Chapter XXIII: Act 1856: , is mainly declaratory of the English common law, as embodied (16)

The brothers Tradescant brought samples of the curious material to Europe about the middle of the 17th century. It was then regarded as a form of wood, to which the name of "mazer" wood was given on account of its employment in making mazers or goblets. A description of it is given in a book published by John Tradescant in 1656 entitled _Musaeum Tradescantianum or a Collection of Rarities preserved at South Lambeth near London_. Many of the curiosities collected from all parts of the world by the Tradescants subsequently formed the nucleus of the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford which was opened in 1683, but the specimen of "mazer wood" no longer exists.

In 1843 samples of the material were sent to London by Dr William Montgomerie of Singapore, and were exhibited at the Society of Arts, and in the same year Dr Jose d'Almeida sent samples to the Royal Asiatic Society. Gutta percha was also exhibited at the Great Exhibition of 1851.

Dr Montgomerie's communication to the Society of Arts led to many experiments being made with the material. Casts of medals were successfully produced, and Sir William Siemens, in conjunction with Werner von Siemens, then made the first experiments with the material as an insulating covering for cable and telegraph wires, which led to the discovery of its important applications in this connexion and to a considerable commercial demand for the substance.

The value of gutta percha depends chiefly on its quality, that is its richness in true gutta and freedom from resin and other impurities which interfere with its physical characters, and especially its insulating power or inability to conduct electricity.

The chief use of gutta percha is now for electrical purposes. Other minor uses are in dentistry and as a means of taking impressions of medals, &c. It has also found application in the preparation of belting for machinery, as well as for the construction of the handles of knives and surgical instruments, whilst the inferior qualities are used for waterproofing.

_Commercial Production._--The amount of gutta percha exported through Singapore from British and Dutch possessions in the East is subject to considerable fluctuation, depending chiefly on the demand for cable and telegraph construction. In 1886 the total export from Singapore was 40,411 cwt., of which Great Britain took 31,666 cwt.; in 1896 the export was 51,982 cwt. of which 29,722 cwt. came to Great Britain; while in 1905, 42,088 cwt. were exported (19,517 cwt. to Great Britain). It has to be remembered that the official returns include not only gutta percha of various grades of quality but also other inferior products sold under the name of gutta percha, some of which are referred to below under the head of substitutes. The value of gutta percha cannot therefore be correctly gauged from the value of the imports. In the ten years 1896-1906 the best qualities of gutta percha fetched from 4s. to about 7s. per lb. Gutta percha, however, is used for few and special purposes, and there is no free market, the price being chiefly a matter of arrangement between the chief producers and consumers.

_Characters and Properties._--Gutta percha appears in commerce in the
form of blocks or cakes of a dirty greyish appearance, often
exhibiting a reddish tinge, and just soft enough to be indented by the
nail. It is subject to considerable adulteration, various materials,
such as coco-nut oil, being added by the Malays to improve its
appearance. The solid, which is fibrous in texture, hard and inelastic
but not brittle at ordinary temperature, becomes plastic when immersed
in hot water or if otherwise raised to a temperature of about 65
deg.-66 deg. C. in the case of gutta of the first quality, the
temperature of softening being dependent on the quality of the gutta
employed. In this condition it can be drawn out into threads, but is
still inelastic. On cooling again the gutta resumes its hardness
without becoming brittle. In this respect gutta percha differs from
india-rubber or caoutchouc, which does not become plastic and unlike
gutta percha is elastic. This property of softening on heating and
solidifying when cooled again, without change in its original
properties, enables gutta percha to be worked into various forms,
rolled into sheets or drawn into ropes. The specific gravity of the
best gutta percha lies between 0.96 and 1. Gutta percha is not
dissolved by most liquids, although some remove resinous constituents;
the best solvents are oil of turpentine, coal-tar oil, carbon
bisulphide and chloroform, and light petroleum when hot. Gutta percha
is not affected by alkaline solutions or by dilute acids. Strong
sulphuric acid chars it when warm, and nitric acid effects complete
oxidation.

When exposed to air and light, gutta percha rapidly deteriorates,
oxygen being absorbed, producing a brittle resinous material.

_Chemical Composition._--Chemically, gutta percha is not a single
substance but a mixture of several constituents. As the proportions of
these constituents in the crude material are not constant, the
properties of gutta percha are subject to variation. For electrical
purposes it should have a high insulating power and dielectric
strength and a low inductive capacity; the possession of these
properties is influenced by the resinous constituents present.

The principal constituent of the crude material is the pure gutta, a
hydrocarbon of the empirical formula C10H16. It is therefore isomeric
with the hydrocarbon of caoutchouc and with that of oil of turpentine.
Accompanying this are at least two oxygenated resinous
constituents--albane C10H16O and fluavil C20H32O--which can be
separated from the pure gutta by the use of solvents. Pure gutta is
not dissolved by ether and light petroleum in the cold, whereas the
resinous constituents are removed by these liquids. The true gutta
exhibits in an enhanced degree the valuable properties of gutta
percha, and the commercial value of the raw material is frequently
determined by ascertaining the proportion of true gutta present, the
higher the proportion of this the more valuable is the gutta percha.
The following are the results of analyses of gutta percha from trees
of the genus _Dichopsis_ or _Palaquium_:--

+--------------------------------------+-----------+----------+
| | Gutta | Resin |
| | per cent. | per cent.|
+--------------------------------------+-----------+----------+
|Dichopsis (or Palaquium) oblongifolia | 88.8 | 11.2 |
| " " " gutta | 82.0 | 18.0 |
| " " " polyantha | 49.3 | 50.7 |
| " " " pustulata | 47.8 | 52.2 |
| " " " Maingayi | 24.4 | 75.6 |
+--------------------------------------+-----------+----------+

The hydrocarbon of gutta percha, gutta, is closely related in chemical
constitution to caoutchouc. When distilled at a high temperature both
are resolved into a mixture of two simpler hydrocarbons, isoprene
(C5H8) and caoutchoucine or dipentene (C10H16), and the latter by
further heating can be resolved into isoprene, a hydrocarbon of known
constitution which has been produced synthetically and spontaneously
reverts to caoutchouc. The precise relationship of isoprene to gutta
has not been ascertained, but recently Harries has further elucidated
the connexion between gutta and caoutchouc by showing that under the
action of ozone both break up into laevulinic aldehyde and hydrogen
peroxide, but differ in the proportions of these products they
furnish. The two materials must therefore be regarded as very closely
related in chemical constitution. Like caoutchouc, gutta percha is
able to combine with sulphur, and this vulcanized product has found
some commercial applications.

