum at Hanover, &c. (see further, Hessels, "The so-called
Gutenberg Documents," in _The Library_, 1909).

[2] Among these were perhaps (1) one or two editions of the work of
Donatus, _De octo partibus orationis_, 27 lines to a page, of one of
which two leaves, now in the Paris National Library, were discovered
at Mainz in the original binding of an account book, one of them
having, but in a later hand, the year 1451 (?); (2) the
_Turk-Kalendar_ for 1455 (preserved in the Hof-Bibliothek at Munich);
(3) the _Cisianus_ (preserved in the Cambridge Univ. Libr.), and
perhaps others now lost.

[3] Ulric Zell states, in the Cologne Chronicle of 1499, that
Gutenberg and Fust printed a Bible in large type like that used in
missals. It has been said that this description applies to the
42-line Bible, as its type is as large as that of most missals
printed before 1500, and that the size now called missal type (double
pica) was not used in missals until late in the 16th century. This is
no doubt true of the smaller missals printed before 1500, some of
which are in even smaller type than the 42-line Bible. But many of
the large folio missals, as that printed at Mainz by Peter Schoffer
in 1483, the Carthusian missal printed at Spires by Peter Drach about
1490, and the Dominican missal printed by Andrea de Torresanis at
Venice in 1496, are in as large type as the 36-line Bible. Peter
Schoffer (1425-1502) of Gernsheim, between Mainz and Mannheim, who
was a copyist in Paris in 1449, and whom Fust called his servant
(_famulus_), is said by Trithemius to have discovered an easier way
of founding characters, whence Lambinet and others concluded that
Schoffer invented the punch. Schoffer himself, in the colophon of the
Psalter of 1457, a work which some suppose to have been planned and
partly printed by Gutenberg, claims only the mode of printing rubrics
and coloured capitals.

[4] The Leipzig copy of this Bible (which formerly belonged to Herr
Klemm of Dresden) has at the end the MS. year 1453 in old Arabic
numerals. But certain circumstances connected with this date make it
look very suspicious.

GUTERSLOH, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Westphalia, 11 m. S.W. from Bielefeld by the railway to Dortmund. Pop. (1905), 7375. It is a seat of silk and cotton industries, and has a large trade in Westphalian hams and sausages. Printing, brewing and distilling are also carried on, and the town is famous for its rye-bread (_Pumpernickel_). Gutersloh has two Evangelical churches, a Roman Catholic church, a synagogue, a school and other educational establishments.

See Eickhoff, _Geschichte der Stadt und Gemeinde Gutersloh_
(Gutersloh, 1904).

GUTHRIE, SIR JAMES (1859- ), Scottish painter, and one of the leaders of the so-called Glasgow school of painters, was born at Greenock. Though in his youth he was influenced by John Pettie in London, and subsequently studied in Paris, his style, which is remarkable for grasp of character, breadth and spontaneity, is due to the lessons taught him by observation of nature, and to the example of Crawhall, by which he benefited in Lincolnshire in the early 'eighties of the last century. In his early works, such as "The Gipsy Fires are Burning, for Daylight is Past and Gone" (1882), and the "Funeral Service in the Highlands," he favoured a thick impasto, but with growing experience he used his colour with greater economy and reticence. Subsequently he devoted himself almost exclusively to portraiture. Sir James Guthrie, like so many of the Glasgow artists, achieved his first successes on the Continent, but soon found recognition in his native country. He was elected associate of the Royal Scottish Academy in 1888, and full member in 1892, succeeded Sir George Reid as president of the Royal Scottish Academy in 1902, and was knighted in 1903. His painting "Schoolmates" is at the Ghent Gallery. Among his most successful portraits are those of his mother, Mr R. Garroway, Major Hotchkiss, Mrs Fergus, Professor Jack, and Mrs Watson.

