Chapter XIX: Act 1856: , is mainly declaratory of the English common law, as embodied (12)

About 1836, C. Lefaucheux, a Paris gunsmith, improved the old Pauly system of breech-loading, but its breech action was a crude mechanism, with single grip worked by a bottom lever. The double grip for the barrels was the subsequent invention of a Birmingham gunmaker. The central-fire cartridge, practically as now in use, was introduced into England in 1861 by Daw. It is said to have been the invention of Pottet, of Paris, improved upon by Schneider, and gave rise to considerable litigation in respect of its patent rights. Daw, who controlled the English patents, was the only exhibitor of central-fire guns and cartridges at the International Exhibition of 1862. In his system the barrels work on a hinge joint, the bottom lever withdraws the holding-down bolt; the cartridge is of the modern type, the cap being detonated by a striker passing through the standing breech to the inner face. The cartridge-case is withdrawn by a sliding extractor fitted to the breech ends of the barrels. Daw was subsequently defeated in his control of the patents by Eley Bros., owing to the patent not having been kept in force in France. The modern breech-loading gun has been gradually and steadily improved since 1860. Westley Richards adopted and improved Matthews' top-lever mechanism. About 1866 the rebounding lock was introduced, and improved in 1869. The treble wedge-fast mechanism for holding down the barrels was originated by W. W. Greener in 1865, and perfected in 1873. A very important improvement was the introduction of the hammerless gun, in which the mechanism for firing is placed entirely within the gun. This was made possible by the introduction of the central-fire cartridge. In 1862 Daw, and in 1866 Green, introduced hammerless guns in which the cocking was effected by the under lever. These guns did not attain popularity. In 1871 T. Murcott patented a hammerless gun, the first to obtain distinct success. This also was a lever-cocking gun. About the same time Needham introduced the principle of utilizing the weight of the barrels to assist in cocking. In 1875 Anson and Deeley utilized the fore-end attached to the barrels to cock the locks. From this date hammerless guns became really popular. Subsequently minor improvements were made by many other gun-makers, including alternative movements introduced by Purdey and Rogers. Improvements were also introduced by Westley Richards, Purdey and others, including cocking by means of the mainspring. In 1874 J. Needham introduced the ejector mechanism, by which each empty cartridge-case is separately and automatically thrown out of the gun when the breech is opened, the necessary force being provided by the mainspring of the lock. W. W. Greener and some other gunmakers have since introduced minor modifications and improvements of this mechanism. Next in turn came Perks and other inventors, who separated the ejector mechanism from the lock work. This very decided improvement is universal to-day. A later innovation in the modern breech-loader is the single trigger mechanism introduced by some of the leading English gun-makers, by which both barrels can be fired in succession by a single trigger. This improvement enables both barrels to be rapidly fired without altering the grip of the right hand, but deprives the shooter of the power of selecting his barrel.

Repeating or magazine shot-guns on the principle of the repeating rifle, with a magazine below the single firing barrel, are also made by some American and continental gun-makers, but as yet have not come into general use, being comparatively cumbersome and not well balanced. The difficulty of a shifting balance as each cartridge is fired has also yet to be overcome. Several varieties of a combination rifle and shot-gun are also made, for a description of which see RIFLE.

The chief purposes for which modern shot-guns are required are game-shooting, trap-shooting at pigeons and wild-fowling. The game gun may be any bore from 32 to 10 gauge. The usual standard bore is 12 gauge unless it be for a boy, when it is 20 gauge. The usual weight of the 12-bore double-barrelled game gun is from 6 to 7 lb. with barrels 30 in. long, there, however, being a present tendency to barrels of a shorter length. These barrels are made of steel, as being a stronger and more homogeneous material than the barrels formerly produced, which were mostly of Damascus pattern, a mixture of iron and steel. Steel barrels, drilled from the solid block, were originally produced by Whitworth. To-day the makers of steel for this purpose are many. The standard charge for the 12-bore is 42 grains of smokeless powder and 1 oz. to 1-1/8th oz. of shot. Powder of a lighter gravimetric density is occasionally employed, when the weight of the charge is reduced to 33 grains. This charge of powder corresponds to the 3 drams of black powder formerly used. The ordinary game gun should have a killing circle of 30 in. at 30 yds. with the first barrel and at 40 yds. with the second. Improved materials and methods of manufacture, and what is known as "choke" boring of the barrels, have enabled modern gun-makers to regulate the shooting of guns to a nicety. Choke-boring is the constriction of the diameter of the barrel near the muzzle, and was known in America in the early part of the 19th century. In 1875 Pape of Newcastle was awarded a prize for the invention of choke-boring, there being no other claimant. The methods of choke-boring have since been varied and improved by the leading English gun-makers. The pigeon gun is usually heavier than the game gun and more choked. It generally weighs from 7 to 8 lb. Its weight, by club rules, is frequently restricted to 7-1/2 lb. and its bore to 12 gauge. The standard wild-fowling gun is a double 8-bore with 30-in. barrels weighing 15 lb. and firing a charge of 7 drams of powder and 2-3/4 to 3 oz. of shot. These guns are also made in both smaller and larger varieties, including a single barrel 4-bore, which is the largest gun that can be used from the shoulder, and single barrel punt guns of 1-1/2-in. bore, weighing 100 lb. While no conspicuous advance in improved gun-mechanism and invention has been made during the last few years, the materials and methods of manufacture, and the quality and exactitude of the gun-maker's work, have continued gradually and steadily to improve. English, and particularly London-made, guns stand pre-eminent all over the world. (H. S.-K.)

GUNA, a town and military station in Central India, in the state of Gwalior. Pop. (1901) 11,452. After the Mutiny, it became the headquarters of the Central India Horse, whose commanding officer acts as ex-officio assistant to the resident of Gwalior; and its trade has developed rapidly since the opening of a station on a branch of the Great Indian Peninsula railway in 1899.