_Manufacture of Gutta Percha._--Among the earliest patents taken out
for the manufacture of gutta percha were those of Charles Hancock, the
first of which is dated 1843.

Before being used for technical purposes the raw gutta percha is
cleaned by machinery whilst in the plastic state. The chopped or
sliced material is washed by mechanical means in hot water and forced
through a sieve or strainer of fine wire gauze to remove dirt. It is
then kneaded or "masticated" by machinery to remove the enclosed
water, and is finally transferred whilst still hot and plastic to the
rolling-machine, from which it emerges in sheets of different
thickness. Sometimes chemical treatment of the crude gutta percha is
resorted to for the purpose of removing the resinous constituents by
the action of alkaline solutions or of light petroleum.

_Substitutes for Gutta Percha._--For some purposes natural and
artificial substitutes for gutta percha have been employed. The
similar products furnished by other plants than those which yield
gutta percha are among the more important of the natural substitutes,
of which the material known as "balata" or "Surinam gutta percha," is
the most valuable. This is derived from a tree, _Mimusops balata_
(bullet tree), belonging to the same natural order as gutta percha
trees, viz. Sapotaceae. It is a large tree, growing to a height of 80
to 100 ft. or more, which occurs in the West Indies, in South America,
and is especially abundant in Dutch and British Guiana. The latex
which furnishes balata is secreted in the cortex between the bark and
wood of the tree. As the latex flows freely the trees are tapped by
making incisions in the same fashion as in india-rubber trees, and the
balata is obtained by evaporating the milky fluid. Crude balata varies
in composition. It usually contains nearly equal proportions of resin
and true gutta. The latter appears to be identical with the chief
constituent of gutta percha. The properties of balata correspond with
its composition, and it may therefore be classed as an inferior gutta
percha. Balata fetches from 1s. 6d. to 2s. 8d. per lb.

Among the inferior substitutes for gutta percha may be mentioned the
evaporated latices derived from _Butyrospermum Parkii_ (shea-butter
tree of West Africa or karite of the Sudan), _Calotropis gigantea_
(Madar tree of India), and _Dyera costulata_ of Malaya and Borneo,
which furnishes the material known as "Pontianac." All these contain a
small amount of gutta-like material associated with large quantities
of resinous and other constituents. They fetch only a few pence per
lb., and are utilized for waterproofing purposes.

Various artificial substitutes for gutta percha have been invented
chiefly for use as insulating materials. These often consist of
mixtures of bitumen with linseed and other oils, resins, &c., in some
cases incorporated with inferior grades of gutta percha.

For further information respecting gutta percha, and for figures of
the trees, the following works may be consulted: Jumelle, _Les Plantes
a caoutchouc et a gutta_ (Paris, Challamel, 1903); Obach, "Cantor
Lectures on Gutta Percha," _Journal of the Society of Arts_, 1898.
(W. R. D.)

GUTTER (O. Fr. _goutiere_, mod. _gouttiere_, from Lat. _gutta_, drop), in architecture, a horizontal channel or trough contrived to carry away the water from a flat or sloping roof to its discharge down a vertical pipe or through a spout or gargoyle; more specifically, but loosely, the similar channel at the side of a street, below the pavement. In Greek and Roman temples the cymatium of the cornice was the gutter, and the water was discharged through the mouths of lions, whose heads were carved on the same. Sometimes the cymatium was not carried along the flanks of a temple, in which case the rain fell off the lower edge of the roof tiles. In medieval work the gutter rested partly on the top of the wall and partly on corbel tables, and the water was discharged through gargoyles. Sometimes, however, a parapet or pierced balustrade was carried on the corbel table enclosing the gutter. In buildings of a more ordinary class the parapet is only a continuation of the wall below, and the gutter is set back and carried in a trough resting on the lower end of the roof timbers. The safest course is to have an eaves gutter which projects more or less in front of the wall and is secured to and carried by the rafters of the roof. In Renaissance architecture generally the pierced balustrade of the Gothic and transition work was replaced by a balustrade with vertical balusters. In France a compromise was effected, whereby instead of the horizontal coping of the ordinary balustrade a richly carved cresting was employed, of which the earliest example is in the first court of the Louvre by Pierre Lescot. This exists throughout the French Renaissance, and it is one of its chief characteristic features.