GUTHRIE, THOMAS (1803-1873), Scottish divine, was born at Brechin, Forfarshire, on the 12th of July 1803. He entered the university of Edinburgh at the early age of twelve, and continued to attend classes there for more than ten years. On the 2nd of February 1825 the presbytery of Brechin licensed him as a preacher in connexion with the Church of Scotland, and in 1826 he was in Paris studying natural philosophy, chemistry, and comparative anatomy. For two years he acted as manager of his father's bank, and in 1830 was inducted to his first charge, Arbirlot, in Forfarshire, where he adopted a vivid dramatic style of preaching adapted to his congregation of peasants, farmers and weavers. In 1837 he became the colleague of John Sym in the pastorate of Old Greyfriars, Edinburgh, and at once attracted notice as a great pulpit orator. Towards the close of 1840 he became minister of St John's church, Victoria Street, Edinburgh. He declined invitations both from London and from India. He was an enthusiastic supporter of the movement which led to the Disruption of 1843; and his name is thenceforth associated with the Free Church, for which he collected L116,000 from July 1845 to June 1846 to provide manses for the seceding ministers. In 1844 he became a teetotaller. In 1847 he began the greatest work of his life by the publication of his first "Plea for Ragged Schools." This pamphlet elicited a beautiful and sympathetic letter from Lord Jeffrey. A Ragged School was opened on the Castle Hill, which has been the parent of many similar institutions elsewhere, though Guthrie's relation to the movement is best described as that of an apostle rather than a founder. He insisted on bringing up all the children in his school as Protestants; and he thus made his schools proselytizing as well as educational institutions. This interference with religious liberty led to some controversy; and ultimately those who differed from Guthrie founded the United Industrial School, giving combined secular and separate religious instruction. In April 1847 the degree of D.D. was conferred on Guthrie by the university of Edinburgh; and in 1850 William Hanna (1808-1882), the biographer and son-in-law of Thomas Chalmers, was inducted as his colleague in Free St John's Church.

In 1850 Guthrie published _A Plea on behalf of Drunkards and against Drunkenness_, which was followed by _The Gospel in Ezekiel_ (1855); _The City: its Sins and Sorrows_ (1857); _Christ and the Inheritance of the Saints_ (1858); _Seedtime and Harvest of Ragged Schools_ (1860), consisting of his three _Pleas for Ragged Schools_. These works had an enormous sale, and portions of them were translated into French and Dutch. His advocacy of temperance had much to do with securing the passing of the Forbes Mackenzie Act, which secured Sunday closing and shortened hours of sale for Scotland. Mr Gladstone specially quoted him in support of the Light Wines Bill (1860). In 1862 he was moderator of the Free Church General Assembly; but he seldom took a prominent part in the business of the church courts. His remarkable oratorical talents, rich humour, genuine pathos and inimitable power of story-telling, enabled him to do good service to the total abstinence movement. He was one of the vice-presidents of the Evangelical Alliance. In 1864, his health being seriously impaired, he resigned public work as pastor of Free St John's (May 17), although his nominal connexion with the congregation ceased only with his death. Guthrie had occasionally contributed papers to _Good Words_, and, about the time of his retirement from the ministry, he became first editor of the _Sunday Magazine_, himself contributing several series of papers which were afterwards published separately. In 1865 he was presented with L5000 as a mark of appreciation from the public. His closing years were spent mostly in retirement; and after an illness of several months' duration he died at St Leonards-on-Sea on the 24th of February 1873.

In addition to the books mentioned above he published a number of
books which had a remarkable circulation in England and America, such
as _Speaking to the Heart_ (1862); _The Way to Life_ (1862); _Man and
the Gospel_ (1865); _The Angel's Song_ (1865); _The Parables_ (1866);
_Our Father's Business_ (1867); _Out of Harness_ (1867); _Early Piety_
(1868); _Studies of Character from the Old Testament_ (1868-1870);
_Sundays Abroad_ (1871).

See _Autobiography of Thomas Guthrie, D.D., and Memoir_, by his sons
(2 vols., London, 1874-1875).

GUTHRIE, THOMAS ANSTEY (1856- ), known by the pseudonym of F. Anstey, English novelist, was born in Kensington, London, on the 8th of August 1856. He was educated at King's College, London, and at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, and was called to the bar in 1880. But the popular success of his story _Vice-Versa_ (1882) with its topsy-turvy substitution of a father for his schoolboy son, at once made his reputation as a humorist of an original type. He published in 1883 a serious novel, _The Giant's Robe_; but, in spite of its excellence, he discovered (and again in 1889 with _The Pariah_) that it was not as a serious novelist but as a humorist that the public insisted on regarding him. As such his reputation was further confirmed by _The Black Poodle_ (1884), _The Tinted Venus_ (1885), _A Fallen Idol_ (1886), and other works. He became an important member of the staff of _Punch_, in which his "Voces populi" and his humorous parodies of a reciter's stock-piece ("Burglar Bill," &c.) represent his best work. In 1901 his successful farce _The Man from Blankley's_, based on a story which originally appeared in _Punch_, was first produced at the Prince of Wales's Theatre, in London.