GUNCOTTON, an explosive substance produced by the action of strong nitric acid on cellulose at the ordinary temperature; chemically it is a nitrate of cellulose, or a mixture of nitrates, according to some authorities. The first step in the history of guncotton was made by T. J. Pelouze in 1838, who observed that when paper or cotton was immersed in cold concentrated nitric acid the materials, though not altered in physical appearance, became heavier, and after washing and drying were possessed of self-explosive properties. At the time these products were thought to be related to the nitrated starch obtained a little previously by Henri Braconnot and called _xyloidin_; they are only related in so far as they are nitrates. C. F. Schonbein of Basel published his discovery of guncotton in 1846 (_Phil. Mag._ [3], 31, p. 7), and this was shortly after followed by investigations by R. R. Bottger of Frankfort and Otto and Knop, all of whom added to our knowledge of the subject, the last-named introducing the use of sulphuric along with nitric acid in the nitration process. The chemical composition and constitution of guncotton has been studied by a considerable number of chemists and many divergent views have been put forward on the subject. W. Crum was probably the first to recognize that some hydrogen atoms of the cellulose had been replaced by an oxide of nitrogen, and this view was supported more or less by other workers, especially Hadow, who appears to have distinctly recognized that at least three compounds were present, the most violently explosive of which constituted the main bulk of the product commonly obtained and known as guncotton. This particular product was insoluble in a mixture of ether and alcohol, and its composition could be expressed by the term tri-nitrocellulose. Other products were soluble in the ether-alcohol mixture: they were less highly nitrated, and constituted the so-called collodion guncotton.

The smallest empirical formula for cellulose (q.v.) may certainly be written C6H10O5. How much of the hydrogen and oxygen are in the hydroxylic (OH) form cannot be absolutely stated, but from the study of the acetates at least three hydroxyl groups may be assumed. The oldest and perhaps most reasonable idea represents guncotton as cellulose trinitrate, but this has been much disputed, and various formulae, some based on cellulose as C12H20O10, others on a still more complex molecule, have been proposed. The constitution of guncotton is a difficult matter to investigate, primarily on account of the very insoluble nature of cellulose itself, and also from the fact that comparatively slight variations in the concentration and temperature of the acids used produce considerable differences in the products. The nitrates are also very insoluble substances, all the so-called solvents merely converting them into jelly. No method has yet been devised by which the molecular weight can be ascertained.[1] The products of the action of nitric acid on cellulose are not nitro compounds in the sense that picric acid is, but are nitrates or nitric esters.

Guncotton is made by immersing cleaned and dried cotton waste in a mixture of strong nitric and sulphuric acids. The relative amounts of the acids in the mixture and the time of duration of treatment of the cotton varies somewhat in different works, but the underlying idea is the same, viz. employing such an excess of sulphuric over nitric that the latter will be rendered anhydrous or concentrated and maintained as such in solution in the sulphuric acid, and that the sulphuric acid shall still be sufficiently strong to absorb and combine with the water produced during the actual formation of the guncotton. In the recent methods the cotton remains in contact with the acids for two to four hours at the ordinary air temperature (15 deg. C.), in which time it is almost fully nitrated, the main portion, say 90%, having a composition represented by the formula[2] C6H7O2(NO3)3, the remainder consisting of lower nitrated products, some oxidation products and traces of unchanged cellulose and cellulose sulphates. The acid is then slowly run out by an opening in the bottom of the pan in which the operation is conducted, and water distributed carefully over its surface displaces it in the interstices of the cotton, which is finally subjected to a course of boiling and washing with water. This washing is a most important part of the process. On its thoroughness depends the removal of small quantities of products other than the nitrates, for instance, some sulphates and products from impurities contained in the original cellulose. Cellulose sulphates are one, and possibly the main, cause of instability in guncotton, and it is highly desirable that they should be completely hydrolysed and removed in the washing process. The nitrated product retains the outward form of the original cellulose. In the course of the washing, according to a method introduced by Sir F. Abel, the cotton is ground into a pulp, a process which greatly facilitates the complete removal of acids, &c. This pulp is finally drained, and is then either compressed, while still moist, into slabs or blocks when required for blasting purposes, or it is dried when required for the manufacture of propellants. Sometimes a small quantity of an alkali (e.g. sodium carbonate) is added to the final washing water, so that quantities of this alkaline substance ranging from 0.5% to a little over 1% are retained by the guncotton. The idea is that any traces of acid not washed away by the washing process or produced later by a slow decomposition of the substance will be thereby neutralized and rendered harmless. Guncotton in an air-dry state, whether in the original form or after grinding to pulp and compressing, burns with very great rapidity but does not detonate unless confined.

Immediately after the discovery of guncotton Schonbein proposed its employment as a substitute for gunpowder, and General von Lenk carried out a lengthy and laborious series of experiments intending to adapt it especially for artillery use. All these and many subsequent attempts to utilize it, either loose or mechanically compressed in any way, signally failed. However much compressed by mechanical means it is still a porous mass, and when it is confined as in a gun the flame and hot gases from the portion first ignited permeate the remainder, generally causing it actually to detonate, or to burn so rapidly that its action approaches detonation. The more closely it is confined the greater is the pressure set up by a small part of the charge burning, and the more completely will the explosion of the remainder assume the detonating form. The employment of guncotton as a propellant was possible only after the discovery that it could be gelatinized or made into a colloid by the action of so-called solvents, e.g. ethylacetate and other esters, acetone and a number of like substances (see CORDITE).