GUTZKOW, KARL FERDINAND (1811-1878), German novelist and dramatist, was born on the 17th of March 1811 at Berlin, where his father held a clerkship in the war office. After leaving school he studied theology and philosophy at the university of his native town, and while still a student, began his literary career by the publication in 1831 of a periodical entitled _Forum der Journalliteratur_. This brought him to the notice of Wolfgang Menzel, who invited him to Stuttgart to assist in the editorship of the _Literaturblatt_. At the same time he continued his university studies at Jena, Heidelberg and Munich. In 1832 he published anonymously at Hamburg _Briefe eines Narren an eine Narrin_, and in 1833 appeared at Stuttgart _Maha-Guru, Geschichte eines Gottes_, a fantastic and satirical romance. In 1835 he went to Frankfort, where he founded the _Deutsche Revue_. In the same year appeared _Wally, die Zweiflerin_, from the publication of which may be said to date the school of writers who, from their opposition to the literary, social and religious traditions of romanticism, received the name of "Young Germany." The work was directed specially against the institution of marriage and the belief in revelation; and whatever interest it might have attracted from its own merits was enhanced by the action of the German federal diet, which condemned Gutzkow to three months' imprisonment, decreed the suppression of all he had written or might yet write, and prohibited him from exercising the functions of editor within the German confederation. During his term of imprisonment at Mannheim, Gutzkow employed himself in the composition of his treatise _Zur Philosophie der Geschichte_ (1836). On obtaining his freedom he returned to Frankfort, whence he went in 1837 to Hamburg. Here he inaugurated a new epoch of his literary activity by bringing out his tragedy _Richard Savage_ (1839), which immediately made the round of all the German theatres. Of his numerous other plays the majority are now neglected; but a few have obtained an established place in the repertory of the German theatre--especially the comedies _Zopf und Schwert_ (1844), _Das Urbild des Tartuffe_ (1847), _Der Konigsleutnant_ (1849) and the blank verse tragedy, _Uriel Acosta_ (1847). In 1847 Gutzkow went to Dresden, where he succeeded Tieck as literary adviser to the court theatre. Meanwhile he had not neglected the novel. _Seraphine_ (1838) was followed by _Blasedow und seine Sohne_, a satire on the educational theories of the time. Between 1850 and 1852 appeared _Die Ritter vom Geiste_, which may be regarded as the starting-point for the modern German social novel. _Der Zauberer von Rom_ is a powerful study of Roman Catholic life in southern Germany. The success of _Die Ritter vom Geiste_ suggested to Gutzkow the establishment of a journal on the model of Dickens' _Household Words_, entitled _Unterhaltungen am hauslichen Herd_, which first appeared in 1852 and was continued till 1862. In 1864 he had an epileptic fit, and his productions show henceforth decided traces of failing powers. To this period belong the historical novels _Hohenschwangau_ (1868) and _Fritz Ellrodt_ (1872), _Lebensbilder_ (1870-1872), consisting of autobiographic sketches, and _Die Sohne Pestalozzis_ (1870), the plot of which is founded on the story of Kaspar Hauser. On account of a return of his nervous malady, Gutzkow in 1873 made a journey to Italy, and on his return took up his residence in the country near Heidelberg, whence he removed to Frankfort-on-Main, dying there on the 16th of December 1878. With the exception of one or two of his comedies, Gutzkow's writings have fallen into neglect. But he exerted a powerful influence on the opinions of modern Germany; and his works will always be of interest as the mirror in which the intellectual and social struggles of his time are best reflected.

An edition of Gutzkow's collected works appeared at Jena (1873-1876,
new ed., 1879). E. Wolff has published critical editions of Gutzkow's
_Meisterdramen_ (1892) and _Wally die Zweiflerin_ (1905). His more
important novels have been frequently reprinted. For Gutzkow's life
see his various autobiographical writings such as _Aus der Knabenzeit_
(1852), _Ruckblicke auf mein Leben_ (1876), &c. For an estimate of his
life and work see J. Proelss, _Das junge Deutschland_ (1892); also H.
H. Houben, _Studien uber die Dramen Gutzkows_ (1898) and
_Gutzkow-Funde_ (1901).

GUTZLAFF, KARL FRIEDRICH AUGUST (1803-1851), German missionary to China, was born at Pyritz in Pomerania on the 8th of July 1803. When still apprenticed to a saddler in Stettin, he made known his missionary inclinations to the king of Prussia, through whom he went to the Padagogium at Halle, and afterwards to the mission institute of Janike in Berlin. In 1826, under the auspices of the Netherlands Missionary Society, he went to Java, where he was able to learn Chinese. Leaving the society in 1828, he went to Singapore, and in August of the same year removed to Bangkok, where he translated the Bible into Siamese. In 1829 he married an English lady, who aided him in the preparation of a dictionary of Cochin Chinese, but she died in August 1831 before its completion. Shortly after her death he sailed to Macao in China, where, and subsequently at Hong Kong, he worked at a translation of the Bible into Chinese, published a Chinese monthly magazine, and wrote in Chinese various books on subjects of useful knowledge. In 1834 he published at London a _Journal of Three Voyages along the Coast of China in 1831, 1832 and 1833_. He was appointed in 1835 joint Chinese secretary to the English commission, and during the opium war of 1840-42 and the negotiations connected with the peace that followed he rendered valuable service by his knowledge of the country and people. The Chinese authorities refusing to permit foreigners to penetrate into the interior, Gutzlaff in 1844 founded an institute for training native missionaries, which was so successful that during the first four years as many as forty-eight Chinese were sent out from it to work among their fellow-countrymen. He died at Hong Kong on the 9th of August 1851.

Gutzlaff also wrote _A Sketch of Chinese History, Ancient and Modern_
(London, 1834), and a similar work published in German at Stuttgart in
1847; China Opened (1838); and the _Life of Taow-Kwang_ (1851; German
edition published at Leipzig in 1852). A complete collection of his
Chinese writings is contained in the library at Munich.

GUY OF WARWICK, English hero of romance. Guy, son of Siward or Seguard of Wallingford, by his prowess in foreign wars wins in marriage Felice (the Phyllis of the well-known ballad), daughter and heiress of Roalt, earl of Warwick. Soon after his marriage he is seized with remorse for the violence of his past life, and, by way of penance, leaves his wife and fortune to make a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. After years of absence he returns in time to deliver Winchester for King Aethelstan from the invading northern kings, Anelaph (Anlaf or Olaf) and Gonelaph, by slaying in single fight their champion the giant Colbrand. Local tradition fixes the duel at Hyde Mead near Winchester. Making his way to Warwick he becomes one of his wife's bedesmen, and presently retires to a hermitage in Arden, only revealing his identity at the approach of death. The versions of the Middle English romance of Guy which we possess are adaptations from the French, and are cast in the form of a _roman d'aventures_, opening with a long recital of Guy's wars in Lombardy, Germany and Constantinople, and embellished with fights with dragons and surprising feats of arms. The kernel of the tradition evidently lies in the fight with Colbrand, which represents, or at least is symbolic[1] of an historical fact. The religious side of the legend finds parallels in the stories of St Eustachius and St Alexius,[2] and makes it probable that the Guy-legend, as we have it, has passed through monastic hands. Tradition seems to be at fault in putting Guy's adventures under Aethelstan. The Anlaf of the story is probably Olaf Tryggvason, who, with Sweyn of Denmark, harried the southern counties of England in 993 and pitched his winter quarters in Southampton. Winchester was saved, however, not by the valour of an English champion, but by the payment of money. This Olaf was not unnaturally confused with Anlaf Cuaran or Havelok (i.e.).

