Chapter III: Front Matter (3)

This survey of the Indian sects will have shown how little the character of their divine objects of worship is calculated to exert that elevating and spiritualizing influence, so characteristic of true religious devotion. In all but a few of the minor groups religious fervour is only too apt to degenerate into that very state of sexual excitation which devotional exercises should surely tend to repress. If the worship of Siva, despite the purport of his chief symbol, seems on the whole less liable to produce these undesirable effects than that of the rival deity, it is doubtless due partly to the real nature of that emblem being little realized by the common people, and partly to the somewhat repellent character of the "great god," more favourable to evoking feelings of awe and terror than a spirit of fervid devotion. All the more are, however, the gross stimulants, connected with the adoration of his consort, calculated to work up the carnal instincts of the devotees to an extreme degree of sensual frenzy. In the Vaishnava camp, on the other hand, the cult of Krishna, and more especially that of the youthful Krishna, can scarcely fail to exert an influence which, if of a subtler and more insinuating, is not on that account of a less demoralizing kind. Indeed, it would be hard to find anything less consonant with godliness and divine perfection than the pranks of this juvenile god; and if poets and thinkers try to explain them away by dint of allegorical interpretation, the plain man will not for all their refinements take these amusing adventures any the less _au pied de la lettre_. No fault, in this respect, can assuredly be found with the legendary Rama, a very paragon of knightly honour and virtue, even as his consort Sita is the very model of a noble and faithful wife; and yet this cult has perhaps retained even more of the character of mere hero-worship than that of Krishna. Since by the universally accepted doctrine of _karman_ (deed) or _karmavipaka_ ("the maturing of deeds") man himself--either in his present, or some future, existence--enjoys the fruit of, or has to atone for, his former good and bad actions, there could hardly be room in Hindu pantheism for a belief in the remission of sin by divine grace or vicarious substitution. And accordingly the "descents" or incarnations of the deity have for their object, not so much the spiritual regeneration of man as the deliverance of the world from some material calamity threatening to overwhelm it. The generally recognized principal Avatars do not, however, by any means constitute the only occasions of a direct intercession of the deity in worldly affairs, but--in the same way as to this day the eclipses of the sun and moon are ascribed by the ordinary Hindu to these luminaries being temporarily swallowed by the dragon _Rahu_ (or _Graha_, "the seizer")--so any uncommon occurrence would be apt to be set down as a special manifestation of divine power; and any man credited with exceptional merit or achievement, or even remarkable for some strange incident connected with his life or death, might ultimately come to be looked upon as a veritable incarnation of the deity, capable of influencing the destinies of man, and might become an object of local adoration or superstitious awe and propitiatory rites to multitudes of people. That the transmigration theory, which makes the spirit of the departed hover about for a time in quest of a new corporeal abode, would naturally lend itself to superstitious notions of this kind can scarcely be doubted. Of peculiar importance in this respect is the worship of the _Pitris_ ("fathers") or deceased ancestors, as entering largely into the everyday life and family relations of the Hindus. At stated intervals to offer reverential homage and oblations of food to the forefathers up to the third degree is one of the most sacred duties the devout Hindu has to discharge. The periodical