When quite dry guncotton is easily detonated by a blow on an anvil or
hard surface. If dry and warm it is much more sensitive to percussion
or friction, and also becomes electrified by friction under those
conditions. The amount of contained moisture exerts a considerable
effect on its sensitiveness. With about 2% of moisture it can still be
detonated on an anvil, but the action is generally confined to the
piece struck. As the quantity of contained water increases it becomes
difficult or even impossible to detonate by an ordinary blow.
Compressed dry guncotton is easily detonated by an initiative
detonator such as mercuric fulminate. Guncotton containing more than
15% of water is uninflammable, may be compressed or worked without
danger and is much more difficult to detonate by a fulminate
detonator than when dry.[3] A small charge of dry guncotton will,
however, detonate the wet material, and this peculiarity is made use
of in the employment of guncotton for blasting purposes. A charge of
compressed wet guncotton may be exploded, even under water, by the
detonation of a small primer of the dry and waterproofed material,
which in turn can be started by a small fulminate detonator. The
explosive wave from the dry guncotton primer is in fact better
responded to by the wet compressed material than the dry, and its
detonation is somewhat sharper than that of the dry. It is not
necessary for the blocks of wet guncotton to be actually in contact if
they be under water, and the peculiar explosive wave can also be
conveyed a little distance by a piece of metal such as a railway rail.
The more nearly the composition of guncotton approaches that
represented by C6H7O2(NO3)3, the more stable is it as regards storing
at ordinary temperatures, and the higher the igniting temperature.
Carefully prepared guncotton after washing with alcohol-ether until
nothing more dissolves may require to be heated to 180-185 deg. C.
before inflaming. Ordinary commercial guncottons, containing from 10
to 15% of lower nitrated products, will ignite as a rule some 20-25
deg. lower.

Assuming the above formula to represent guncotton, there is sufficient
oxygen for internal combustion without any carbon being left. The
gaseous mixture obtained by burning guncotton in a vacuum vessel
contains steam, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, nitric
oxide, and methane. When slowly heated in a vacuum vessel until
ignition takes place, some nitrogen dioxide, NO2, is also produced.
When kept for some weeks at a temperature of 100 deg. in steam, a
considerable number of fatty acids, some bases, and glucose-like
substances result. Under different pressures the relative amounts of
the combustion products vary considerably. Under very great pressures
carbon monoxide, steam and nitrogen are the main products, but nitric
oxide never quite disappears.

Dilute mineral acids have little or no action on guncotton. Strong
sulphuric acid in contact with it liberates first nitric acid and
later oxides of nitrogen, leaving a charred residue or a brown
solution according to the quantity of acid. It sometimes fires on
contact with strong sulphuric acid, especially when slightly warmed.
The alkali hydroxides (e.g. sodium hydroxide) will in a solid state
fire it on contact. Strong or weak solutions of these substances also
decompose it, producing some alkali nitrate and nitrite, the cellulose
molecule being only partially restored, some quantity undergoing
oxidation. Ammonia is also active, but not quite in the same manner as
the alkali hydroxides. Dry guncotton heated in ammonia gas detonates
at about 70 deg., and ammonium hydroxide solutions of all strengths
slowly decompose it, yielding somewhat complex products. Alkali
sulphohydrates reduce guncotton, or other nitrated celluloses,
completely to cellulose. The production of the so-called "artificial
silk" depends on this action.

A characteristic difference between guncotton and collodion cotton is
the insolubility of the former in ether or alcohol or a mixture of
these liquids. The so-called collodion cottons are nitrated
celluloses, but of a lower degree of nitration (as a rule) than
guncotton. They are sometimes spoken of as "lower" or "soluble"
cottons or nitrates. The solubility in ether-alcohol may be owing to a
lower degree of nitration, or to the temperature conditions under
which the process of manufacture has been carried on. If guncotton be
correctly represented by the formula C6H7O2(NO3)3, it should contain a
little more than 14% of nitrogen. Guncottons are examined for degree
of nitration by the nitrometer, in which apparatus they are decomposed
by sulphuric acid in contact with mercury, and all the nitrogen is
evolved as nitric oxide, NO, which is measured and the weight of its
contained nitrogen calculated. Ordinary guncottons seldom contain more
than 13% of nitrogen, and in most cases the amount does not exceed
12.5%. Generally speaking, the lower the nitrogen content of a
guncotton, as found by the nitrometer, the higher the percentage of
matters soluble in a mixture of ether-alcohol. These soluble matters
are usually considered as "lower" nitrates.

Guncottons are usually tested by the Abel heat test for stability (see
CORDITE). Another heat test, that of Will, consists in heating a
weighed quantity of the guncotton in a stream of carbon dioxide to
130 deg. C., passing the evolved gases over some red-hot copper, and
finally collecting them over a solution of potassium hydroxide which
retains the carbon dioxide and allows the nitrogen, arising from the
guncotton decomposition, to be measured. This is done at definite time
intervals so that the _rate_ of decomposition can be followed. The
relative stability is then judged by the amount of nitrogen gas
collected in a certain time. Several modifications of this and of the
Abel heat test are also in use. (See EXPLOSIVES.) (W. R. E. H.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] The composition of the cellulose nitrates was reviewed by G.
Lunge (_Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc._, 1901, 23, p. 527), who, assuming the
formula C24H40O20 for cellulose, showed how the nitrocelluloses
described by different chemists may be expressed by the formula
C24H_(46-x)O20(NO2)_x, where x has the values 4, 5, 6, ... 12.

[2] This formula is retained mainly on account of its simplicity. It
also expresses all that is necessary in this connexion.

[3] Air-dried guncotton will contain 2% or less of moisture.

