Chapter D: SOUTH CAPPADOCIA.--Karaburna; long, incised rock-inscription (5)

HOE (through Fr. _houe_ from O.H.G. _houwa_, mod. Ger. _Haue_; the root is seen in "hew," to cut, cleave; the word must be distinguished from "hoe," promontory, tongue of land, seen in place names, e.g. Morthoe, Luton Hoo, the Hoe at Plymouth, &c.; this is the same as Northern English "heugh" and is connected with "hang"), an agricultural and gardening implement used for extirpating weeds, for stirring the surface-soil in order to break the capillary channels and so prevent the evaporation of moisture, for singling out turnips and other root-crops and similar purposes. Among common forms of hoe are the ordinary garden-hoe (numbered _1_ in fig. 1), which consists of a flat blade set transversely in a long wooden handle; the Dutch or thrust-hoe (_2_), which has the blade set into the handle after the fashion of a spade; and the swan-neck hoe (_3_), the best manual hoe for agricultural purposes, which has a long curved neck to attach the blade to the handle; the soil falls back over this, blocking is thus avoided and a longer stroke obtained. Several types of horse-drawn hoe capable of working one or more rows at a time are used among root and grain crops. The illustrations show two forms of the implement, the blades of which differ in shape from those of the garden-hoe. Fig. 2 is in ordinary use for hoeing between two lines of beans or turnips or other "roots." Fig. 3 is adapted for the narrow rows of grain crops and is also convertible into a root-hoe. In the lever-hoe, which is largely used in grain crops, the blades may be raised and lowered by means of a lever. The horse-drawn hoe is steered by means of handles in the rear, but its successful working depends on accurate drilling of the seed, because unless the rows are parallel the roots of the plants are liable to be cut and the foliage injured. Thus Jethro Tull (17th century), with whose name the beginning of the practice of horse-hoeing is principally connected, used the drill which he invented as an essential adjunct in the so-called "Horse-hoeing Husbandry" (see AGRICULTURE).

HOEFNAGEL, JORIS (1545-1601), Dutch painter and engraver, the son of a diamond merchant, was born at Antwerp. He travelled abroad, making drawings from archaeological subjects, and was a pupil of Jan Bol at Mechlin. He was afterwards patronized by the elector of Bavaria at Munich, where he stayed eight years, and by the Emperor Rudolph at Prague. He died at Vienna in 1601. He is famous for his miniature work, especially on a missal in the imperial library at Vienna; he painted animals and plants to illustrate works on natural history; and his engravings (especially for Braun's _Civitates orbis terrarum_, 1572, and Ortelius's _Theatrum orbis terrarum_, 1570) give him an interesting place among early topographical draughtsmen.

HOF, a town of Germany, in the Bavarian province of Upper Franconia, beautifully situated on the Saale, on the north-eastern spurs of the Fichtelgebirge, 103 m. S.W. of Leipzig on the main line of railway to Regensburg and Munich. Pop. (1885) 22,257; (1905) 36,348. It has one Roman Catholic and three Protestant churches (among the latter that of St Michael, which was restored in 1884), a town hall of 1563, a gymnasium with an extensive library, a commercial school and a hospital founded in 1262. It is the seat of various flourishing industries, notably woollen, cotton and jute spinning, jute weaving, and the manufacture of cotton and half-woollen fabrics. It has also dye-works, flour-mills, saw-mills, breweries, iron-works, and manufactures of machinery, iron and tin wares, chemicals and sugar. In the neighbourhood there are large marble quarries and extensive iron mines. Hof, originally called Regnitzhof, was built about 1080. It was held for some time by the dukes of Meran, and was sold in 1373 to the burgraves of Nuremberg. The cloth manufacture introduced into it in the 15th century, and the manufacture of veils begun in the 16th century, greatly promoted its prosperity, but it suffered severely in the Albertine and Hussite wars as well as in the Thirty Years' War. In 1792 it came into the possession of Prussia; in 1806 it fell to France; and in 1810 it was incorporated with Bavaria. In 1823 the greater part of the town was destroyed by fire.

See Ernst, _Geschichte und Beschreibung des Bezirks und der Stadt Hof_
(1866); Tillmann, _Die Stadt Hof und ihre Umgebung_ (Hof, 1899), and
C. Meyer, _Quellen zur Geschichte der Stadt Hof_ (1894-1896).