performance of the commemorative rite of obsequies called _Sraddha_--i.e. an oblation "made in faith" (_sraddha_, Lat. _credo_)--is the duty and privilege of the eldest son of the deceased, or, failing him, of the nearest relative who thereby establishes his right as next of kin in respect of inheritance; and those other relatives who have the right to take part in the ceremony are called _sapinda_, i.e. sharing in the _pindas_ (or balls of cooked rice, constituting along with libations of water the usual offering to the Manes)--such relationship being held a bar to intermarriage. The first _Sraddha_ takes place as soon as possible after the _antyeshti_ ("final offering") or funeral ceremony proper, usually spread over ten days; being afterwards repeated once a month for a year, and subsequently at every anniversary and otherwise voluntarily on special occasions. Moreover, a simple libation of water should be offered to the Fathers twice daily at the morning and evening devotion called _sandhya_ ("twilight"). It is doubtless a sense of filial obligation coupled with sentiments of piety and reverence that gave rise to this practice of offering gifts of food and drink to the deceased ancestors. Hence also frequent allusion is made by poets to the anxious care caused to the Fathers by the possibility of the living head of the family being afflicted with failure of offspring; this dire prospect compelling them to use but sparingly their little store of provisions, in case the supply should shortly cease altogether. At the same time one also meets with frank avowals of a superstitious fear lest any irregularity in the performance of the obsequial rites should cause the Fathers to haunt their old home and trouble the peace of their undutiful descendant, or even prematurely draw him after them to the Pitri-loka or world of the Fathers, supposed to be located in the southern region. Terminating as it usually does with the feeding and feeing of a greater or less number of Brahmans and the feasting of members of the performers' own caste, the Sraddha, especially its first performance, is often a matter of very considerable expense; and more than ordinary benefit to the deceased is supposed to accrue from it when it takes place at a spot of recognized sanctity, such as one of the great places of pilgrimage like Prayaga (Allahabad, where the three sacred rivers, Ganga, Yamuna and Sarasvati, meet), Mathura, and especially Gaya and Kasi (Benares). But indeed the _tirtha-yatra_, or pilgrimage to holy bathing-places, is in itself considered an act of piety conferring religious merit in proportion to the time and trouble expended upon it. The number of such places is legion and is constantly increasing. The banks of the great rivers such as the Ganga (Ganges), the Yamuna (Jumna), the Narbada, the Krishna (Kistna), are studded with them, and the water of these rivers is supposed to be imbued with the essence of sanctity capable of cleansing the pious bather of all sin and moral taint. To follow the entire course of one of the sacred rivers from the mouth to the source on one side and back again on the other in the sun-wise (pradakshina) direction--that is, always keeping the stream on one's right-hand side--is held to be a highly meritorious undertaking which it requires years to carry through. No wonder that water from these rivers, especially the Ganges, is sent and taken in bottles to all parts of India to be used on occasion as healing medicine or for sacramental purposes. In Vedic times, at the _Rajasuya_, or inauguration of a king, some water from the holy river Sarasvati was mixed with the sprinkling water used for consecrating the king. Hence also sick persons are frequently conveyed long distances to a sacred river to heal them of their maladies; and for a dying man to breathe his last at the side of the Ganges is devoutly believed to be the surest way of securing for him salvation and eternal bliss.