GUNDULICH, IVAN (1588-1638), known also as Giovanni Gondola, Servian poet, was born at Ragusa on the 8th of January 1588. His father, Franco Gundulich, once the Ragusan envoy to Constantinople and councillor of the republic, gave him an excellent education. He studied the "humanities" with the Jesuit, Father Muzzi, and philosophy with Father Ricasoli. After that he studied Roman law and jurisprudence in general. He was member of the Lower Council and once served as the chief magistrate of the republic. He died on the 8th of December 1638. A born poet, he admired much the Italian poets of his time, from whom he made many translations into Servian. It is believed that he so translated Tasso's _Gerusalemme liberata_. He is known to have written eighteen works, of which eleven were dramas, but of these only three have been fully preserved, others having perished during the great earthquake and fire in 1667. Most of those dramas were translations from the Italian, and were played, seemingly with great success, by the amateurs furnished by the noble families of Ragusa. But his greatest and justly celebrated work is an epic, entitled _Osman_, in twenty cantos. It is the first political epic on the Eastern Question, glorifying the victory of the Poles over Turks and Tatars in the campaign of 1621, and encouraging a league of the Christian nations, under the guidance of Vladislaus, the king of Poland, for the purpose of driving away the Turks from Europe. The fourteenth and fifteenth cantos are lost. It is generally believed that the Ragusan government suppressed them from consideration for the Sultan, the protector of the republic, those two cantos having been violently anti-Turkish.

_Osman_ was printed for the first time in Ragusa in 1826, the two
missing cantos being replaced by songs written by Pietro Sorgo (or
Sorkochevich). From this edition the learned Italian, Francesco
Appendini, made an Italian translation published in 1827. Since that
time several other editions have been made. The best are considered to
be the edition of the South Slavonic Academy in Agram (1877) and the
edition published in Semlin (1889) by Professor Yovan Boshkovich. In
the edition of 1844 (Agram) the last cantos, fourteen and fifteen,
were replaced by very fine compositions of the Serbo-Croatian poet,
Mazhuranich (Mazuranic). The complete works of Gundulich have been
published in Agram, 1847, by V. Babukich and by the South Slavonic
Academy of Agram in 1889. (C. Mi.)

GUNG'L, JOSEF (1810-1889), Hungarian composer and conductor, was born on the 1st of December 1810, at Zsambek, in Hungary. After starting life as a school-teacher, and learning the elements of music from Ofen, the school-choirmaster, he became first oboist at Graz, and, at twenty-five, bandmaster of the 4th regiment of Austrian artillery. His first composition, a Hungarian march, written in 1836, attracted some notice, and in 1843 he was able to establish an orchestra in Berlin. With this band he travelled far, even (in 1849) to America. It is worth recording that Mendelssohn's complete _Midsummer Night's Dream_ music is said to have been first played by Gung'l's band. In 1853 he became bandmaster to the 23rd Infantry Regiment at Brunn, but in 1864 he lived at Munich, and in 1876 at Frankfort, after (in 1873) having conducted with great success a series of promenade concerts at Covent Garden, London. From Frankfort Gung'l went to Weimar to live with his daughter, a well-known German opera singer and local prima donna. There he died, on the 31st of January 1889. Gung'l's dances number over 300, perhaps the most popular being the "Amoretten," "Hydropaten," "Casino," "Dreams on the Ocean" waltzes; "In Stiller Mitternacht" polka, and "Blue Violets" mazurka. His Hungarian march was transcribed by Liszt. His music is characterized by the same easy flowing melodies and well-marked rhythm that distinguish the dances of Strauss, to whom alone he can be ranked second in this kind of composition.

GUNNER, or MASTER GUNNER, in the navy, the warrant officer who has charge of the ordnance and ammunition, and of the training of the men at gun drill. His functions in this respect are of less relative importance than they were in former times, when specially trained corps of seamen gunners had not been formed.

GUNNING, PETER (1614-1684), English divine, was born at Hoo, in Kent, and educated at the King's School, Canterbury, and Clare College, Cambridge, where he became a fellow in 1633. Having taken orders, he advocated the royalist cause from the pulpit with much eloquence. In 1644 he retired to Oxford, and held a chaplaincy at New College until the city surrendered to the parliamentary forces in 1646. Subsequently he was chaplain, first to the royalist Sir Robert Shirley of Eatington (1629-1656), and then at the Exeter House chapel. After the Restoration in 1660 he returned to Clare College as master, and was appointed Lady Margaret professor of divinity. He also received the livings of Cottesmore, Rutlandshire, and Stoke Bruerne, Northamptonshire. In 1661 he became head of St John's College, Cambridge, and was elected Regius professor of divinity. He was consecrated bishop of Chichester in 1669, and was translated to the see of Ely in 1674-1675. Holding moderate religious views, he deprecated alike the extremes represented by Puritanism and Roman Catholicism.

His works are chiefly reports of his disputations, such as that which
appears in the _Scisme Unmask't_ (Paris, 1658), in which the
definition of a schism is discussed with two Romanist opponents.

GUNNY, a sort of cloth, the name of which is supposed to be derived from _ganga_ or _gania_ of Rumphius, or from _gonia_, a vernacular name of the _Crotolaria juncea_--a plant common in Madras. One of the first notices of the term itself is to be found in Knox's _Ceylon_, in which he says: "The filaments at the bottom of the stem (coir from the coco-nut husk, _Cocos nucifera_) may be made into a coarse cloth called gunny, which is used for bags and similar purposes."