HOFER, ANDREAS (1767-1810), Tirolese patriot, was born on the 22nd of November 1767 at St Leonhard, in the Passeier valley. There his father kept an inn known as "am Sand," which Hofer inherited, and on that account he was popularly known as the "Sandwirth." In addition to this he carried on a trade in wine and horses with the north of Italy, acquiring a high reputation for intelligence and honesty. In the wars against the French from 1796 to 1805 he took part, first as a sharp-shooter and afterwards as a captain of militia. By the treaty of Pressburg (1805) Tirol was transferred from Austria to Bavaria, and Hofer, who was almost fanatically devoted to the Austrian house, became conspicuous as a leader of the agitation against Bavarian rule. In 1808 he formed one of a deputation who went to Vienna, at the invitation of the archduke John, to concert a rising; and when in April 1809 the Tirolese rose in arms, Hofer was chosen commander of the contingent from his native valley, and inflicted an overwhelming defeat on the Bavarians at Sterzing (April 11). This victory, which resulted in the temporary reoccupation of Innsbruck by the Austrians, made Hofer the most conspicuous of the insurgent leaders. The rapid advance of Napoleon, indeed, and the defeat of the main Austrian army under the archduke Charles, once more exposed Tirol to the French and Bavarians, who reoccupied Innsbruck. The withdrawal of the bulk of the troops, however, gave the Tirolese their chance again; after two battles fought on the Iselberg (May 25 and 29) the Bavarians were again forced to evacuate the country, and Hofer entered Innsbruck in triumph. An autograph letter of the emperor Francis (May 29) assured him that no peace would be concluded by which Tirol would again be separated from the Austrian monarchy, and Hofer, believing his work accomplished, returned to his home. Then came the news of the armistice of Znaim (July 12), by which Tirol and Vorarlberg were surrendered by Austria unconditionally and given up to the vengeance of the French. The country was now again invaded by 40,000 French and Bavarian troops, and Innsbruck fell; but the Tirolese once more organized resistance to the French "atheists and freemasons," and, after a temporary hesitation, Hofer--on whose head a price had been placed--threw himself into the movement. On the 13th of August, in another battle on the Iselberg, the French under Marshal Lefebvre were routed by the Tirolese peasants, and Hofer once more entered Innsbruck, which he had some difficulty in saving from sack. Hofer was now elected _Oberkommandant_ of Tirol, took up his quarters in the Hofburg at Innsbruck, and for two months ruled the country in the emperor's name. He preserved the habits of a simple peasant, and his administration was characterized in part by the peasant's shrewd common sense, but yet more by a pious solicitude for the minutest details of faith and morals. On the 29th of September Hofer received from the emperor a chain and medal of honour, which encouraged him in the belief that Austria did not intend again to desert him; the news of the conclusion of the treaty of Schonbrunn (October 14), by which Tirol was again ceded to Bavaria, came upon him as an overwhelming surprise. The French in overpowering force at once pushed into the country, and, an amnesty having been stipulated in the treaty, Hofer and his companions, after some hesitation, gave in their submission. On the 12th of November, however, urged on by the hotter heads among the peasant leaders and deceived by false reports of Austrian victories, Hofer again issued a proclamation calling the mountaineers to arms. The summons met with little response; the enemy advanced in irresistible force, and Hofer, a price once more set on his head, had to take refuge in the mountains. His hiding-place was betrayed by one of his neighbours, named Josef Raffl, and on the 27th of January 1810 he was captured by Italian troops and sent in chains to Mantua. There he was tried by court-martial, and on the 20th of February was shot, twenty-four hours after his condemnation. This crime, which was believed to be due to Napoleon's direct orders, caused an immense sensation throughout Germany and did much to inflame popular sentiment against the French. At the court of Austria, too, which was accused of having cynically sacrificed the hero, it produced a painful impression, and Metternich, when he visited Paris on the occasion of the marriage of the archduchess Marie Louise to Napoleon, was charged to remonstrate with the emperor. Napoleon expressed his regret, stating that the execution had been carried out against his wishes, having been hurried on by the zeal of his generals. In 1823 Hofer's remains were removed from Mantua to Innsbruck, where they were interred in the Franciscan church, and in 1834 a marble statue was erected over his tomb. In 1893 a bronze statue of him was also set up on the Iselberg. At Meran his patriotic deeds of heroism are the subject of a festival play celebrated annually in the open air. In 1818 the patent of nobility bestowed upon him by the Austrian emperor in 1809 was conferred upon his family.

See _Leben und Thaten des ehemaligen Tyroler Insurgenten-Chefs Andr.
Hofer_ (Berlin, 1810); _Andr. Hofer und die Tyroler Insurrection im
Jahre 1809_ (Munich, 1811); Hormayr, _Geschichte Andr. Hofer's
Sandwirths auf Passeyr_ (Leipzig, 1845); B. Weber, _Das Thal Passeyr
und seine Bewohner mit besonderer Rucksicht auf Andreas Hofer und das
Jahr 1809_ (Innsbruck, 1851); Rapp, _Tirol im Jahr 1809_ (Innsbruck,
1852); Weidinger, _Andreas Hofer und seine Kampfgenossen_ (3rd ed.,
Leipzig, 1861); Heigel, _Andreas Hofer_ (Munich, 1874); Stampfer,
_Sandwirt Andreas Hofer_ (Freiburg, 1874); Schmolze, _Andreas Hofer
und seine Kampfgenossen_ (Innsbruck, 1900). His history has supplied
the materials for tragedies to B. Auerbach and Immermann, and for
numerous ballads, of which some remain very popular in Germany (see
Franke, _Andreas Hofer im Liede_, Innsbruck, 1884).

HOFFDING, HARALD (1843- ), Danish philosopher, was born and educated in Copenhagen. He became a schoolmaster, and ultimately in 1883 professor in the university of Copenhagen. He was much influenced by Soren Kierkegaard in the early development of his thought, but later became a positivist, retaining, however, and combining with it the spirit and method of practical psychology and the critical school. His best-known work is perhaps his _Den nyere Filosofis Historie_ (1894), translated into English from the German edition (1895) by B. E. Meyer as _History of Modern Philosophy_ (2 vols., 1900), a work intended by him to supplement and correct that of Hans Brochner, to whom it is dedicated. His _Psychology, the Problems of Philosophy_ (1905) and _Philosophy of Religion_ (1906) also have appeared in English.

Among Hoffding's other writings, practically all of which have been
translated into German, are: _Den engelske Filosofi i vor Tid_ (1874);
_Etik_ (1876; ed. 1879); _Psychologi i Omrids paa Grundlag of
Erfaring_ (ed. 1892); _Psykologiske Undersogelser_ (1889); _Charles
Darwin_ (1889); _Kontinuiteten i Kants filosofiske Udviklingsgang_
(1893); _Det psykologiske Grundlag for logiske Domme_ (1899);
_Rousseau und seine Philosophie_ (1901); _Mindre Arbejder_ (1899).

HOFFMANN, AUGUST HEINRICH (1798-1874), known as HOFFMANN VON FALLERSLEBEN, German poet, philologist and historian of literature, was born at Fallersleben in the duchy of Luneburg, Hanover, on the 2nd of April 1798, the son of the mayor of the town. He was educated at the classical schools of Helmstedt and Brunswick, and afterwards at the universities of Gottingen and Bonn. His original intention was to study theology, but he soon devoted himself entirely to literature. In 1823 he was appointed custodian of the university library at Breslau, a post which he held till 1838. He was also made extraordinary professor of the German language and literature at that university in 1830, and ordinary professor in 1835; but he was deprived of his chair in 1842 in consequence of his _Unpolitische Lieder_ (1840-1841), which gave much offence to the authorities in Prussia. He then travelled in Germany, Switzerland and Italy, and lived for two or three years in Mecklenburg, of which he became a naturalized citizen. After the revolution of 1848 he was enabled to return to Prussia, where he was restored to his rights, and received the _Wartegeld_--the salary attached to a promised office not yet vacant. He married in 1849, and during the next ten years lived first in Bingerbruck, afterwards in Neuwied, and then in Weimar, where together with Oskar Schade (1826-1906) he edited the _Weimarische Jahrbuch_ (1854-1857). In 1860 he was appointed librarian to the Duke of Ratibor at the monasterial castle of Corvey near Hoxter on the Weser, where he died on the 19th of January 1874. Fallersleben was one of the best popular poets of modern Germany. In politics he ardently sympathized with the progressive tendencies of his time, and he was among the earliest and most effective of the political poets who prepared the way for the outbreak of 1848. As a poet, however, he acquired distinction chiefly by the ease, simplicity and grace with which he gave expression to the passions and aspirations of daily life. Although he had not been scientifically trained in music, he composed melodies for many of his songs, and a considerable number of them are sung by all classes in every part of Germany. Among the best known is the patriotic _Deutschland, Deutschland uber Alles_, composed in 1841 on the island of Heligoland, where a monument was erected in 1891 to his memory (subsequently destroyed).