Such probably was the belief of the ordinary Hindu two thousand years
ago, and such it remains to this day. In the light of facts such as
these, who could venture to say what the future of Hinduism is likely
to be? Is the regeneration of India to be brought about by the modern
theistic movements, such as the Brahma-samaj and Arya-samaj, as so
close and sympathetic an observer of Hindu life and thought as Sir A.
Lyall seems to think? "The Hindu mind," he remarks, "is essentially
speculative and transcendental; it will never consent to be shut up in
the prison of sensual experience, for it has grasped and holds firmly
the central idea that all things are manifestations of some power
outside phenomena. And the tendency of contemporary religious
discussion in India, so far as it can be followed from a distance, is
towards an ethical reform on the old foundations, towards searching
for some method of reconciling their Vedic theology with the practices
of religion taken as a rule of conduct and a system of moral
government. One can already discern a movement in various quarters
towards a recognition of impersonal theism, and towards fixing the
teaching of the philosophical schools upon some definitely authorized
system of faith and morals, which may satisfy a rising ethical
standard, and may thus permanently embody that tendency to substitute
spiritual devotion for external forms and caste rules which is the
characteristic of the sects that have from time to time dissented from
orthodox Brahminism."

AUTHORITIES.--_Census of India_ (1901), vol. i. part i.; _India_, by
H. H. Risley and E. A. Gait; vol. i. _Ethnographical Appendices_, by
H. H. Risley; _The Indian Empire_, vol. i. (new ed., Oxford, 1907); J.
Muir, _Original Sanskrit Texts_ (2nd ed., 5 vols., London, 1873);
Monier Williams, _Religious Thought and Life in India_ (London, 1883);
_Modern India and the Indians_ (London, 1878, 3rd ed. 1879);
_Hinduism_ (London, 1877); Sir Alfred C. Lyall, _Asiatic Studies_ (2
series, London, 1899); "Hinduism" in _Religious Systems of the World_
(London, 1904); "Brahminism" in _Great Religions of the World_ (New
York and London, 1902); W. J. Wilkins, _Modern Hinduism_ (London,
1887); J. C. Oman, _Indian Life, Religious and Social_ (London, 1879);
_The Mystics, Ascetics and Saints of India_ (London, 1903); _The
Brahmans, Theists and Muslims of India_ (London, 1907); S. C. Bose,
_The Hindus as they are_ (2nd ed., Calcutta, 1883); J. Robson,
_Hinduism and Christianity_ (Edinburgh and London, 3rd ed., 1905); J.
Murray Mitchell, _Hinduism Past and Present_ (2nd ed., London, 1897);
Jogendra Nath Bhattacharya, _Hindu Castes and Sects_ (Calcutta, 1896);
A. Barth, _The Religions of India_ (London, 1882); E. W. Hopkins, _The
Religions of India_ (London, 1896). (J. E.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] "It is, perhaps, by surveying India that we at this day can best
represent to ourselves and appreciate the vast external reform worked
upon the heathen world by Christianity, as it was organized and
executed throughout Europe by the combined authority of the Holy
Roman Empire and the Church Apostolic." Sir Alfred C. Lyall, _Asiatic
Studies_, i. 2.

[2] Henry Whitehead, D. D., bishop of Madras, _The Village Deities of
Southern India_ (Madras, 1907).

[3] "The effect of caste is to give all Hindu society a religious
basis." Sir A. C. Lyall, _Brahmanism_.

[4] Thus, in Berar, "there is a strong non-Aryan leaven in the dregs
of the agricultural class, derived from the primitive races which
have gradually melted down into settled life, and thus become fused
with the general community, while these same races are still distinct
tribes in the wild tracts of hill and jungle." Sir Alfred C. Lyall,
_As. St._, i. 6.

[5] Siva is said to have first appeared in the beginning of the
present age as Sveta, the White, for the purpose of benefiting the
Brahmans, and he is invariably painted white; whilst Vishnu, when
pictured, is always of a dark-blue colour.

[6] As in the case of Siva's traditional white complexion, it may not
be without significance, from a racial point of view, that Vishnu,
Rama and Krishna have various darker shades of colour attributed to
them, viz. blue, hyacinthine, and dark azure or dark brown
respectively. The names of the two heroes meaning simply "black" or
"dark," the blue tint may originally have belonged to Vishnu, who is
also called _pitavasas_, dressed in yellow garment, i.e. the colours
of sky and sun combined.

[7] This notion not improbably took its origin in the mystic
cosmogonic hymn, Rigv. x. 129, where it is said that--"that one
(existent, neutr.) breathed breathless by (or with) its _svadha_ (?
inherent power, or nature), beyond that there was nothing whatever
... that one live (germ) which was enclosed in the void was generated
by the power of heat (or fervour); desire then first came upon it,
which was the first seed of the mind ... fertilizing forces there
were, _svadha_ below, _prayati_ (? will) above."

HINDU KUSH, a range of mountains in Central Asia. Throughout 500 m. of its length, from its roots in the Pamir regions till it fades into the Koh-i-Baba to the west of Kabul, this great range forms the water-divide between the Kabul and the Oxus basins, and, for the first 200 m. reckoning westwards, the southern boundary of Afghanistan. It may be said to spring from the head of the Taghdumbash Pamir, where it unites with the great meridional system of Sarikol stretching northwards, and the yet more impressive mountain barrier of Muztagh, the northern base of which separates China from the semi-independent territory of Kanjut. The Wakhjir pass, crossing the head of the Taghdumbash Pamir into the sources of the river Hunza, almost marks the tri-junction of the three great chains of mountains. As the Hindu Kush strikes westwards, after first rounding the head of an Oxus tributary (the Ab-i-Panja, which Curzon considers to be the true source of the Oxus), it closely overlooks the trough of that glacier-fed stream under its northern spurs, its crest at the nearest point being separated from the river by a distance which cannot much exceed 10 m. As the river is here the northern boundary of Afghanistan, and the crest of the Hindu Kush the southern boundary, this distance represents the width of the Afghan kingdom at that point.