Warden, in _The Linen Trade_, says:

"A very large proportion of the jute grown in Bengal is made into
cloth in the districts where it is cultivated, and this industry forms
the grand domestic manufacture of all the populous eastern districts
of Bengal. It pervades all classes, and penetrates into every
household, almost every one, man, woman and child, being in some way
engaged in it. Boatmen, husbandmen, palankeen carriers, domestic
servants, everyone, in fact, being Hindu--for Mussulmans spin cotton
only--pass their leisure moments, distaff in hand, spinning gunny
twist. It is spun by the takur and dhara, the former being a kind of
spindle, which is turned upon the thigh or the sole of the foot, and
the latter a reel, on which the thread, when sufficiently twisted, is
wound up. Another kind of spinning machine, called a ghurghurea, is
occasionally used. A bunch of the raw material is hung up in every
farmer's house, or on the protruding stick of a thatched roof, and
every one who has leisure forms with these spindles some coarse
pack-thread, of which ropes are twisted for the use of the farm. The
lower Hindu castes, from this pack-thread, spin a finer thread for
being made into cloth, and, there being a loom in nearly every house,
very much of it is woven by the women of the lower class of people. It
is especially the employment of the Hindu widow, as it enables her to
earn her bread without being a burden on her family. The cloth thus
made is of various qualities, such as clothing for the family
(especially the women, a great proportion of whom on all the eastern
frontier wear almost nothing else), coarse fabrics, bedding, rice and
sugar bags, sacking, pack-sheet, &c. Much of it is woven into short
lengths and very narrow widths, two or three of which are sometimes
sewed into one piece before they are sold. That intended for rice and
sugar bags is made about 6 feet long, and from 24 to 27 inches wide,
and doubled. A considerable quantity of jute yarn is dyed and woven
into cloth for various local purposes, and some of it is also sent out
of the district. The principal places where chotee, or jute cloth for
gunny bags, is made are within a radius of perhaps 150 to 200 miles
around Dacca, and there both labour and land are remarkably cheap. The
short, staple, common jute is generally consumed in the local
manufacture, the finer and long stapled being reserved for the export
trade. These causes enable gunny cloth and bags to be sold almost as
cheaply as the raw material, which creates an immense demand for them
in nearly every market of the world."

Such appeared to be the definition of gunny cloth at the time the above was written--between 1850 and 1860. Most of the Indian cloth for gunny bags is now made by power, and within about 20 m. of Calcutta. In many respects the term gunny cloth is still applied to all and sundry, but there is no doubt that the original name was intended for cloth which was similar to what is now known as "cotton bagging." This particular type of cloth is still largely made in the hand loom, even in Dundee, this method of manufacture being considered, for certain reasons, more satisfactory than the power loom method (see JUTE and BAGGING).

GUNPOWDER, an explosive composed of saltpetre, charcoal and sulphur. Very few substances have had a greater effect on civilization than gunpowder. Its employment altered the whole art of war, and its influence gradually and indirectly permeated and affected the whole fabric of society. Its direct effect on the arts of peace was but slight, and had but a limited range, which could not be compared to the modern extended employment of high explosives for blasting in mining and engineering work.

It is probably quite incorrect to speak of the _discovery_ of gunpowder. From modern researches it seems more likely and more just to think of it as a thing that has developed, passing through many stages--mainly of improvement, but some undoubtedly retrograde. There really is not sufficient solid evidence on which to pin down its invention to one man. As Lieutenant-Colonel H. W. L. Hime (_Gunpowder and Ammunition_, 1904) says, the invention of gunpowder was impossible until the properties of nearly pure saltpetre had become known. The honour, however, has been associated with two names in particular, Berthold Schwartz, a German monk, and Friar Roger Bacon. Of the former Oscar Guttmann writes (_Monumenta pulveris pyrii_, 1904, p. 6): "Berthold Schwartz was generally considered to be the inventor of gunpowder, and only in England has Roger Bacon's claim been upheld, though there are English writers who have pleaded in favour of Schwartz. Most writers are agreed that Schwartz invented the first firearms, and as nothing was known of an inventor of gunpowder, it was perhaps considered justifiable to give Schwartz the credit thereof. There is some ambiguity as to when Schwartz lived. The year 1354 is sometimes mentioned as the date of his invention of powder, and this is also to be inferred from an inscription on the monument to him in Freiburg. But considering there can be no doubt as to the manufacture in England of gunpowder and cannon in 1344, that we have authentic information of guns in France in 1338 and in Florence in 1326, and that the Oxford MS. _De officiis regum_ of 1325 gives an illustration of a gun, Berthold Schwartz must have lived long before 1354 to have been the inventor of gunpowder or guns." In Germany also there were powder-works at Augsburg in 1340, in Spandau in 1344, and Liegnitz in 1348.