GUTHRIE, the capital of Oklahoma, U.S.A., and the county-seat of Logan county, extending on both sides of Cottonwood creek, and lying one mile south of the Cimarron river. Pop. (1890) 5333, (1900) 10,006, (1907) 11,652 (2871 negroes); (1910) 11,654. It is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, the Fort Smith & Western, and the St Louis, El Reno & Western railways. The city is situated about 940 ft. above the sea, in a prairie region devoted largely to stock-raising and the cultivation of Indian corn, wheat, cotton and various fruits, particularly peaches. Guthrie is one of the headquarters of the Federal courts in the state, the other being Muskogee. The principal public buildings at Guthrie are the state Capitol, the Federal building, the City hall, the Carnegie library, the Methodist hospital and a large Masonic temple. Among the schools are St Joseph's Academy and a state school for the deaf and dumb. Guthrie has a considerable trade with the surrounding country and has cotton gins, a cotton compress, and foundries and machine shops; among its manufactures are cotton-seed oil, cotton goods, flour, cereals, lumber, cigars, brooms and furniture. The total value of the factory product in 1905 was $1,200,662. The municipality owns and operates the waterworks. The city was founded in 1889, when Oklahoma was opened for settlement; in 1890 it was made the capital of the Territory, and in 1907 when Oklahoma was made a state, it became the state capital.

GUTHRUM (GODRUM) (d. 890), king of East Anglia, first appears in the _English Annals_ in the year 875, when he is mentioned as one of three Danish kings who went with the host to Cambridge. He was probably engaged in the campaigns of the next three years, and after Alfred's victory at Edington in 878, Guthrum met the king at Aller in Somersetshire and was baptized there under the name of Aethelstan. He stayed there for twelve days and was greatly honoured by his godfather Alfred. In 890 Guthrum-Aethelstan died: he is then spoken of as "se nor[Pd]erna cyning" (probably) "the Norwegian king," referring to the ultimate origin of his family, and we are told that he was the first (Scandinavian) to settle East Anglia. Guthrum is perhaps to be identified with Gormr (= Guthrum) hinn heimski or hinn riki of the Scandinavian sagas, the foster-father of Hor[Pd]aknutr, the father of Gorm the old. There is a treaty known as the peace of Alfred and Guthrum.

GUTSCHMID, ALFRED, BARON VON (1835-1887), German historian and Orientalist, was born on the 1st of July at Loschwitz (Dresden). After holding chairs at Kiel (1866), Konigsberg (1873), and Jena (1876), he was finally appointed professor of history at Tubingen, where he died on the 2nd of March 1887. He devoted himself to the study of Eastern language and history in its pre-Greek and Hellenistic periods and contributed largely to the literature of the subject.

WORKS.--_Uber die Fragmente des Pompeius Trogus_ (supplementary vol.
of _Jahrbucher fur klass. Phil._, 1857); _Die makedonische Anagraphe_
(1864); _Beitrage zur Gesch. des alten Orients_ (Leipzig, 1858); _Neue
Beitrage zur Gesch. des alt. Or._, vol. i., _Die Assyriologie in
Deutschland_ (Leipzig, 1876); _Die Glaubwurdigkeit der armenischen
Gesch. des Moses von Khoren_ (1877); _Untersuchungen uber die syrische
Epitome des eusebischen Canones_ (1886); _Untersuch. uber die Gesch.
des Konigreichs Osraene_ (1887); _Gesch. Irans_ (Alexander the Great
to the fall of the Arsacidae) (Tubingen, 1887). He wrote on Persia and
Phoenicia in the 9th edition of the Ency. Brit. A collection of minor
works entitled _Kleine Schriften_ was published by F. Ruhl at Leipzig
(1889-1894, 5 vols.), with complete list of his writings. See article
by Ruhl in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, xlix. (1904).

GUTS-MUTHS, JOHANN CHRISTOPH FRIEDRICH (1759-1839), German teacher and the principal founder of the German school system of gymnastics, was born at Quedlinburg on the 9th of August 1759. He was educated at the gymnasium of his native town and at Halle University; and in 1785 he went to Schnepfenthal, where he taught geography and gymnastics. His method of teaching gymnastics was expounded by him in various handbooks; and it was chiefly through them that gymnastics very soon came to occupy such an important position in the school system of Germany. He also did much to introduce a better method of instruction in geography. He died on the 21st of May 1839.

His principal works are _Gymnastik fur die Jugend_ (1793); _Spiele zur
Ubung und Erholung des Korpers und Geistes fur die Jugend_ (1796);
_Turnbuch_ (1817); _Handbuch der Geographie_ (1810); and a number of
books constituting a _Bibliothek fur Padagogik, Schulwesen, und die
gesammte padagogische Literatur Deutschlands_. He also contributed to
the _Vollstandiges Handbuch der neuesten Erdbeschreibung_, and along
with Jacobi published _Deutsches Land und deutsches Volk_, the first
part, _Deutsches Land_, being written by him.