_Physiography._--For the first 100 m. of its length the Hindu Kush is
a comparatively flat-backed range of considerable width, permitting
the formation of small lakes on the crest, and possessing no
considerable peaks. It is crossed by many passes, varying in height
from 12,500 ft. to 17,500 ft., the lowest and the easiest being the
well-known group about Baroghil, which has from time immemorial
offered a line of approach from High Asia to Chitral and Jalalabad. As
the Hindu Kush gradually recedes from the Ab-i-Panja and turns
south-westwards it gains in altitude, and we find prominent peaks on
the crest which measure more than 24,000 ft. above sea-level. Even
here, however, the main central water-divide, or axis of the chain, is
apparently not the line of highest peaks, which must be looked for to
the south, where the great square-headed giant called Tirach Mir
dominates Chitral from a southern spur. For some 40 or 50 m. of this
south-westerly bend, bearing away from the Oxus, where the Hindu Kush
overlooks the mountain wilderness of Badakshan to the west, the crest
is intersected by many passes, of which the most important is the
Dorah group (including the Minjan and the Mandal), which rise to about
15,000 ft., and which are, under favourable conditions, practicable
links between the Oxus and Chitral basins.

Kafiristan section.

From the Dorah to the Khawak pass (or group of passes, for it is
seldom that one line of approach only is to be found across the Hindu
Kush), which is between 11,000 and 12,000 ft. in altitude, the
water-divide overlooks Kafiristan and Badakshan. Here its exact
position is matter of conjecture. It lies amidst a wild, inaccessible
region of snowbound crests, and is certainly nowhere less than 15,000
ft. above sea-level. There is a tradition that Timur attempted the
passage of the Hindu Kush by one of the unmapped passes hereabouts,
and that, having failed, he left a record of his failure engraved on a
rock in the pass.

Passes.

The Khawak, at the head of the Panjshir tributary of the Kabul river,
leading straight from Badakshan to Charikar and the city of Kabul, is
now an excellent kafila route, the road having been engineered under
the amir Abdur Rahman's direction, and it is said to be available for
traffic throughout the year. From the Khawak to the head of the
Ghorband (a river of the Hindu Kush which, rising to the north-west of
Kabul, flows north-east to meet the Panjshir near Charikar, whence
they run united into the plains of Kohistan) the Hindu Kush is
intersected by passes at intervals, all of which were surveyed, and
several utilized, during the return of the Russo-Afghan boundary
commission from the Oxus to Kabul in 1886. Those utilized were the
Kaoshan (the "Hindu Kush" pass _par excellence_), 14,340 ft.; the
Chahardar (13,900 ft.), which is a link in one of the amir of
Afghanistan's high roads to Turkestan; and the Shibar (9800 ft.),
which is merely a diversion into the upper Ghorband of that group of
passes between Bamian and the Kabul plains which are represented by
the Irak, Hajigak, Unai, &c. About this point it is geographically
correct to place the southern extremity of the Hindu Kush, for here
commences the Koh-i-Baba system into which the Hindu Kush is merged.

General conformation.