The best of his poetical writings is his _Gedichte_ (1827; 9th ed.,
Berlin, 1887); but there is great merit also in his _Alemannische
Lieder_ (1826; 5th ed., 1843), _Soldatenlieder_ (1851),
_Soldatenleben_ (1852), _Rheinleben_ (1865), and in his _Funfzig
Kinderlieder_, _Funfzig neue Kinderlieder_, and _Alte und neue
Kinderlieder_. His _Unpolitische Lieder_, _Deutsche Lieder aus der
Schweiz_ and _Streiflichter_ are not without poetical value, but they
are mainly interesting in relation to the movements of the age in
which they were written. As a student of ancient Teutonic literature
Hoffmann von Fallersleben ranks among the most persevering and
cultivated of German scholars, some of the chief results of his
labours being embodied in his _Horae Belgicae_, _Fundgruben fur
Geschichte deutscher Sprache und Literatur_, _Altdeutsche Blatter_,
_Spenden zur deutschen Literaturgeschichte_ and _Findlinge_. Among his
editions of particular works may be named _Reineke Vos_, _Monumenta
Elnonensia_ and _Theophilus_. _Die deutsche Philologie im Grundriss_
(1836) was at the time of its publication a valuable contribution to
philological research, and historians of German literature still
attach importance to his _Geschichte des deutschen Kirchenliedes bis
auf Luther_ (1832; 3rd ed., 1861), _Unsere volkstumlichen Lieder_ (3rd
ed., 1869) and _Die deutschen Gesellschaftslieder des 16. und 17.
Jahrh._ (2nd ed., 1860). In 1868-1870 Hoffmann published in 6 vols. an
autobiography, _Mein Leben: Aufzeichnungen und Erinnerungen_ (an
abbreviated ed. in 2 vols., 1894). His _Gesammelte Werke_ were edited
by H. Gerstenberg in 8 vols. (1891-1894); his _Ausgewahlte Werke_ by
H. Benzmann (1905, 4 vols.). See also _Briefe von Hoffmann von
Fallersleben und Moritz Haupt an Ferdinand Wolf_ (1874); J. M. Wagner,
_Hoffmann von Fallersleben, 1818-1868_ (1869-1870), and R. von
Gottschall, _Portrats und Studien_ (vol. v., 1876).

HOFFMANN, ERNST THEODOR WILHELM (1776-1822), German romance-writer, was born at Konigsberg on the 24th of January 1776. For the name Wilhelm he himself substituted Amadeus in homage to Mozart. His parents lived unhappily together, and when the child was only three they separated. His bringing up was left to an uncle who had neither understanding nor sympathy for his dreamy and wayward temperament. Hoffmann showed more talent for music and drawing than for books. In 1792, when little over sixteen years old, he entered the university of Konigsberg, with a view to preparing himself for a legal career. The chief features of interest in his student years were an intimate friendship for Theodor Gottlieb von Hippel (1775-1843), a nephew of the novelist Hippel, and an unhappy passion for a lady to whom he gave music lessons; the latter found its outlet, not merely in music, but also in two novels, neither of which he was able to have published. In the summer of 1795 he began his practical career as a jurist in Konigsberg, but his mother's death and the complications in which his love-affair threatened to involve him made him decide to leave his native town and continue his legal apprenticeship in Glogau. In the autumn of 1798 he was transferred to Berlin, where the beginnings of the new Romantic movement were in the air. Music, however, had still the first place in his heart, and the Berlin opera house was the chief centre of his interests.

In 1800 further promotion brought him to Posen, where he gave himself up entirely to the pleasures of the hour. Unfortunately, however, his brilliant powers of caricature brought him into ill odour, and instead of receiving the hoped-for preferment in Posen itself, he found himself virtually banished to the little town of Plozk on the Vistula. Before leaving Posen he married, and his domestic happiness alleviated to some extent the monotony of the two years' exile. His leisure was spent in literary studies and musical composition. In 1804 he was transferred to Warsaw, where, through J. E. Hitzig (1780-1849), he was introduced to Zacharias Werner, and began to take an interest in the later Romantic literature; now, for the first time, he discovered how writers like Novalis, Tieck, and especially Wackenroder, had spoken out of his own heart. But in spite of this literary stimulus, his leisure in Warsaw was mainly occupied by composition; he wrote music to Brentano's _Lustige Musikanten_ and Werner's _Kreuz an der Ostsee_, and also an opera _Liebe und Eifersucht_, based on Calderon's drama _La Banda y la Flor_.

The arrival of the French in Warsaw and the consequent political changes put an end to Hoffmann's congenial life there, and a time of tribulation followed. A position which he obtained in 1808 as musical director of a new theatre in Bamberg availed him little, as within a very short time the theatre was bankrupt and Hoffmann again reduced to destitution. But these misfortunes induced him to turn to literature in order to eke out the miserable livelihood he earned by composing and giving music lessons. The editor of the _Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung_ expressed his willingness to accept contributions from Hoffmann, and here appeared for the first time some of the musical sketches which ultimately passed over into the _Phantasiestucke in Callots Manier_. This work appeared in four volumes in 1814 and laid the foundation of his fame as a writer. Meanwhile, Hoffmann had again been for some time attached, in the capacity of musical director, to a theatrical company, whose headquarters were at Dresden. In 1814 he gladly embraced the opportunity that was offered him of resuming his legal profession in Berlin, and two years later he was appointed councillor of the Court of Appeal (_Kammergericht_). Hoffmann had the reputation of being an excellent jurist and a conscientious official; he had leisure for literary pursuits and was on the best of terms with the circle of Romantic poets and novelists who gathered round Fouque, Chamisso and his old friend Hitzig. Unfortunately, however, the habits of intemperance which, in earlier years, had thrown a shadow over his life, grew upon him, and his health was speedily undermined by the nights he spent in the wine-house, in company unworthy of him. He was struck down by locomotor ataxy, and died on the 24th of July 1822.