The name Guy (perhaps a Norman form of A. S. _wig_ = war) may be fairly connected with the family of Wigod, lord of Wallingford under Edward the Confessor, and a Filicia, who belongs to the 12th century and was perhaps the Norman poet's patroness, occurs in the pedigree of the Ardens, descended from Thurkill of Warwick and his son Siward. Guy's Cliffe, near Warwick, where in the 14th century Richard de Beauchamp, earl of Warwick, erected a chantry, with a statue of the hero, does not correspond with the site of the hermitage as described in the romance. The bulk of the legend is obviously fiction, even though it may be vaguely connected with the family history of the Ardens and the Wallingford family, but it was accepted as authentic fact in the chronicle of Pierre de Langtoft (Peter of Langtoft) written at the end of the 13th century. The adventures of Reynbrun, son of Guy, and his tutor Heraud of Arden, who had also educated Guy, have much in common with his father's history, and form an interpolation sometimes treated as a separate romance. There is a certain connexion between Guy and Count Guido of Tours (fl. 800), and Alcuin's advice to the count is transferred to the English hero in the _Speculum Gy of Warewyke_ (_c_. 1327), edited for the Early English Text Society by G. L. Morrill, 1898.

The French romance (Brit. Mus. Harl. MS. 3775) has not been printed,
but is described by Emile Littre in _Hist. litt. de la France_ (xxii.,
841-851, 1852). A French prose version was printed in Paris, 1525, and
subsequently (see G. Brunet, _Manuel du libraire_, _s.v._ "Guy de
Warvich"); the English metrical romance exists in four versions,
dating from the early 14th century; the text was edited by J. Zupitza
(1875-1876) for the E.E.T.S. from Cambridge University Lib. Paper MS.
Ff. 2, 38, and again (3 pts. 1883-1891, extra series, Nos. 42, 49,
59), from the Auchinleck and Caius College MSS. The popularity of the
legend is shown by the numerous versions in English: _Guy of Warwick_,
translated from the Latin of Girardus Cornubiensis (fl. 1350) into
English verse by John Lydgate between 1442 and 1468; _Guy of Warwick_,
a poem (written in 1617 and licensed, but not printed) by John Lane,
the MS. of which (Brit. Mus.) contains a sonnet by John Milton, father
of the poet; _The Famous Historie of Guy, Earl of Warwick_ (c. 1607),
by Samuel Rowlands; _The Booke of the Moste Victoryous Prince Guy of
Warwicke_ (William Copland, no date); other editions by J. Cawood and
C. Bates; chapbooks and ballads of the 17th and 18th centuries: _The
Tragical History, Admirable Achievements and Curious Events of Guy,
Earl of Warwick_, a tragedy (1661) which may possibly be identical
with a play on the subject Written by John Day and Thomas Dekker, and
entered at Stationers' Hall on the 15th of January 1618/19; three
verse fragments are printed by Hales and Furnivall in their edition of
the Percy Folio MS. vol. ii.; an early French MS. is described by J.
A. Herbert (_An Early MS. of Gui de Warwick_, London, 1905).

See also M. Weyrauch _Die mittelengl. Fassungen der Sage von Guy_ (2
pts., Breslau, 1899 and 1901); J. Zupitza in _Silzungsber. d.
phil.-hist. Kl. d. kgl. Akad. d. Wiss._ (vol. lxxiv., Vienna, 1874),
and _Zur Literaturgeschichte des Guy von Warwick_ (Vienna, 1873); a
learned discussion of the whole subject by H. L. Ward, _Catalogue of
Romances_ (i. 471-501, 1883); and an article by S. L. Lee in the
_Dictionary of National Biography_.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Some writers have supposed that the fight with Colbrand
symbolizes the victory of Brunanburh. Anelaph and Gonelaph would then
represent the cousins Anlaf Sihtricson and Anlaf Godfreyson (see
HAVELOK).

[2] See the English legends in C. Horstmann, _Altenglische Legenden_,
Neue Folge (Heilbronn, 1881).

GUY, THOMAS (1644-1724), founder of Guy's Hospital, London, was the son of a lighterman and coal-dealer at Southwark. After serving an apprenticeship of eight years with a bookseller, he in 1668 began business on his own account. He dealt largely in Bibles, which had for many years been poorly and incorrectly printed in England. These he at first imported from Holland, but subsequently obtained from the university of Oxford the privilege of printing. Thus, and by an extremely thrifty mode of life, and more particularly by investment in government securities, the subscription of these into the South Sea Company, and the subsequent sale of his stock in 1720, he became master of an immense fortune. He died unmarried on the 17th of December 1724. In 1707 he built three wards of St Thomas's Hospital, which institution he otherwise subsequently benefited; and at a cost of L18,793, 16s. he erected Guy's Hospital, leaving for its endowment L219,499; he also endowed Christ's Hospital with L400 a year, and in 1678 endowed almshouses at Tamworth, his mother's birthplace, which was represented by him in parliament from 1695 to 1707. The residue of his estate, which went to distant relatives, amounted to about L80,000.

See _A True Copy of the Last Will and Testament of Thomas Guy, Esq._
(London, 1725); J. Noorthouck, _A New Hist. of London_, bk. iii. ch.
i. p. 684 (1773); Nichols, _Literary Anecdotes_, iii. 599 (1812);
Charles Knight, _Shadows of the Old Booksellers_, pp. 3-23 (1865); and
_A Biographical History of Guy's Hospital_, by S. Wilkes and G. T.
Bettany (1892).