The general conformation of the Hindu Kush system south of the Khawak,
no less than such fragmentary evidence of its rock composition as at
present exists to the north, points to its construction under the same
conditions of upheaval and subsequent denudation as are common to the
western Himalaya and the whole of the trans-Indus borderland. Its
upheaval above the great sea which submerged all the north-west of the
Indian peninsula long after the Himalaya had massed itself as a
formidable mountain chain, belongs to a comparatively recent geologic
period, and the same thrust upwards of vast masses of cretaceous
limestone has disturbed the overlying recent beds of shale and clays
with very similar results to those which have left so marked an
impress on the Baluch frontier. Successive flexures or ridges are
ranged in more or less parallel lines, and from between the bands of
hard, unyielding rock of older formation the soft beds of recent shale
have been washed out, to be carried through the enclosing ridges by
rifts which break across their axes. The Hindu Kush is, in fact, but
the face of a great upheaved mass of plateau-land lying beyond it
northwards, just as the Himalaya forms the southern face of the great
central tableland of Tibet, and its general physiography, exhibiting
long, narrow, lateral valleys and transverse lines of "antecedent"
drainage, is similar. There are few passes across the southern
section of the Hindu Kush (and this section is, from the
politico-geographical point of view, more important to India than the
whole Himalayan system) which have not to surmount a succession of
crests or ridges as they cross from Afghan Turkestan to Afghanistan.
The exceptions are, of course, notable, and have played an important
part in the military history of Asia from time immemorial. From a
little ice-bound lake called Gaz Kul, or Karambar, which lies on the
crest of the Hindu Kush near its northern origin at the head of the
Taghdumbash Pamir, two very important river systems (those of Chitral
and Hunza) are believed to originate. The lake really lies on the
watershed between the two, and is probably a glacial relic. Its
contribution to either infant stream appears to depend on conditions
of overflow determined by the blocking of ice masses towards one end.
It marks the commencement of the water-divide which primarily
separates the Gilgit basin from that of the Yashkun, or Chitral,
river, and subsequently divides the drainage of Swat and Bajour from
that of the Chitral (or Kunar). The Yashkun-Chitral-Kunar river (it is
called by all three names) is the longest affluent of the Kabul, and
it is in many respects a more important river than the Kabul.
Throughout its length it is closely flanked on its left bank by this
main water-divide, which is called Moshabar or Shandur in its northern
sections, and owns a great variety of names where it divides Bajour
from the Kunar valley. It is this range, crowned by peaks of 22,000
ft. altitude and maintaining an average elevation of some 10,000 ft.
throughout its length of 250 m., that is the real barrier of the
north--not the Hindu Kush itself. Across it, at its head, are the
glacial passes which lead to the foot of the Baroghil. Of these
Darkot, with a glacial staircase on each side, is typical. (See
GILGIT.) Those passes (the Kilik and Mintaka) from the Pamir regions,
which lead into the rocky gorges and defiles of the upper affluents of
the Hunza to the east of the Darkot, belong rather to the Muztagh
system than to the Hindu Kush. Other passes across this important
water-divide are the Shandur (12,250 ft.), between Gilgit and Mastuj;
the Lowarai (10,450 ft.), between the Panjkora and Chitral valleys;
and farther south certain lower crossings which once formed part of
the great highway between Kabul and India.

Chitral.

Deep down in the trough of the Chitral river, about midway between its
source and its junction with the Kabul at Jalalabad, is the village
and fort of Chitral (q.v.). Facing Chitral, on the right bank of the
river, and extending for some 70 m. from the Hindu Kush, is the lofty
snow-clad spur of the Hindu Kush known as Shawal, across which one or
two difficult passes lead into the Bashgol valley of Kafiristan. This
spur carries the boundary of Afghanistan southwards to Arnawai (some
50 m. below Chitral), where it crosses the river to the long Shandur
watershed. South of Arnawai the Kunar valley becomes a part of
Afghanistan (see KUNAR). The value of Chitral as an outpost of British
India may be best gauged by its geographical position. It is about 100
m. (direct map measurement) from the outpost of Russia at Langar Kisht
on the river Panja, with the Dorah pass across the Hindu Kush
intervening. The Dorah may be said to be about half-way between the
two outposts, and the mountain tracks leading to it on either side are
rough and difficult. The Dorah, however, is not the only pass which
leads into the Chitral valley from the Oxus. The Mandal pass, a few
miles south of the Dorah, is the connecting link between the Oxus and
the Bashgol valley of Kafiristan; and the Bashgol valley leads
directly to the Chitral valley at Arnawai, about 50 m. below Chitral.
Nor must we overlook the connexion between north and south of the
Hindu Kush which is afforded by the long narrow valley of the Chitral
(or Yashkun) itself, leading up to the Baroghil pass. This route was
once made use of by the Chinese for purposes of pilgrimage, if not for
invasion. Access to Chitral from the north is therefore but a matter
of practicable tracks, or passes, in two or three directions, and the
measure of practicability under any given conditions can best be
reckoned from Chitral itself. By most authorities the possibility of
an advance in force from the north, even under the most favourable
conditions, is considered to be exceedingly small; but the tracks and
passes of the Hindu Kush are only impracticable so long as they are
left as nature has made them.

_Historical Notices._--Hindu Kush is the Caucasus of Alexander's historians. It is also included in the Paropamisus, though the latter term embraces more, Caucasus being apparently used only when the alpine barrier is in question. Whether the name was given in mere vanity to the barrier which Alexander passed (as Arrian and others repeatedly allege), or was founded also on some verbal confusion, cannot be stated. It was no doubt regarded (and perhaps not altogether untruly) as a part of a great alpine zone believed to traverse Asia from west to east, whether called Taurus, Caucasus or Imaus. Arrian himself applies Caucasus distinctly to the Himalaya also. The application of the name Tanais to the Syr seems to indicate a real confusion with Colchian Caucasus. Alexander, after building an Alexandria at its foot (probably at Hupian near Charikar), crossed into Bactria, first reaching Drapsaca, or Adrapsa. This has been interpreted as Anderab, in which case he probably crossed the Khawak Pass, but the identity is uncertain. The ancient Zend name is, according to Rawlinson, Paresina, the essential part of Paropamisus; this accounts for the great Asiastic _Parnassus_ of Aristotle, and the _Pho-lo-sin-a_ of Hsuan Tsang.