The _Phantasiestucke_, which had been published with a commendatory preface by Jean Paul, were followed in 1816 by the gruesome novel--to some extent inspired by Lewis's _Monk--Die Elixiere des Teufels_, and the even more gruesome and grotesque stories which make up the _Nachtstucke_ (1817, 2 vols.). The full range of Hoffmann's powers is first clearly displayed in the collection of stories (4 vols., 1819-1821) _Die Serapionsbruder_, this being the name of a small club of Hoffmann's more intimate literary friends. _Die Serapionsbruder_ includes not merely stories in which Hoffmann's love for the mysterious and the supernatural is to be seen, but novels in which he draws on his own early reminiscences (_Rat Krespel_, _Fermate_), finely outlined pictures of old German life (_Der Artushof_, _Meister Martin der Kufner und seine Gesellen_), and vivid and picturesque incidents from Italian and French history (_Doge und Dogaressa_, the story of Marino Faliero, and _Das Fraulein von Scuderi_). The last-mentioned story is usually regarded as Hoffmann's masterpiece. Two longer works also belong to Hoffmann's later years and display to advantage his powers as a humorist; these are _Klein Zaches, genannt Zinnober_ (1819), and _Lebensansichten des Katers Murr, nebst fragmentarischer Biographie des Kapellmeisters Johannes Kreisler_ (1821-1822).

Hoffmann is one of the master novelists of the Romantic movement in Germany. He combined with a humour that reminds us of Jean Paul the warm sympathy for the artist's standpoint towards life, which was enunciated by early Romantic leaders like Tieck and Wackenroder; but he was superior to all in the almost clairvoyant powers of his imagination. His works abound in grotesque and gruesome scenes--in this respect they mark a descent from the high ideals of the Romantic school; but the gruesome was only one outlet for Hoffmann's genius, and even here the secret of his power lay not in his choice of subjects, but in the wonderfully vivid and realistic presentation of them. Every line he wrote leaves the impression behind it that it expresses something felt or experienced; every scene, vision or character he described seems to have been real and living to him. It is this realism, in the best sense of the word, that made him the great artist he was, and gave him so extraordinary a power over his contemporaries.

The first collected edition of Hoffmann's works appeared in ten
volumes (_Ausgewahlte Schriften_, 1827-1828); to these his widow added
five volumes in 1839 (including the 3rd edition of J. E. Hitzig's _Aus
Hoffmanns Leben und Nachlass_, 1823). Other editions of his works
appeared in 1844-1845, 1871-1873, 1879-1883, and, most complete of
all, _Samtliche Werke_, edited by E. Grisebach, in 15 vols. (1900).
There are many editions of selections, as well as cheap reprints of
the more popular stories. All Hoffmann's important works--except
_Klein Zaches_ and _Kater Murr_--have been translated into English:
_The Devil's Elixir_ (1824), _The Golden Pot_ by Carlyle (in _German
Romance_, 1827), _The Serapion Brethren_ by A. Ewing (1886-1892), &c.
In France Hoffmann was even more popular than in England. Cp. G.
Thurau, _Hoffmanns Erzahlungen in Frankreich_ (1896). An edition of
his _Oeuvres completes_ appeared in 12 vols. in Paris in 1830. The
best monograph on Hoffmann is by G. Ellinger, _E. T. A. Hoffmann_
(1894); see also O. Klinke, _Hoffmanns Leben und Werke vom Standpunkte
eines Irrenarztes_ (1903); and the exhaustive bibliography in
Goedeke's _Grundriss zur Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung_, 2nd ed.,
vol. viii. pp. 468 ff. (1905). (J. G. R.)

HOFFMANN, FRANCOIS BENOIT (1760-1828), French dramatist and critic, was born at Nancy on the 11th of July 1760. He studied law at the university of Strassburg, but a slight hesitation in his speech precluded success at the bar, and he entered a regiment on service in Corsica. He served, however, for a very short time, and, returning to Nancy, he wrote some poems which brought him into notice at the little court of Luneville over which the marquise de Boufflers then presided. In 1784 he went to Paris, and two years later produced the opera _Phedre_. His opera _Adrien_ (1792) was objected to by the government on political grounds, and Hoffmann, who refused to make the changes proposed to him, ran considerable risk under the revolutionary government. His later operas, which were numerous, were produced at the Opera Comique. In 1807 he was invited by Etienne to contribute to the _Journal de l'Empire_ (afterwards the _Journal des debats_). Hoffmann's wide reading qualified him to write on all sorts of subjects, and he turned, apparently with no difficulty, from reviewing books on medicine to violent attacks on the Jesuits. His severe criticism of Chateaubriand's _Martyrs_ led the author to make some changes in a later edition. He had the reputation of being an absolutely conscientious and incorruptible critic and thus exercised wide influence. Hoffmann died in Paris on the 25th of April 1828. Among his numerous plays should be mentioned an excellent one-act comedy, _Le Roman d'une heure_ (1803), and an amusing one-act opera _Les Rendez-vous bourgeois_.

See Sainte-Beuve, "M. de Feletz et la critique litteraire sous
l'Empire" in _Causeries du lundi_, vol. i.