Roger Bacon, in his _De mirabili potestate artis et naturae_ (1242), makes the most important communication on the history of gunpowder. Reference is made to an explosive mixture as known before his time and employed for "diversion, producing a noise like thunder and flashes like lightning." In one passage Bacon speaks of saltpetre as a violent explosive, but there is no doubt that he knew it was not a self-explosive substance, but only so when mixed with other substances, as appears from the statement in _De secretis operibus artis et naturae_, printed at Hamburg in 1618, that "from saltpetre and other ingredients we are able to make a fire that shall burn at any distance we please." A great part of his three chapters, 9, 10, 11, long appeared without meaning until the anagrammatic nature of the sentences was realized. The words of this anagram are (chap. 11): "Item ponderis totum 30 sed tamen salis petrae _luru vopo vir can utri_[1] et sulphuris; et sic facies tonitruum et coruscationem, si scias artificium. Videas tamen utrum loquar aenigmate aut secundum veritatem." Hime, in his chapter on the origin of gunpowder, discusses these chapters at length, and gives, omitting the anagram, the translation: "Let the total weight of the ingredients be 30, however, of saltpetre ... of sulphur; and with such a mixture you will produce a bright flash and a thundering noise, if you know the trick. You may find (by actual experiment) whether I am writing riddles to you or the plain truth." The anagram reads, according to Hime, "salis petrae r(ecipe) vii part(es), v nov(ellae) corul(i), v et sulphuris" (take seven parts of saltpetre, five of young hazel-wood, and five of sulphur). Hime then goes on to show that Bacon was in possession of an explosive which was a considerable advance on mere incendiary compositions. Bacon does not appear to have been aware of the projecting power of gunpowder. He knew that it exploded and that perhaps people might be blown up or frightened by it; more cannot be said. The behaviour of small quantities of any explosive is hardly ever indicative of its behaviour in large quantities and especially when under confinement. Hime is of opinion that Bacon blundered upon gunpowder whilst playing with some incendiary composition, such as those mentioned by Marcus Graecus and others, in which he employed his comparatively pure saltpetre instead of crude nitrum. It has been suggested that Bacon derived his knowledge of these fiery mixtures from the MS. _Liber ignium_, ascribed to Marcus Graecus, in the National Library in Paris (Dutens, _Enquiry into Origin of Discoveries attributed to Moderns_). Certainly this Marcus Graecus appears to have known of some incendiary composition containing the gunpowder ingredients, but it was not gunpowder. Hime seems to doubt the existence of any such person as Marcus Graecus, as he says: "The _Liber ignium_ was written from first to last in the period of literary forgeries and pseudographs ... and we may reasonably conclude that Marcus Graecus is as unreal as the imaginary Greek original of the tract which bears his name." Albertus Magnus in the _De mirabilibus mundi_ repeats some of the receipts given in Marcus Graecus, and several other writers give receipts for Greek fire, rockets, &c. Dutens gives many passages in his work, above-named, from old authors in support of his view that a composition of the nature of gunpowder was not unknown to the ancients. Hime's elaborate arguments go to show that these compositions could only have been of the incendiary type and not real explosives. His arguments seem to hold good as regards not only the Greeks but also the Arabs, Hindus and Chinese (see also FIREWORKS).

There seems no doubt that incendiary compositions, some perhaps containing nitre, mostly, however, simply combustible substances as sulphur, naphtha, resins, &c., were employed and projected both for defence and offence, but they were projected or blown by engines and not by themselves. It is quite inconceivable that a real propelling explosive should have been known in the time of Alexander or much later, and not have immediately taken its proper place. In a chapter discussing this question of explosives amongst the Hindus, Hime says: "It is needless to enlarge the list of quotations: incendiaries pursued much the same course in Upper India as in Greece and Arabia." No trustworthy evidence of an explosive in India is to be found until the 21st of April 1526, the date of the decisive battle of Panipat, in which Ibrahim, sultan of Delhi, was killed and his army routed by Baber the Mogul, who possessed both great and small firearms.

As regards also the crusader period (1097-1291), so strange and deadly an agent of destruction as gunpowder could not possibly have been employed in the field without the full knowledge of both parties, yet no historian, Christian or Moslem, alludes to an explosive of any kind, while all of them carefully record the use of incendiaries. The employment of rockets and "wildfire" incendiary composition seems undoubtedly of very old date in India, but the names given to pieces of artillery under the Mogul conqueror of Hindustan point to a European, or at least to a Turkish origin, and it is quite certain that Europeans were retained in the service of Akbar and Aurangzeb. The composition of present day Chinese gunpowder is almost identical with that employed in Europe, so that in all probability the knowledge of it was obtained from Western sources.

In the writings of Bacon there is no mention of guns or the use of powder as a propellant, but merely as an explosive and destructive power. Owing perhaps to this obscurity hanging over the early history of gunpowder, its employment as a propelling agent has been ascribed to the Moors or Saracens. J. A. Conde (_Historia de la dominacion de los Arabes en Espana_) states that Ismail Ben Firaz, king of Granada, who in 1325 besieged Boza, had among his machines "some that cast globes of fire," but there is not the least evidence that these were guns. The first trustworthy document relative to the use of gunpowder in Europe, a document still in existence, and bearing date February 11, 1326, gives authority to the council of twelve of Florence and others to appoint persons to superintend the manufacture of cannons of brass and iron balls, for the defence of the territory, &c., of the republic. John Barbour, archdeacon of Aberdeen, writing in 1375, states that cannons (crakys of war) were employed in Edward III.'s invasion of Scotland in 1327. An indenture first published by Sir N. H. Nicolas in his _History of the Royal Navy_ (London, 1846), and again by Lieutenant-Colonel H. Brackenbury (_Proc. R.A. Inst._, 1865), stated to be 1338, contains references to small cannon as among the stores of the Tower, and also mentions "un petit barrell de gonpoudre le quart' plein." If authentic, this is possibly the first mention of gunpowder as such in England, but some doubts have been thrown upon the date of this MS. From a contemporary document in the National Library in Paris it seems that in the same year (1338) there existed in the marine arsenal at Rouen an iron weapon called _pot de feu_, for propelling bolts, together with some saltpetre and sulphur to make powder for the same. Preserved in the Record Office in London are trustworthy accounts from the year 1345 of the purchase of ingredients for making powder, and of the shipping of cannon to France. In 1346 Edward III. appears to have ordered all available saltpetre and sulphur to be bought up for him. In the first year of Richard II. (1377) Thomas Norbury was ordered to buy, amongst other munitions, sulphur, saltpetre and charcoal, to be sent to the castle of Brest. In 1414 Henry V. ordered that no gunpowder should be taken out of the kingdom without special licence, and in the same year ordered twenty pipes of willow charcoal and other articles for the use of the guns.

The manufacture of gunpowder seems to have been carried on as a crown monopoly about the time of Elizabeth, and regulations respecting gunpowder and nitre were made about 1623 (James I.). Powder-mills were probably in existence at Waltham Abbey about the middle or towards the end of the 16th century.