The name Hindu Kush is used by Ibn Batuta, who crossed (c. 1332) from Anderab, and he gives the explanation of the name which, however doubtful, is still popular, as (Pers.) Hindu-Killer, "because of the number of Indian slaves who perished in passing" its snows. Baber always calls the range Hindu Kush, and the way in which he speaks of it shows clearly that it was a range that was meant, not a solitary pass or peak (according to modern local use, as alleged by Elphinstone and Burnes). Probably, however, the title was confined to the section from Khawak to Koh-i-Baba. The name has by some later Oriental writers been modified into Hindu _Koh_ (mountain), but this is factitious, and throws no more light on the origin of the title. The name seems to have become known to European geographers by the Oriental translations of the two Petis de la Croix, and was taken up by Delisle and D'Anville. Rennell and Elphinstone familiarized it. Burnes first crossed the range (1832). A British force was stationed at Bamian beyond it in 1840, with an outpost at Saighan.

The Hindu Kush, formidable as it seems, and often as it has been the limit between petty states, has hardly ever been the boundary of a considerable power. Greeks, White Huns, Samanidae of Bokhara, Ghaznevides, Mongols, Timur and Timuridae, down to Saddozais and Barakzais, have ruled both sides of this great alpine chain.

AUTHORITIES.--Information about the Hindu Kush and Chitral is now
comparatively exact. The Russo-Afghan Boundary Commission of 1884 and
the Chitral expedition of 1895 opened up a vast area for geographical
investigation, and the information collected is to be found in the
reports and gazetteers of the Indian government. The following are the
chief recent authorities:--Report of the Russo-Afghan Boundary
Commission (1886); Report of Lockhart's Mission (1886); Report of
Asmar Boundary Commission (1895); Report of Pamir Boundary Commission
(1896); J. Biddulph, _Tribes of the Hindu Kush_ (Calcutta, 1880); W.
M'Nair, "Visit to Kafiristan," vol. vi. _R.G.S. Proc._, 1884; F.
Younghusband, "Journeys on the Pamirs, &c.," vol. xiv. _R.G.S. Proc._,
1892; Colonel Durand, _Making a Frontier_ (London, 1899); Sir G.
Robertson, _Chitral_ (London, 1899). (T. H. H.*)

HINDUR, or NALAGARH, one of the Simla hill states, under the government of the Punjab, India. Pop. (1901) 52,551; area, 256 sq. m.; estimated revenue, L8600. The country was overrun by the Gurkhas for some years before 1815, when they were driven out by the British, and the raja was confirmed in possession of the territory. The principal products are grain and opium.

HINGANGHAT, a town of British India in Wardha district, Central Provinces, 21 m. S.W. of Wardha town. Pop (1901) 12,662. It is a main seat of the cotton trade, the cotton here produced in the rich Wardha valley having given its name to one of the best indigenous staples of India. The principal native traders are Marwaris, many of whom have large transactions and export on their own account; but the greater number act as middle-men. There are two cotton-mills and several ginning and pressing factories.

HINGE (in Mid. Eng. _henge_ or _heeng_, from _hengen_, to hang), a movable joint, particularly that by which a door or window "hangs" from its side-post, or by which a lid or cover is attached to that which it closes; also any device which allows two parts to be joined together and move upon each other (see JOINERY). Figuratively the word is used of that on which something depends, a cardinal or turning point, a crisis.