HOFFMANN, FRIEDRICH (1660-1742), German physician, a member of a family that had been connected with medicine for 200 years before him, was born at Halle on the 19th of February 1660. At the gymnasium of his native town he acquired that taste for and skill in mathematics to which he attributed much of his after success. At the age of eighteen he went to study medicine at Jena, whence in 1680 he passed to Erfurt, in order to attend Kasper Cramer's lectures on chemistry. Next year, returning to Jena, he received his doctor's diploma, and, after publishing a thesis, was permitted to teach. Constant study then began to tell on his health, and in 1682, leaving his already numerous pupils, he proceeded to Minden in Westphalia to recruit himself, at the request of a relative who held a high position in that town. After practising at Minden for two years, Hoffmann made a journey to Holland and England, where he formed the acquaintance of many illustrious chemists and physicians. Towards the end of 1684 he returned to Minden, and during the next three years he received many flattering appointments. In 1688 he removed to the more promising sphere of Halberstadt, with the title of physician to the principality of Halberstadt; and on the founding of Halle university in 1693, his reputation, which had been steadily increasing, procured for him the primarius chair of medicine, while at the same time he was charged with the responsible duty of framing the statutes for the new medical faculty. He filled also the chair of natural philosophy. With the exception of four years (1708-1712), which he passed at Berlin in the capacity of royal physician, Hoffmann spent the rest of his life at Halle in instruction, practice and study, interrupted now and again by visits to different courts of Germany, where his services procured him honours and rewards. His fame became European. He was enrolled a member of many learned societies in different foreign countries, while in his own he became privy councillor. He died at Halle on the 12th of November 1742.

Of his numerous writings a catalogue is to be found in Haller's
_Bibliotheca medicinae practicae_. The chief is _Medicina rationalis
systematica_, undertaken at the age of sixty, and published in 1730.
It was translated into French in 1739, under the title of _Medecine
raisonnee d'Hoffmann_. A complete edition of Hoffmann's works, with a
life of the author, was published at Geneva in 1740, to which
supplements were added in 1753 and 1760. Editions appeared also at
Venice in 1745 and at Naples in 1753 and 1793. (See also MEDICINE.)

HOFFMANN, JOHANN JOSEPH (1805-1878), German scholar, was born at Wurzburg on the 16th of February 1805. After studying at Wurzburg he went on the stage in 1825; but owing to an accidental meeting with the German traveller, Dr Philipp Franz von Siebold (1796-1866), in July 1830, his interest was diverted to Oriental philology. From Siebold he acquired the rudiments of Japanese, and in order to take advantage of the instructions of Ko-ching-chang, a Chinese teacher whom Siebold had brought home with him, he made himself acquainted with Malay, the only language except Chinese which the Chinaman could understand. In a few years he was able to supply the translations for Siebold's _Nippon_; and the high character of his work soon attracted the attention of older scholars. Stanislas Julien invited him to Paris; and he would probably have accepted the invitation, as a disagreement had broken out between him and Siebold, had not M. Baud, the Dutch colonial minister, appointed him Japanese translator with a salary of 1800 florins (L150). The Dutch authorities were slow in giving him further recognition; and he was too modest a man successfully to urge his claims. It was not till after he had received the offer of the professorship of Chinese in King's College, London, that the authorities made him professor at Leiden and the king allowed him a yearly pension. In 1875 he was decorated with the order of the Netherlands Lion, and in 1877 he was elected corresponding member of the Berlin Academy. He died at the Hague on the 23rd of January 1878.

Hoffmann's chief work was his unfinished Japanese Dictionary, begun in
1839 and afterwards continued by L. Serrurier. Unable at first to
procure the necessary type, he set himself to the cutting of punches,
and even when the proper founts were obtained he had to act as his own
compositor as far as Chinese and Japanese were concerned. His Japanese
grammar (_Japanische Sprachlehre_) was published in Dutch and English
in 1867, and in English and German in 1876. Of his miscellaneous
productions it is enough to mention "Japans Bezuge mit der koraischen
Halbinsel und mit Schina" in _Nippon_, vii.; _Yo-San-fi-Rok_, _L'Art
d'elever les vers a soie au Japon, par Ouckaki Mourikouni_ (Paris,
1848); "Die Heilkunde in Japan" in _Mittheil. d. deutsch. Gesellsch.
fur Natur- und Volkerk. Ost-Asiens_ (1873-1874); and _Japanische
Studien_ (1878).

HOFMANN, AUGUST WILHELM VON (1818-1892), German chemist, was born at Giessen on the 8th of April 1818. Not intending originally to devote himself to physical science, he first took up the study of law and philology at Gottingen, and the general culture he thus gained stood him in good stead when he turned to chemistry, the study of which he began under Liebig. When, in 1845, a school of practical chemistry was started in London, under the style of the Royal College of Chemistry, Hofmann, largely through the influence of the Prince Consort, was appointed its first director. It was with some natural hesitation that he, then a _Privatdozent_ at Bonn, accepted the position, which may well have seemed rather a precarious one; but the difficulty was removed by his appointment as extraordinary professor at Bonn, with leave of absence for two years, so that he could resume his career in Germany if his English one proved unsatisfactory. Fortunately the college was more or less successful, owing largely to his enthusiasm and energy, and many of the men who were trained there subsequently made their mark in chemical history. But in 1864 he returned to Bonn, and in the succeeding year he was selected to succeed E. Mitscherlich as professor of chemistry and director of the laboratory in Berlin University. In leaving England, of which he used to speak as his adopted country, Hofmann was probably influenced by a combination of causes. The public support extended to the college of chemistry had been dwindling for some years, and before he left it had ceased to have an independent existence and had been absorbed into the School of Mines. This event he must have looked upon as a curtailment of its possibilities of usefulness. But, in addition, there is only too much reason to suppose that he was disappointed at the general apathy with which his science was regarded in England. No man ever realized more fully than he how entirely dependent on the advance of scientific knowledge is the continuation of a country's material prosperity, and no single chemist ever exercised a greater or more direct influence upon industrial development. In England, however, people cared for none of these things, and were blind to the commercial potentialities of scientific research. The college to which Hofmann devoted nearly twenty of the best years of his life was starved; the coal-tar industry, which was really brought into existence by his work and that of his pupils under his direction at that college, and which with a little intelligent forethought might have been retained in England, was allowed to slip into the hands of Germany, where it is now worth millions of pounds annually; and Hofmann himself was compelled to return to his native land to find due appreciation as one of the foremost chemists of his time. The rest of his life was spent in Berlin, and there he died on the 5th of May 1892. That city possesses a permanent memorial to his name in Hofmann House, the home of the German Chemical Society (of which he was the founder), which was formally opened in 1900, appropriately enough with an account of that great triumph of German chemical enterprise, the industrial manufacture of synthetical indigo.