GUYON, JEANNE MARIE BOUVIER DE LA MOTHE (1648-1717), French quietist writer, was born at Montargis, where her family were persons of consequence, on the 13th of April 1648. If her somewhat hysterical autobiography may be trusted she was much neglected in her youth; most of her time was spent as a boarder in various convent schools. Here she went through all the religious experiences common to neurotic young women; these were turned in a definitely mystical direction by the duchesse de Bethune, daughter of the disgraced minister, Fouquet, who spent some years at Montargis after her father's fall. In 1664 Jeanne Marie was married to a rich invalid of the name of Guyon, many years her senior. Twelve years later he died, leaving his widow with three small children and a considerable fortune. All through her unhappy married life the mystical attraction had grown steadily in violence; it now attached itself to a certain Father Lacombe, a Barnabite monk of weak character and unstable intellect. In 1681 she left her family and joined him; for five years the two rambled about together in Savoy and the south-east of France, spreading their mystical ideas. At last they excited the suspicion of the authorities; in 1686 Lacombe was recalled to Paris, put under surveillance, and finally sent to the Bastille in the autumn of 1687. He was presently transferred to the castle of Lourdes, where he developed softening of the brain and died in 1715. Meanwhile Madame Guyon had been arrested in January 1688, and been shut up in a convent as a suspected heretic. Thence she was delivered in the following year by her old friend, the duchesse de Bethune, who had returned from exile to become a power in the devout court-circle presided over by Madame de Maintenon. Before long Madame Guyon herself was introduced into this pious assemblage. Its members were far from critical; they were intensely interested in religion; and even Madame Guyon's bitterest critics bear witness to her charm of manner, her imposing appearance, and the force and eloquence with which she explained her mystical ideas. So much was Madame de Maintenon impressed, that she often invited Madame Guyon to give lectures at her girls' school of St Cyr. But by far the greatest of her conquests was Fenelon, now a rising young director of consciences, much in favour with aristocratic ladies. Dissatisfied with the formalism of average Catholic piety, he was already thinking out a mystical theory of his own; and between 1689 and 1693 they corresponded regularly. But as soon as ugly reports about Lacombe began to spread, he broke off all connexion with her. Meanwhile the reports had reached the prudent ears of Madame de Maintenon. In May 1693 she asked Madame Guyon to go no more to St Cyr. In the hope of clearing her orthodoxy, Madame Guyon appealed to Bossuet, who decided that her books contained "much that was intolerable, alike in form and matter." To this judgment Madame Guyon submitted, promised to "dogmatize no more," and disappeared into the country (1693). In the next year she again petitioned for an inquiry, and was eventually sent, half as a prisoner, half as a penitent, to Bossuet's cathedral town of Meaux. Here she spent the first half of 1695; but in the summer she escaped without his leave, bearing with her a certificate of orthodoxy signed by him. Bossuet regarded this flight as a gross act of disobedience; in the winter Madame Guyon was arrested and shut up in the Bastille. There she remained till 1703. In that year she was liberated, on condition she went to live on her son's estate near Blois, under the eye of a stern bishop. Here the rest of her life was spent in charitable and pious exercises; she died on the 9th of June 1717. During these latter years her retreat at Blois became a regular place of pilgrimage for admirers, foreign quite as often as French. Indeed, she is one of the many prophetesses whose fame has stood highest out of their own country. French critics of all schools of thought have generally reckoned her an hysterical degenerate; in England and Germany she has as often roused enthusiastic admiration.

AUTHORITIES.--_Vie de Madame Guyon, ecrite par elle-meme_ (really a
compilation made from various fragments) (3 vols., Paris, 1791). There
is a life in English by T. C. Upham (New York, 1854); and an elaborate
study by L. Guerrier (Paris, 1881). For a remarkable review of this
latter work see Brunetiere, _Nouvelles Etudes critiques_, vol. ii. The
complete edition of Madame Guyon's works, including the autobiography
and five volumes of letters, runs to forty volumes (1767-1791); the
most important works are published separately, _Opuscules spirituels_
(2 vols., Paris, 1790). They have been several times translated into
English. See also the literature of the article on QUIETISM; and H.
Delacroix, _Etudes sur le mysticisme_ (Paris, 1908). (St C.)

GUYON, RICHARD DEBAUFRE (1803-1856), British soldier, general in the Hungarian revolutionary army and Turkish pasha, was born at Walcot, near Bath, in 1803. After receiving a military education in England and in Austria he entered the Hungarian hussars in 1823, in which he served until after his marriage with a daughter of Baron Spleny, a general officer in the imperial service. At the outbreak of the Hungarian War in 1848, he re-entered active service as an officer of the Hungarian Honveds, and he won great distinction in the action of Sukoro (September 29, 1848) and the battle of Schwechat (October 30). He added to his reputation as a leader in various actions in the winter of 1848-1849, and after the battle of Kapolna was made a general officer. He served in important and sometimes independent commands to the end of the war, after which he escaped to Turkey. In 1852 he entered the service of the sultan. He was made a pasha and lieutenant-general without being required to change his faith, and rendered distinguished service in the campaign against the Russians in Asia Minor (1854-55). General Guyon died of cholera at Scutari on the 12th of October 1856.

See A. W. Kinglake, _The Patriot and the Hero General Guyon_ (1856).

GUYOT, ARNOLD HENRY (1807-1884), Swiss-American geologist and geographer, was born at Boudevilliers, near Neuchatel, Switzerland, on the 28th of September 1807. He studied at the college of Neuchatel and in Germany, where he began a lifelong friendship with Louis Agassiz. He was professor of history and physical geography at the short-lived Neuchatel "Academy" from 1839 to 1848, when he removed, at Agassiz's instance, to the United States, settling in Cambridge, Massachusetts. For several years he was a lecturer for the Massachusetts State Board of Education, and he was professor of geology and physical geography at Princeton from 1854 until his death there on the 8th of February 1884. He ranked high as a geologist and meteorologist. As early as 1838, he undertook, at Agassiz's suggestion, the study of glaciers, and was the first to announce, in a paper submitted to the Geological Society of France, certain important observations relating to glacial motion and structure. Among other things he noted the more rapid flow of the centre than of the sides, and the more rapid flow of the top than of the bottom of glaciers; described the laminated or "ribboned" structure of the glacial ice, and ascribed the movement of glaciers to a gradual molecular displacement rather than to a sliding of the ice mass as held by de Saussure. He subsequently collected important data concerning erratic boulders. His extensive meteorological observations in America led to the establishment of the United States Weather Bureau, and his _Meteorological and Physical Tables_ (1852, revised ed. 1884) were long standard. His graded series of text-books and wall-maps were important aids in the extension and popularization of geological study in America. In addition to text-books, his principal publications were: _Earth and Man, Lectures on Comparative Physical Geography in its Relation to the History of Mankind_ (translated by Professor C. C. Felton, 1849); _A Memoir of Louis Agassiz_ (1883); and _Creation, or the Biblical Cosmogony in the Light of Modern Science_ (1884).