GUTTA (Latin for "drop"), an architectural term given to the small frusta of conical or cylindrical form carved below the triglyph and under the regula of the entablature of the Doric Order. They are sometimes known as "trunnels," a corruption of "tree-nail," and resemble the wooden pins which in framed timber work or in joinery are employed to fasten together the pieces of wood; these are supposed to be derived from the original timber construction of the Doric temple, in which the pins, driven through the regula, secured the latter to the taenia, and, according to C. Chipiez and F. A. Choisy, passed through the taenia to hold the triglyphs in place. In the earliest examples of the Doric Order at Corinth and Selinus, the guttae are completely isolated from the architrave, and in Temple C. at Selinus the guttae are 3 or 4 in. in front of it, as if to enable the pin to be driven in more easily. In later examples they are partly attached to the architrave. Similar guttae are carved under the mutules of the Doric cornice, representing the pins driven through the mutules to secure the rafters. In the temples at Bassae, Paestum and Selinus, instances have been found where the guttae had been carved separately and sunk into holes cut in the soffit of the mutules and the regula. Their constant employment in the Doric temples suggests that, although originally of constructive origin, they were subsequently employed as decorative features.

GUTTA PERCHA, the name applied to the evaporated milky fluid or latex furnished by several trees chiefly found in the islands of the Malay Archipelago. The name is derived from two Malay words, _getah_ meaning gum, and _pertja_ being the name of the tree--probably a Bassia--from which the gum was (erroneously) supposed to be obtained.

_Botanical Origin and Distribution._--The actual tree is known to the Malays as taban, and the product as _getah taban_. The best gutta percha of Malaya is chiefly derived from two trees, and is known as _getah taban merah_ (red) or _getah taban sutra_ (silky). The trees in question, which belong to the natural order Sapotaceae, have now been definitely identified, the first as _Dichopsis gutta_ (Bentham and Hooker), otherwise _Isonandra gutta_ (Hooker) or _Palaquium gutta_ (Burck), and the second as _Dichopsis oblongifolia_ (Burck). Allied trees of the same genus and of the same natural order yield similar but usually inferior products. Among them may be mentioned species of _Payena_ (_getah soondie_).

Gutta percha trees often attain a height of 70 to 100 ft. and the trunk has a diameter of from 2 to 3 ft. They are stated to be mature when about thirty years old. The leaves of _Dichopsis_, which are obovate-lanceolate, with a distinct pointed apex, occur in clusters at the end of the branches, and are bright green and smooth on the upper surface but on the lower surface are yellowish-brown and covered with silky hairs. The leaves are usually about 6 in. long and about 2 in. wide at the centre. The flowers are white, and the seeds are contained in an ovoid berry about 1 in. long.

The geographical distribution of the gutta percha tree is almost
entirely confined to the Malay Peninsula and its immediate
neighbourhood. It includes a region within 6 degrees north and south
of the equator and 93 deg.-119 deg. longitude, where the temperature
ranges from 66 deg. to 90 deg. F. and the atmosphere is exceedingly
moist. The trees may be grown from seeds or from cuttings. Some
planting has taken place in Malaya, but little has so far been done to
acclimatize the plant in other regions. Recent information seems to
point to the possibility of growing the tree in Ceylon and on the west
coast of Africa.

_Preparation of Gutta Percha._--The gutta is furnished by the greyish milky fluid known as the latex, which is chiefly secreted in cylindrical vessels or cells situated in the cortex, that is, between the bark and the wood (or cambium). Latex also occurs in the leaves of the tree to the extent of about 9% of the dried leaves, and this may be removed from the powdered leaves by the use of appropriate solvents, but the process is not practicable commercially. The latex flows slowly where an incision is made through the bark, but not nearly so freely, even in the rainy season, as the india-rubber latex. On this account the Malays usually fell the tree in order to collect the latex, which is done by chopping off the branches and removing circles of the bark, forming cylindrical channels about an inch wide at various points about a foot apart down the trunk. The latex exudes and fills these channels, from which it is removed and converted into gutta by boiling in open vessels over wood fires. The work is usually carried on in the wet season when the latex is more fluid and more abundant. Sometimes when the latex is thick water is added to it before boiling.

The best results are said to be obtained from mature trees about thirty years old, which furnish about 2 to 3 lb. of gutta. Older trees do not appear to yield larger amounts of gutta, whilst younger trees are said to furnish less and of inferior quality. The trees have been so extensively felled for the gutta that there has been a great diminution in the total number during recent years, which has not been compensated for by the new plantations which have been established.

_Uses of Gutta Percha._--The Chinese and Malays appear to have been acquainted with the characteristic property of gutta percha of softening in warm water and of regaining its hardness when cold, but this plastic property seems to have been only utilized for ornamental purposes, the construction of walking-sticks and of knife handles and whips, &c.