Hofmann's work covered a wide range of organic chemistry, though with inorganic bodies he did but little. His first research, carried out in Liebig's laboratory at Giessen, was on coal-tar, and his investigation of the organic bases in coal-gas naphtha established the nature of aniline. This substance he used to refer to as his first love, and it was a love to which he remained faithful throughout his life. His perception of the analogy between it and ammonia led to his famous work on the amines and ammonium bases and the allied organic phosphorus compounds, while his researches on rosaniline, which he first prepared in 1858, formed the first of a series of investigations on colouring matters which only ended with quinoline red in 1887. But in addition to these and numberless other investigations for which he was responsible the influence he exercised through his pupils must also be taken into account. As a teacher, besides the power of accurately gauging the character and capabilities of those who studied under him, he had the faculty of infecting them with his own enthusiasm, and thus of stimulating them to put forward their best efforts. In the lecture-room he laid great stress on the importance of experimental demonstrations, paying particular attention to their selection and arrangement, though, since he himself was a somewhat clumsy manipulator, their actual exhibition was generally entrusted to his assistants. He was the possessor of a clear and graceful, if somewhat florid, style, which showed to special advantage in his numerous obituary notices or encomiums (collected and published in three volumes _Zur Erinnerung an vorangegangene Freunde_, 1888). He also excelled as a speaker, particularly at gatherings of an international character, for in addition to his native German he could speak English, French and Italian with fluency.

See _Memorial Lectures delivered before the Chemical Society,
1893-1900_ (London, 1901).

HOFMANN, JOHANN CHRISTIAN KONRAD VON (1810-1877), Lutheran theologian and historian, was born on the 21st of December 1810 at Nuremberg, and studied theology and history at the university of Erlangen. In 1829 he went to Berlin, where Schleiermacher, Hengstenberg, Neander, Ranke and Raumer were among his teachers. In 1833 he received an appointment to teach Hebrew and history in the gymnasium of Erlangen. In 1835 he became _Repetent_, in 1838 _Privatdozent_ and in 1841 _professor extraordinarius_ in the theological faculty at Erlangen. In 1842 he became _professor ordinarius_ at Rostock, but in 1845 returned once more to Erlangen as the successor of Gottlieb Christoph Adolf von Harless (1806-1879), founder of the _Zeitschrift fur Protestantismus und Kirche_, of which Hofmann became one of the editors in 1846, J. F. Hofling (1802-1853) and Gottfried Thomasius (1802-1875) being his collaborators. He was a conservative in theology, but an enthusiastic adherent of the progressive party in politics, and sat as member for Erlangen and Furth in the Bavarian second chamber from 1863 to 1868. He died on the 20th of December 1877.

He wrote _Die siebzig Jahre des Jeremias u. die siebzig Jahrwochen des Daniel_ (1836); _Geschichte des Aufruhrs in den Cevennen_ (1837); _Lehrbuch der Weltgeschichte fur Gymnasien_ (1839), which became a text-book in the Protestant gymnasia of Bavaria; _Weissagung u. Erfullung im alten u. neuen Testamente_ (1841-1844; 2nd ed., 1857-1860); _Der Schriftbeweis_ (1852-1856; 2nd ed., 1857-1860); _Die heilige Schrift des neuen Testaments zusammenhangend untersucht_ (1862-1875); _Schutzschriften_ (1856-1859), in which he defends himself against the charge of denying the Atonement; and _Theologische Ethik_ (1878). His most important works are the five last named. In theology, as in ecclesiastical polity, Hofmann was a Lutheran of an extreme type, although the strongly marked individuality of some of his opinions laid him open to repeated accusations of heterodoxy. He was the head of what has been called the Erlangen School, and "in his day he was unquestionably the chief glory of the University of Erlangen" (Lichtenberger).

See the articles in Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyklopadie_ and the
_Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_; and cf. F. Lichtenberger, _History
of German Theology in the Nineteenth Century_ (1889) pp. 446-458.

HOFMANN, MELCHIOR (c. 1498-1543-4), anabaptist, was born at Hall, in Swabia, before 1500 (Zur Linden suggests 1498). His biographers usually give his surname as above; in his printed works it is Hoffman, in his manuscripts Hoffmann. He was without scholarly training, and first appears as a furrier at Livland. Attracted by Luther's doctrine, he came forward as a lay preacher, combining business travels with a religious mission. Accompanied by Melchior Rinck, also a skinner or furrier, and a religious enthusiast, he made his way to Sweden. Joined by Bernard Knipperdolling, the party reached Stockholm in the autumn of 1524. Their fervid attacks on image worship led to their expulsion. By way of Livonia, Hofmann arrived at Dorpat in November 1524, but was driven thence in the following January. Making his way to Riga, and thence to Wittenberg, he found favour with Luther; his letter of the 22nd of June 1525 appears in a tract by Luther of that year. He was again at Dorpat in May 1526; later at Magdeburg. Returning to Wittenberg, he was coldly received; he wrote there his exposition of Daniel xii. (1527). Repairing to Holstein, he got into the good graces of Frederick I. of Denmark, and was appointed by royal ordinance to preach the Gospel at Kiel. He was extravagant in denunciation, and developed a Zwinglian view of the Eucharist. Luther was alarmed. At a colloquy of preachers in Flensburg (8th April 1529) Hofmann, John Campanus and others were put on their defence. Hofmann maintained (against the "magic" of the Lutherans) that the function of the Eucharist, like that of preaching, is an appeal for spiritual union with Christ. Refusing to retract, he was banished. At Strassburg to which he now turned, he was well received (1529) till his anabaptist development became apparent. He was in relations with Schwenkfeld and with Carlstadt, but assumed a prophetic role of his own. Journeying to East Friesland, (1530) he founded a community at Emden (1532), securing a large following of artisans. Despite the warning of John Trypmaker, who prophesied for him "six months" in prison, he returned in the spring of 1533 to Strassburg, where we hear of his wife and child. He gathered from the Apocalypse a vision of "resurrections" of apostolic Christianity, first under John Hus, and now under himself. The year 1533 was to inaugurate the new era; Strassburg was to be the seat of the New Jerusalem. In May 1533 he and others were arrested. Under examination, he denied that he had made common cause with the anabaptists and claimed to be no prophet, a mere witness of the Most High, but refused the articles of faith proposed to him by the provincial synod. Hofmann and Claus Frey, an anabaptist, were detained in prison, a measure due to the terror excited by the Munster episode of 1533-1534. The synod, in 1539, made further effort to reclaim him. The last notice of his imprisonment is on the 19th of November 1543; he probably died soon after.