See James D. Dana's "Memoir" in the _Biographical Memoirs of the
National Academy of Science_, vol. ii. (Washington, 1886).

GUYOT, YVES (1843- ), French politician and economist, was born at Dinan on the 6th of September 1843. Educated at Rennes, he took up the profession of journalism, coming to Paris in 1867. He was for a short period editor-in-chief of _L'Independant du midi_ of Nimes, but joined the staff of _La Rappel_ on its foundation, and worked subsequently on other journals. He took an active part in municipal life, and waged a keen campaign against the prefecture of police, for which he suffered six months' imprisonment. He entered the chamber of deputies in 1885 as representative of the first arrondissement of Paris and was _rapporteur general_ of the budget of 1888. He became minister of public works under the premiership of P. E. Tirard in 1889, retaining his portfolio in the cabinet of C. L. de Freycinet until 1892. Although of strong liberal views, he lost his seat in the election of 1893 owing to his militant attitude against socialism. An uncompromising free-trader, he published _La Comedie protectionniste_ (1905; Eng. trans. _The Comedy of Protection_); _La Science economique_ (1st ed. 1881; 3rd ed. 1907); _La Prostitution_ (1882); _La Tyrannie socialiste_ (1893), all three translated into English; _Les Conflits du travail et leur solution_ (1903); _La Democratie individualiste_ (1907).

GUYTON DE MORVEAU, LOUIS BERNARD, BARON (1737-1816), French chemist, was born on the 4th of January 1737, at Dijon, where his father was professor of civil law at the university. As a boy he showed remarkable aptitude for practical mechanics, but on leaving school he studied law in the university of Dijon, and in his twenty-fourth year became advocate-general in the parlement of Dijon. This office he held till 1782. Devoting his leisure to the study of chemistry, he published in 1772 his _Digressions academiques_, in which he set forth his views on phlogiston, crystallization, &c., and two years later he established in his native town courses of lectures on materia medica, mineralogy and chemistry. An essay on chemical nomenclature, which he published in the _Journal de physique_ for May 1782, was ultimately developed with the aid of A. L. Lavoisier, C. L. Berthollet and A. F. Fourcroy, into the _Methode d'une nomenclature chimique_, published in 1787, the principles of which were speedily adopted by chemists throughout Europe. Constantly in communication with the leaders of the Lavoisierian school, he soon became a convert to the anti-phlogistic doctrine; and he published his reasons in the first volume of the section "Chymie, Pharmacie et Metallurgie" of the _Encyclopedie methodique_ (1786), the chemical articles in which were written by him, as well as some of those in the second volume (1792). In 1794 he was appointed to superintend the construction of balloons for military purposes, being known as the author of some aeronautical experiments carried out at Dijon some ten years previously. In 1791 he became a member of the Legislative Assembly, and in the following year of the National Convention, to which he was re-elected in 1795, but he retired from political life in 1797. In 1798 he acted as provisional director of the Polytechnic School, in the foundation of which he took an active part, and from 1800 to 1814 he held the appointment of master of the mint. In 1811 he was made a baron of the French Empire. He died in Paris on the 2nd of January 1816.

Besides being a diligent contributor to the scientific periodicals of
the day, Guyton wrote _Memoire sur l'education publique_ (1762); a
satirical poem entitled _Le Rat iconoclaste, ou le Jesuite croque_
(1763); _Discours publics et eloges_ (1775-1782); _Plaidoyers sur
plusieurs questions de droit_ (1785); and _Traite des moyens de
desinfecter l'air_ (1801), describing the disinfecting powers of
chlorine, and of hydrochloric acid gas which he had successfully used
at Dijon in 1773. With Hugues Maret (1726-1785) and Jean Francois
Durande (d. 1794) he also published the _Elemens de chymie theorique
et pratique_ (1776-1777).

GUZMICS, IZIDOR (1786-1839). Hungarian theologian, was born on the 7th of April 1786 at Vamos-Csalad, in the county of Sopron. At Sopron (Oedenburg) he was instructed in the art of poetry by Paul Horvath. In October 1805 he entered the Benedictine order, but left it in August of the following year, only again to assume the monastic garb on the 10th of November 1806. At the monastery of Pannonhegy he applied himself to the study of Greek under Farkas Toth and in 1812 he was sent to Pesth to study theology. Here he read the best German and Hungarian authors, and took part in the editorship of the _Nemzeti_ (National) _Plutarkus_, and in the translation of Johann Hubner's _Lexicon_. On obtaining the degree of doctor of divinity in 1816, he returned to Pannonhegy, where he devoted himself to dogmatic theology and literature, and contributed largely to Hungarian periodicals. The most important of his theological works are: _A kath. anyaszentegyhaznak hitbeli tanitasa_ (The Doctrinal Teaching of the Holy Catholic Church), and _A keresztenyeknek vallasbeli egyesulesokrol_ (On Religious Unity among Christians), both published at Pesth in 1822; also a Latin treatise entitled _Theologia Christiana fundamentalis et theologia dogmatica_ (4 vols., Gyor, 1828-1829). His translation of Theocritus in hexameters was published in 1824. His versions of the _Oedipus_ of Sophocles and of the _Iphigenia_ of Euripides were rewarded by the Hungarian Academy, of which in 1838 he was elected honorary member. In 1832 he was appointed abbot of the wealthy Benedictine house at Bakonybel, a village in the county of Veszprem. There he built an asylum for 150 children, and founded a school of harmony and singing. He died on the 1st of September 1839.