_Ingredients and their Action._--Roger Bacon in his anagram gives the
first real recipe for gunpowder, viz. (according to Hime, ch. xii.)
saltpetre 41.2, charcoal 29.4, sulphur 29.4. Dr John Arderne of
Newark, who began to practise about 1350 and was later surgeon to
Henry IV., gives a recipe (Sloane MSS. 335, 795), saltpetre 66.6,
charcoal 22.2, sulphur 11.1, "which are to be thoroughly mixed on a
marble and then sifted through a cloth." This powder is nominally of
the same composition as one given in a MS. of Marcus Graecus, but the
saltpetre of this formula by Marcus Graecus was undoubtedly answerable
for the difference in behaviour of the two compositions. Roger Bacon
had not only refined and obtained pure nitre, but had appreciated the
importance of thoroughly mixing the components of the powder. Most if
not all the early powder was a "loose" mixture of the three
ingredients, and the most important step in connexion with the
development of gunpowder was undoubtedly the introduction of wet
mixing or "incorporating." Whenever this was done, the improvement in
the product must have been immediately evident. In the damp or wetted
state pressure could be applied with comparative safety during the
mixing. The loose powder mixture came to be called "serpentine"; after
wet mixing it was more or less granulated or corned and was known as
"corned" powder. Corned powder seems to have been gradually
introduced. It is mentioned in the _Fire Book_ of Conrad von Schongau
(in 1429), and was used for hand-guns in England long before 1560. It
would seem that corned powder was used for hand-guns or small arms in
the 15th century, but cannon were not made strong enough to withstand
its explosion for quite another century (Hime). According to the same
writer, in the period 1250-1450, when serpentine only was used, one
powder could differ from another in the proportions of the
ingredients; in the modern period--say 1700-1886--the powders in use
(in each state) differed only as a general rule in the size of the
grain, whilst during the transition period--1450-1700--they generally
differed both in composition and size of grain.

Corned or grained powder was adopted in France in 1525, and in 1540
the French utilized an observation that large-grained powder was the
best for cannon, and restricted the manufacture to three sizes of
grain or corn, possibly of the same composition. Early in the 18th
century two or three sizes of grain and powder of one composition
appear to have become common. The composition of English powder seems
to have settled down to 75 nitre, 15 charcoal, and 10 sulphur,
somewhere about the middle of the 18th century.

The composition of gunpowders used in different countries at different
times is illustrated in the following tables:--

_English Powders (Hime)._

+-----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+--------+
| | 1250.| 1350.| 1560.| 1647.| 1670.| 1742.| 1781. |
+-----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+--------+
| Saltpetre | 41.2 | 66.6 | 50.0 | 66.6 | 71.4 | 75.0 | 75.0 |
| Charcoal | 29.4 | 22.2 | 33.3 | 16.6 | 14.3 | 12.5 | 15.0 |
| Sulphur | 29.4 | 11.1 | 16.6 | 16.6 | 14.3 | 12.5 | 10.0[2]|
+-----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+--------+

_Foreign Powders (Hime)._

+-----------+-------+-------+--------+--------+-------+-------+--------+
| |France.|Sweden.|Germany.|Denmark.|France.|Sweden.|Germany.|
+-----------+-------+-------+--------+--------+-------+-------+--------+
| | 1338. | 1560. | 1595. | 1608. | 1650. | 1697. | 1882. |
+-----------+-------+-------+--------+--------+-------+-------+--------+
| Saltpetre | 50 | 66.6 | 52.2 | 68.3 | 75.6 | 73 | 78 |
| Charcoal | ? | 16.6 | 26.1 | 23.2 | 13.6 | 17 | 19 |
| Sulphur | 25 | 16.6 | 21.7 | 8.5 | 10.8 | 10 | 3[3] |
+-----------+-------+-------+--------+--------+-------+-------+--------+

When reasonably pure, none of the ingredients of gunpowder absorbs any
material quantity of moisture from the atmosphere, and the nitre only
is a soluble substance. It seems extremely probable that for a long
period the three substances were simply mixed dry, indeed sometimes
kept separate and mixed just before being required; the consequence
must have been that, with every care as to weighing out, the
proportions of any given quantity would alter on carriage. Saltpetre
is considerably heavier than sulphur or charcoal, and would tend to
separate out towards the bottom of the containing vessel if subjected
to jolting or vibration. When pure there can only be one kind of
saltpetre or sulphur, because they are chemical individuals, but
charcoal is not. Its composition, rate of burning, &c., depend not
only on the nature of the woody material from which it is made, but
quite as much on the temperature and time of heating employed in the
making. The woods from which it is made contain carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen, and the two latter are never thoroughly expelled in
charcoal-making. If they were, the resulting substance would be of no
use for gunpowder. 1-3% of hydrogen and 8-15% of oxygen generally
remain in charcoals suitable for gunpowder. A good deal of the
fieriness and violence of explosion of a gunpowder depends on the mode
of burning of the charcoal as well as on the wood from which it is
made.

_Properties of Ingredients._--Charcoal is the chief combustible in
powder. It must burn freely, leaving as little ash or residue as
possible; it must be friable, and grind into a non-gritty powder. The
sources from which powder charcoal is made are dogwood (_Rhamnus
frangula_), willow (_Salix alba_), and alder (_Betula alnus_). Dogwood
is mainly used for small-arm powders. Powders made from dogwood
charcoal burn more rapidly than those from willow, &c. The wood after
cutting is stripped of bark and allowed to season for two or three
years. It is then picked to uniform size and charred in cylindrical
iron cases or slips, which can be introduced into slightly larger
cylinders set in a furnace. The slips are provided with openings for
the escape of gases. The rate of heating as well as the absolute
temperature attained have an effect on the product, a slow rate of
heating yielding more charcoal, and a high temperature reducing the
hydrogen and oxygen in the final product. When heated for seven hours
to about 800 deg. C. to 900 deg. C. the remaining hydrogen and oxygen
amount to about 2% and 12% respectively. The time of charring is as a
rule from 5 to 7 hours. The slips are then removed from the furnace
and placed in a larger iron vessel, where they are kept comparatively
air-tight until quite cold. The charcoal is then sorted, and stored
for some time before grinding. The charcoal is ground, and the powder
sifted on a rotating reel or cylinder of fine mesh copper-wire gauze.
The sifted powder is again stored for some time before use in closed
iron vessels.