Two of his publications, with similar titles, in 1530, are noteworthy as having influenced Menno Simons and David Joris (_Weissagung vsz heiliger gotlicher geschrifft_, and _Prophecey oder Weissagung vsz warer heiliger gotlicher schrifft_). Bock treats him as an antitrinitarian, on grounds which Wallace rightly deems inconclusive. With better reason Trechsel includes him among pioneers of some of the positions of Servetus. His Christology was Valentinian. While all are elected to salvation, only the regenerate may receive baptism, and those who sin after regeneration sin against the Holy Ghost, and cannot be saved. His followers were known as Hofmannites or Melchiorites.

See G. Herrmann, _Essai sur la vie et les ecrits de M. Hofmann_
(1852); F. O. zur Linden, _M. Hofmann, ein Prophet der Wiedertaufer_
(1885); H. Holtzmann, in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_ (1880);
Hegler in Hauck's _Realencyklopadie_ (1900); Bock, _Hist. Antitrin._
(1776), ii.; Wallace, _Antitrin. Biography_ (1850) iii., app. iii.;
Trechsel, _Prot. Antitrin. vor F. Socin_ (1839) i.; Barclay, _Inner
Life of Rel. Societies_ (1876). An alleged portrait, from an engraving
of 1608, is reproduced in the appendix to A. Ross, _Pansebeia_ (1655).
(A. Go.*)

HOFMEISTER, WILHELM FRIEDRICH BENEDICT (1824-1877), German botanist, was born at Leipzig on the 18th of May 1824. He came of a family engaged in trade, and after being educated at the _Realschule_ of Leipzig he entered business as a music-dealer. Much of his botanical work was done while he was so employed, till in 1863 he was nominated, without intermediate academic steps, to the chair in Heidelberg; thence he was transferred in 1872 to Tubingen, in succession to H. von Mohl. His first work was on the distribution of the Coniferae in the Himalaya, but his attention was very soon devoted to studying the sexuality and origin of the embryo of Phanerogams. His contributions on this subject extended from 1847 till 1860, and they finally settled the question of the origin of the embryo from an ovum, as against the prevalent pollen-tube theory of M. J. Schleiden, for he showed that the pollen-tube does not itself produce the embryo, but only stimulates the ovum already present in the ovule. He soon turned his attention to the embryology of Bryophytes and Pteridophytes, and gave continuous accounts of the germination of the spores and fertilization in _Pilularia_, _Salvinia_, _Selaginella_. Some of the main facts of the life of ferns and mosses were already known; these, together with his own wider observations, were worked into that great general pronouncement published in 1851 under the title, _Vergleichende Untersuchungen der Keimung, Entfaltung und Fruchtbildung koherer Kryptogamen und der Samenbildung der Coniferen_. This work will always stand in the first rank of botanical books. It antedated the _Origin of Species_ by eight years, but contained facts and comparisons which could only become intelligible on some theory of descent. The plan of life-story common to them all, involving two alternating generations, was demonstrated for Liverworts, Mosses, Ferns, Equiseta, Rhizocarps, Lycopodiaceae, and even Gymnosperms, with a completeness and certainty which must still surprise those who know the botanical literature of the author's time. The conclusions of Hofmeister remain in their broad outlines unshaken, but rather strengthened by later-acquired details. In the light of the theory of descent the common plan of life-history in plants apparently so diverse as those named acquires a special significance; but it is one of the remarkable features of this great work that the writer himself does not theorize--with an unerring insight he points out his comparisons and states his homologies, but does not indulge in explanatory surmises. It is the typical work of an heroic age of plant-morphology. From 1857 till 1862 Hofmeister wrote occasionally on physiological subjects, such as the ascent of sap, and curvatures of growing parts, but it was in morphology that he found his natural sphere. In 1861, in conjunction with other botanists, a plan was drawn up of a handbook of physiological botany, of which Hofmeister was to be editor. Though the original scheme was never completed, the editor himself contributed two notable parts, _Die Lehre von der Pflanzenzelle_ (1867) and _Allgemeine Morphologie der Gewachse_ (1868). The former gives an excellent summary of the structure and relations of the vegetable cell as then known, but it did not greatly modify current views. The latter was notable for its refutation of the spiral theory of leaf arrangement in plants, founded by C. F. Schimper and A. Braun. Hofmeister transferred the discussion from the mere study of mature form to the observation of the development of the parts, and substituted for the "spiral tendency" a mechanical theory based upon the observed fact that new branchings appear over the widest gaps which exist between next older branchings of like nature. With this important work Hofmeister's period of active production closed; he fell into ill-health, and retired from his academic duties some time before his death at Lindenau, near Leipzig, on the 12th of January 1877. (F. O. B.)

HOFMEYR, JAN HENDRIK (1845-1909), South African politician, was born at Cape Town on the 4th of July 1845. He was educated at the South African College, and at an early age turned his attention to politics, first as a journalist. He was editor of the _Zuid Afrikaan_ till its incorporation with _Ons Land_, and of the _Zuid Afrikaansche Tijdschrift_. By birth, education and sympathies a typical Dutch Afrikander, he set himself to organize the political power of his fellow-countrymen. This he did very effectively, and when in 1879 he entered the Cape parliament as member for Stellenbosch, he became the real leader of the Dutch party. Yet he only held office for six months--as minister without portfolio in the Scanlen ministry from May to November 1881. He held no subsequent official post in the colony, though he shared with Sir Thomas Upington and Sir Charles Mills the honour of representing the Cape at the intercolonial conference of 1887. Here he supported the proposal for entrusting the defence of Simon's Town to Cape Colony, leaving only the armament to be provided by the imperial government, opposed trans-oceanic penny postage, and moved a resolution in favour of an imperial customs union. At the colonial conference of 1894 at Ottawa he was again one of the Cape representatives. In 1888 and in 1889 he was a member of the South African customs conference.