GWADAR, a port on the Makran coast of Baluchistan, about 290 m. W. of Karachi. Pop. (1903), 4350. In the last half of the 18th century it was handed over by the khan of Kalat to the sultan of Muscat, who still exercises sovereignty over the port, together with about 300 sq. m. of the adjoining country. It is a place of call for the steamers of the British India Navigation Company.

GWALIOR, a native state of India, in the Central India agency, by far the largest of the numerous principalities comprised in that area. It is the dominion of the Sindhia family. The state consists of two well-defined parts which may roughly be called the northern and the southern. The former is a compact mass of territory, bounded N. and N.W. by the Chambal river, which separates it from the British districts of Agra and Etawah, and the native states of Dholpur, Karauli and Jaipur of Rajputana; E. by the British districts of Jalaun, Jhansi, Lalitpur and Saugor; S. by the states of Bhopal, Tonk, Khilchipur and Rajgarh; and W. by those of Jhalawar, Tonk and Kotah of Rajputana. The southern, or Malwa, portion is made up of detached or semi-detached districts, between which are interposed parts of other states, which again are mixed up with each other in bewildering intricacy. The two portions together have a total area of 25,041 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 2,933,001, showing a decrease of 13% in the decade.

The state may be naturally divided into plain, plateau and hilly country. The plain country extends from the Chambal river in the extreme southwards for about 80 m., with a maximum width from east to west of about 120 m. This plain, though broken in its southern portion by low hills, has generally an elevation of only a few hundred feet above sea-level. In the summer season the climate is very hot, the shade temperature rising frequently to 112 deg. F., but in the winter months (from November to February inclusive) it is usually temperate and for short periods extremely cold. The average rainfall is 30 in., but the period 1891-1901 was a decade of low rainfall, and distress was caused by famine. South of this tract there is a gradual ascent to the Central India plateau, and at Sipri the general level is 1500 ft. above the sea. On this plateau lies the remainder of the state, with the exception of the small district of Amjhera in the extreme south. The elevation of this region gives it a moderate climate during the summer as compared with the plain country, while the winter is warmer and more equable. The average rainfall is 28 in. The remaining portion of the state, classed as hilly, comprises only the small district of Amjhera. This is known as the Bhil country, and lies among the Vindhya mountains with a mean elevation of about 1800 ft. The rainfall averages 23 in. In the two years 1899 and 1900 the monsoon was very weak, the result being a severe famine which caused great mortality among the Bhil population. Of these three natural divisions the plateau possesses the most fertile soil, generally of the kind known as "black cotton," but the low-lying plain has the densest population. The state is watered by numerous rivers. The Nerbudda, flowing west, forms the southern boundary. The greater part of the drainage is discharged into the Chambal, which forms the north-western and northern and eastern boundary. The Sind, with its tributaries the Kuwari, Asar and Sankh, flows through the northern division. The chief products are wheat, millets, pulses of various kinds, maize, rice, linseed and other oil-seeds; poppy, yielding the Malwa opium; sugar-cane, cotton, tobacco, indigo, garlic, turmeric and ginger. About 60% of the population are employed in agricultural and only 15% in industrial occupations, the great majority of the latter being home workers. There is a leather-factory at Morar; cotton-presses at Morena, Baghana and Ujjain; ginning factories at Agar, Nalkhera, Shajapur and Sonkach; and a cotton-mill at Ujjain. The cotton industry alone shows possibilities of considerable development, there being 55,000 persons engaged in it at the time of the census of 1901.

The population is composed of many elements, among which Brahmans and Rajputs are specially numerous. The prevailing religion is Hinduism, 84% of the people being Hindus and only 6% Mahommedans. The revenue of the state is about one million sterling; and large reserves have been accumulated, from which two millions were lent to the government of India in 1887, and later on another million for the construction of the Gwalior-Agra and Indore-Neemuch railways. The railways undertaken by the state are: (1) from Bina on the Indian Midland to Goona; (2) an extension of this line to Baran, opened in 1899; (3) from Bhopal to Ujjain; (4) two light railways, from Gwalior to Sipri and Gwalior to Bhind, which were opened by the viceroy in November 1899. On the same occasion the viceroy opened the Victoria College, founded to commemorate the Diamond Jubilee; and the Memorial Hospital, built in memory of the maharaja's father. British currency has been introduced instead of Chandori rupees, which were much depreciated. The state maintains three regiments of Imperial Service cavalry, two battalions of infantry and a transport corps.

_History._--The Sindhia family, the rulers of the Gwalior state, belong to the Mahratta nation and originally came from the neighbourhood of Poona. Their first appearance in Central India was early in the 18th century in the person of Ranoji (d. 1745), a scion of an impoverished branch of the family, who began his career as the peshwa's slipper-carrier and rose by his military abilities to be commander of his bodyguard. In 1726, together with Malhar Rao Holkar, the founder of the house of Indore, he was authorized by the peshwa to collect tribute (_chauth_) in the Malwa districts. He established his headquarters at Ujjain, which thus became the first capital of Sindhia's dominions.