Sicilian sulphur is most generally employed for gunpowder, and for
complete purification is first distilled and then melted and cast into
moulds. It is afterwards ground into a fine powder and sifted as in
the case of the charcoal.

Potassium nitrate is eminently suitable as an oxygen-provider, not
being deliquescent. Nitrates are continually being produced in surface
soils, &c., by the oxidation of nitrogenous substances. Nitric and
nitrous acids are also produced by electric discharges through the
atmosphere, and these are found eventually as nitrates in soils, &c.
Nitre is soluble in water, and much more so in hot than in cold. Crude
nitre, obtained from soils or other sources, is purified by
recrystallization. The crude material is dissolved almost to
saturation in boiling water: on filtering and then cooling this liquor
to about 30 deg. C. almost pure nitre crystallizes out, most of the
usual impurities still remaining in solution. By rapidly cooling and
agitating the nitre solution crystals are obtained of sufficient
fineness for the manufacture of powder without special grinding. Nitre
contains nearly 48% of oxygen by weight, five-sixths of which is
available for combustion purposes. Nearly all the gases of the powder
explosion are derived from the nitre. The specific gravity of nitre is
2.2 : 200 grams will therefore occupy about 100 cubic centimetres
volume. This quantity on its decomposition by heat alone yields 28
grams or 22,400 c.c. of nitrogen, and 80 grams or 56,000 c.c. of
oxygen as gases, and 94 grams of potassium oxide, a fusible solid
which vaporizes at a very high temperature.

_Incorporation._--The materials are weighed out separately, mixed by
passing through a sieve, and then uniformly moistened with a certain
quantity of water, whilst on the bed of the incorporating mill. This
consists of two heavy iron wheels mounted so as to run in a circular
bed. The incorporation requires about four hours. The mechanical
action of rollers on the powder paste is a double one: not only
crushing but mixing by pushing forwards and twisting sideways. The
pasty mass is deflected so that it repeatedly comes under first one
roller and then the next by scrapers, set at an angle to the bed,
which follow each wheel.

Although the charge is wet it is possible for it to be fired either by
the heat developed by the roller friction, by sparks from foreign
matters, as bits of stone, &c., or possibly by heat generated by
oxidation of the materials. The mills are provided with a drenching
apparatus so arranged that in case of one mill firing it and its
neighbours will be drowned by water from a cistern or tank immediately
above the mill. The product from the incorporation is termed
"mill-cake."

After this incorporation in the damp state the ingredients never
completely separate on drying, however much shaken, because each
particle of nitre is surrounded by a thin layer of water containing
nitre in solution in which the particles of charcoal and sulphur are
entangled and retained. After due incorporation, powders are pressed
to a certain extent whilst still moist. The density to which a powder
is pressed is an important matter in regard to the rate of burning.
The effect of high density is to slow down the initial rate of
burning. Less dense powders burn more rapidly from the first and tend
to put a great strain on the gun. Fouling is usually less with denser
powders; and, as would be expected, such powders bear transport better
and give less dust than light powders. Up to a certain pressure,
hardness, density, and size of grain of a powder have an effect on the
rate of burning and therefore on pressure. Glazing or polishing powder
grains, also exerts a slight retarding action on burning and enables
the powders to resist atmospheric moisture better. Excess of moisture
in gunpowder has a marked effect in reducing the explosiveness. All
powders are liable to absorb moisture, the quality and kind of
charcoal being the main determinant in this respect; hard burnt black
charcoal is least absorbent. The material employed in brown powders
absorbs moisture somewhat readily. Powder kept in a very damp
atmosphere, and especially in a changeable one, spoils rapidly, the
saltpetre coming to the surface in solution and then crystallizing
out. The pieces also break up owing to the formation of large crystals
of nitre in the mass. After the pressing of the incorporated powder
into a "press-cake," it is broken up or granulated by suitable
machines, and the resulting grains separated and sorted by sifting
through sieves of determined sizes of mesh. Some dust is formed in
this operation, which is sifted away and again worked up under the
rollers (for sizes of grains see fig. 1). These grains, cubes, &c.,
are then either polished by rotating in drums alone or with graphite,
which adheres to and coats the surfaces of the grains. This process is
generally followed with powders intended for small-arms or moderately
small ordnance.

_Shaped Powders._--Prisms or prismatic powder are made by breaking up
the press-cake into a moderately fine state, whilst still moist, and
pressing a certain quantity in a mould. The moulds generally employed
consist of a thick plate of bronze in which are a number of hexagonal
perforations. Accurately fitting plungers are so applied to these that
one can enter at the top and the other at the bottom. The lower
plunger being withdrawn to the bottom of the plate the hexagonal hole
is charged with the powder and the two plungers set in motion, thus
compressing the powder between them. After the desired pressure has
been applied the top plunger is withdrawn, and the lower one pushed
upward to eject the prism of powder. The axial perforations in prism
powders are made by small bronze rods which pass through the lower
plunger and fit into corresponding holes in the upper one. If these
prisms are made by a steadily applied pressure a density throughout of
about 1.78 may be obtained. Further to regulate the rate of burning so
that it shall be slow at first and more rapid as the powder is
consumed, another form of machine was devised, the cam press, in which
the pressure is applied very rapidly to the powder. It receives in
fact one blow, which compresses the powder to the same dimensions, but
the density of the outer layers of substance of the prism is much
greater than in the interior.