His chief importance as a public man was, however, derived from his power over the Dutch in Cape Colony, and his control of the Afrikander Bond. In 1878 he had himself founded the "Farmers' Association," and as the Cape farmers were almost entirely Dutch the Association became a centre of Dutch influence. When the Bond was formed in 1882, with purely political aims, Hofmeyr made haste to obtain control of it, and in 1883 amalgamated the Farmers' Association with it. Under his direction the constitution of the Bond was modified by the elimination of the provisions inconsistent with loyalty to the British crown. But it remained an organization for obtaining the political supremacy of the Cape Dutch. (See CAPE COLONY: _History_.) His control over the Bond enabled him for many years, while free from the responsibilities of office, to make and unmake ministers at his will, and earned for him the name of "Cabinet-maker of South Africa." Although officially the term "Afrikander" was explained by Hofmeyr to include white men of whatever race, yet in practice the influence of the Bond was always exerted in favour of the Dutch, and its power was drawn from the Dutch districts of Cape Colony. The sympathies of the Bond were thus always strongly with the Transvaal, as the chief centre of Dutch influence in South Africa; and Hofmeyr's position might in many respects be compared with that of Parnell at the head of the Irish Nationalist party in Great Britain. In the Bechuanaland difficulty of 1884 Hofmeyr threw all the influence of the Bond into the scale in favour of the Transvaal. But in the course of the next few years he began to drift away from President Kruger. He resented the reckless disregard of Cape interests involved in Kruger's fiscal policy; he feared that the Transvaal, after its sudden leap into prosperity upon the gold discoveries of 1886, might overshadow all other Dutch influences in South Africa; above all he was convinced, as he showed by his action at the London conference, that the protection of the British navy was indispensable to South Africa, and he set his face against Kruger's intrigues with Germany, and his avowed intention of acquiring an outlet to the sea in order to get into touch with foreign powers.

In 1890 Hofmeyr joined forces with Cecil Rhodes, who became premier of Cape Colony with the support of the Bond. Hofmeyr's influence was a powerful factor in the conclusion of the Swaziland convention of 1890, as well as in stopping the "trek" to Banyailand (Rhodesia) in 1891--a notable reversal of the policy he had pursued seven years before. But the reactionary elements in the Bond grew alarmed at Rhodes's imperialism, and in 1895 Hofmeyr resigned his seat in parliament and the presidency of the Bond. Then came the Jameson Raid, and in its wake there rolled over South Africa a wave of Dutch and anti-British feeling such as had not been known since the days of Majuba. (The proclamation issued by Sir Hercules Robinson disavowing Jameson was suggested by Hofmeyr, who helped to draw up its terms.) Once more Hofmeyr became president of the Bond. By an alteration of the provincial constitution, all power in the Cape branch of the Bond was vested in the hands of a vigilance committee of three, of whom Hofmeyr and his brother were two. As the recognized leader of the Cape Dutch, he protested against such abuses as the dynamite monopoly in the Transvaal, and urged Kruger even at the eleventh hour to grant reasonable concessions rather than plunge into a war that might involve Cape Afrikanderdom and the Transvaal in a common ruin. In July 1899 he journeyed to Pretoria, and vainly supported the proposal of a satisfactory franchise law, combined with a limited representation of the Uitlanders in the Volksraad, and in September urged the Transvaal to accede to the proposed joint inquiry. During the negotiations of 1899, and after the outbreak of war, the official organ of the Bond, _Ons Land_, was conspicuous for its anti-British attitude, and its violence forced Lord Roberts to suppress it in the Cape Colony district under martial law. Hofmeyr never associated himself publicly with the opinions expressed by _Ons Land_, but neither did he repudiate them. The tide of race sympathy among his Dutch supporters made his position one of great difficulty, and shortly after the outbreak of war he withdrew to Europe, and refused to act as a member of the "Conciliation Committee" which came to England in 1901 in the interests of the Boer republics.

Towards the close of the war Hofmeyr returned to South Africa and organized the Bond forces for the general election held in Cape Colony at the beginning of 1904, which resulted in the defeat of the Bond party. Hofmeyr retained his ascendancy over the Cape Dutch, but now began to find himself somewhat out of sympathy with the larger outlook on South African affairs taken by the younger leaders of the Boers in the Transvaal. During 1906 he gave offence to the extreme section of the Bond by some criticisms of the _taal_ and his use of English in public speeches. At the general election in 1908 the Bond, still largely under his direction, gained a victory at the polls, but Hofmeyr himself was not a candidate. In the renewed movement for the closer union of the South African colonies he advocated federation as opposed to unification. When, however, the unification proposals were ratified by the Cape parliament, Hofmeyr procured his nomination as one of the Cape delegates to England in the summer of 1909 to submit the draft act of union to the imperial government. He attended the conferences with the officials of the Colonial Office for the preparation of the draft act, and after the bill had become law went to Germany for a "cure." He returned to London in October 1909, where he died on the 16th of that month. His body was taken to Cape Town for burial.

HOFSTEDE DE GROOT, PETRUS (1802-1886), Dutch theologian, was born at Leer in East Friesland, Prussia, on the 8th of October 1802, and was educated at the Gymnasium and university of Groningen. For three years (1826-1829) he was pastor of the Reformed Church at Ulrum, and then entered upon his lifelong duties as professor of theology at Groningen. With his colleagues L. G. Pareau, J. F. van Vordt, and W. Muurling he edited from 1837 to 1872 the _Waarheid in Liefde_. In this review and in his numerous books he vigorously upheld the orthodox faith against the Dutch "modern theology" movement. Many of his works were written in Latin, including _Disputatio, qua ep. ad Hebraeos cum Paulin. epistolis comparatur_ (1826), _Institutiones historiae ecclesiae_ (1835), _Institutio theologiae naturalis_ (1842), _Encyclopaedia theologi christiani_ (1844). Others, in Dutch, were: _The Divine Education of Humanity up to the Coming of Jesus Christ_ (3 vols., 1846), _The Nature of the Gospel Ministry_ (1858), _The "Modern Theology" of the Netherlands_ (1869), _The Old Catholic Movement_ (1877). He became professor emeritus in 1872, and died at Groningen on the 5th of December 1886.