Ranoji's son and successor, Jayapa Sindhia, was killed at Nagaur in 1759, and was in his turn succeeded by his son Jankoji Sindhia. But the real founder of the state of Gwalior was Mahadji Sindhia, a natural son of Ranoji, who, after narrowly escaping with his life from the terrible slaughter of Panipat in 1761 (when Jankoji was killed), obtained with some difficulty from the peshwa a re-grant of his father's possessions in Central India (1769). During the struggle which followed the death of Madhu Rao Peshwa in 1772 Mahadji seized every occasion for extending his power and possessions. In 1775, however, when Raghuba Peshwa threw himself on the protection of the British, the reverses which Mahadji encountered at their hands--Gwalior being taken by Major Popham in 1780--opened his eyes to their power. By the treaty of Salbai (1782) it was agreed that Mahadji should withdraw to Ujjain, and the British retire north of the Jumna. Mahadji, who undertook to open negotiations with the other belligerents, was recognized as an independent ruler, and a British resident was established at his court. Mahadji, aided by the British policy of neutrality, now set to work to establish his supremacy over Hindustan proper. Realizing the superiority of European methods of warfare, he availed himself of the services of a Savoyard soldier of fortune, Benoit de Boigne, whose genius for military organization and command in the field was mainly instrumental in establishing the Mahratta power. Mahadji's disciplined troops made him invincible. In 1785 he re-established Shah Alam on the imperial throne at Delhi, and as his reward obtained for the peshwa the title of _vakil-ul-mutlak_ or vicegerent of the empire, contenting himself with that of his deputy. In 1788 he took advantage of the cruelties practised by Ghulam Kadir on Shah Alam, to occupy Delhi, where he established himself as the protector of the aged emperor. Though nominally a deputy of the peshwa he was now ruler of a vast territory, including the greater part of Central India and Hindustan proper, while his lieutenants exacted tribute from the chiefs of Rajputana. There can be no doubt that he looked with apprehension on the growing power of the British; but he wisely avoided any serious collision with them.

Mahadji died in 1794, and was succeeded by his adopted son, Daulat Rao Sindhia, a grandson of his brother Tukoji. When, during the period of unrest that followed the deaths of the peshwa, Madhu Rao II., in 1795 and of Tukoji Holkar in 1797, the Mahratta leaders fought over the question of supremacy, the peshwa, Baji Rao II., the titular head of the Mahratta confederation, fled from his capital and placed himself under British protection by the treaty of Bassein (December 31, 1802). This interposition of the British government was resented by the confederacy, and it brought on the Mahratta War of 1803. In the campaign that followed a combined Mahratta army, in which Daulat Rao's troops furnished the largest contingent, was defeated by General Arthur Wellesley at Assaye and Argaum in Central India; and Lord Lake routed Daulat Rao's European-trained battalions in Northern India at Agra, Aligarh and Laswari. Daulat Rao was then compelled to sign the treaty of Sarji Anjangaon (December 30, 1803), which stripped him of his territories between the Jumna and Ganges, the district of Broach in Gujarat and other lands in the south. By the same treaty he was deprived of the forts of Gwalior and Gohad; but these were restored by Lord Cornwallis in 1805, when the Chambal river was made the northern boundary of the state. By a treaty signed at Burhanpur in 1803 Daulat Rao further agreed to maintain a subsidiary force, to be paid out of the revenues of the territories ceded under the treaty of Sarji Anjangaon. When, however, in 1816 he was called upon to assist in the suppression of the Pindaris, though by the treaty of Gwalior (1817) he promised his co-operation, his conduct was so equivocal that in 1818 he was forced to sign a fresh treaty by which he ceded Ajmere and other lands.

Daulat Rao died without issue in 1827, and his widow, Baiza Bai (d. 1862), adopted Mukut Rao, a boy of eleven belonging to a distant branch of the family, who succeeded as Jankoji Rao Sindhia. His rule was weak; the state was distracted by interminable palace intrigues and military mutinies, and affairs went from bad to worse when, in 1843, Jankoji Rao, who left no heir, was succeeded by another boy, adopted by his widow, Tara Bai, under the name of Jayaji Rao Sindhia. The growth of turbulence and misrule now induced Lord Ellenborough to interpose, and a British force under Sir Hugh Gough advanced upon Gwalior (December 1843). The Mahratta troops were defeated simultaneously at Maharajpur and Punniar (December 29), with the result that the Gwalior government signed a treaty ceding territory with revenue sufficient for the maintenance of a contingent force to be stationed at the capital, and limiting the future strength of the Gwalior army, while a council of regency was appointed during the minority to act under the resident's advice. In 1857 the Gwalior contingent joined the mutineers; but the maharaja himself remained loyal to the British, and fled from his capital until the place was retaken and his authority restored by Sir Hugh Rose (Lord Strathnairn) on the 19th of June 1858. He was rewarded with the districts of Neemuch and Amjhera, but Gwalior fort was occupied by British troops and was only restored to his son in 1886 by Lord Dufferin. Jayaji Rao, who died in 1886, did much for the development of his state. He was created a G.C.S.I in 1861, and subsequently became a counsellor of the empress, a G.C.B. and C.I.E.

His son, the maharaja, Madhava Rao Sindhia, G.C.S.I., was born in 1877. During his minority the state was administered for eight years by a council of regency. He was entrusted with ruling powers in 1894, and in all respects continued the reforming policy of the council, while paying personal attention to every department, being a keen soldier, an energetic administrator, and fully alive to the responsibilities attaching to his position. He was created an honorary aide-de-camp to the king-emperor and an honorary colonel in the British army. He went to China as orderly officer to General Gaselee in 1901, and provided the expedition with a hospital ship at his own expense, while his Imperial Service Transport Corps proved a useful auxiliary to the British army in the Chitral and Tirah expeditions.

The CITY OF GWALIOR is 76 m. by rail S. of Agra, and had a population in 1901 of 119,433. This total includes the new town of Lashkar or "the Camp" which is the modern capital of the state and old Gwalior. The old town has a threefold interest: first as a very ancient seat of Jain worship; secondly for its example of palace architecture of the best Hindu period (1486-1516); and thirdly as an historic fortress. There are several remarkable Hindu temples within the fort. One, known as the _Sas Bahu_, is beautifully adorned with bas-reliefs. It was finished in A.D. 1093, and, though much dilapidated, still forms a most picturesque fragment. An older Jain temple has been used as a mosque. Another temple in the fortress of Gwalior is called the _Teli-Mandir_, or "Oilman's Temple." This building was originally dedicated to Vishnu, but afterwards converted to the worship of Siva. The most striking part of the Jain remains at Gwalior is a series of caves or rock-cut sculptures, excavated in the rock on all sides, and numbering nearly a hundred, great and small. Most of them are mere niches to contain statues, though some are cells that may have been originally intended for residences. One curious fact regarding them is that, according to inscriptions, they were all excavated within the short period of about thirty-three years, between 1441 and 1474. Some of the figures are of colossal size; one, for instance, is 57 ft. high, which is taller than any other in northern India.