HINGHAM, a township of Plymouth county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., on Massachusetts Bay. Pop (1890) 4564; (1900) 5059 (969 being foreign-born); (1905, state census) 4819; (1910) 4965. Area, about 30 sq. m. The township is traversed by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway, and contains the villages of Hingham, West Hingham, Hingham Center, and South Hingham. Derby Academy, a co-educational school founded and endowed with about L12,000 in 1784 by Sarah Derby (1714-1790), was opened in 1791. Hingham has a public library (1868), with 12,000 volumes in 1908. The Old Meeting House, erected in 1681, is one of the oldest church buildings in the country used continuously. Manufactures were relatively much more important in the 17th and 18th centuries than since. There were settlers here as early as 1633, some of them--notably Edmund Hobart, ancestor of Bishop John Henry Hobart,--being natives of Hingham, Norfolk, England, whence the name; and in 1635 common land called Barecove became the township of Hingham.

See _History of the Town of Hingham_ (4 vols., Hingham, 1893).

HINRICHS, HERMANN FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1794-1861), German philosopher, studied theology at Strassburg, and philosophy at Heidelberg under Hegel (q.v.), who wrote a preface to his _Religion im innern Verhaltniss zur Wissenschaft_ (Heidelberg, 1722). He became a _Privatdozent_ in 1819, and held professorships at Breslau (1822) and Halle (1824).

WORKS.--(1) Philosophical: _Grundlinien der Philosophie der Logik_
(Halle, 1826); _Genesis des Wissens_ (Heidelberg, 1835). (2) On
aesthetics: _Vorlesungen uber Goethes Faust_ (Halle, 1825); _Schillers
Dichtungen nach ihrem historischen Zusammenhang_ (Leipzig, 1837-1839).
By these works he became a recognized exponent of orthodox
Hegelianism. (3) Historical: _Geschichte der Rechts- und
Staatsprinzipien seit der Reformation bis auf die Gegenwart_ (Leipzig,
1848-1852); _Die Konige_ (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1853).

HINSCHIUS, PAUL (1835-1898), German jurist, was the son of Franz Sales August Hinschius (1807-1877), and was born in Berlin on the 25th of December 1835. His father was not only a scientific jurist, but also a lawyer in large practice in Berlin. After working under his father, Hinschius in 1852 began to study jurisprudence at Heidelberg and Berlin, the teacher who had most influence upon him being Aemilius Ludwig Richter (1808-1864), to whom he afterwards ascribed the great revival of the study of ecclesiastical law in Germany. In 1855 Hinschius took the degree of _doctor utriusque juris_, and in 1859 was admitted to the juridical faculty of Berlin. In 1863 he went as professor extraordinarius to Halle, returning in the same capacity to Berlin in 1865; and in 1868 became professor ordinarius at the university of Kiel, which he represented in the Prussian Upper House (1870-1871). He also assisted his father in editing the _Preussische Anwaltszeitung_ from 1862 to 1866 and the _Zeitschrift fur Gesetzgebung und Rechtspflege in Preussen_ from 1867 to 1871. In 1872 he was appointed professor ordinarius of ecclesiastical law at Berlin. In the same year he took part in the conferences of the ministry of ecclesiastical affairs, which issued in the famous "Falk laws." In connexion with the developments of the _Kulturkampf_ which resulted from the "Falk laws," he wrote several treatises: e.g. on "The Attitude of the German State Governments towards the Decrees of the Vatican Council" (1871), on "The Prussian Church Laws of 1873" (1873), "The Prussian Church Laws of the years 1874 and 1875" (1875), and "The Prussian Church Law of 14th July 1880" (1881). He sat in the Reichstag as a National Liberal from 1872 to 1878, and again in 1881 and 1882, and from 1889 onwards he represented the university of Berlin in the Prussian Upper House. He died on the 13th of December 1898.

The two great works by which Hinschius established his fame are the _Decretales Pseudo-Isidorianae et capitula Angilramni_ (2 parts, Leipzig, 1863) and _Das Kirchenrecht der Katholiken und Protestanten in Deutschland_, vols, i.-vi. (Berlin, 1869-1877). The first of these, for which during 1860 and 1861 he had gathered materials in Italy, Spain, France, England, Scotland, Ireland, Holland and Belgium, was the first critical edition of the False Decretals. His most monumental work, however, is the _Kirchenrecht_, which remains incomplete. The six volumes actually published (_System des katholischen Kirchenrechts_) cover only book i. of the work as planned; they are devoted to an exhaustive historical and analytical study of the Roman Catholic hierarchy and its government of the church. The work is planned with special reference to Germany; but in fact its scheme embraces the whole of the Roman Catholic organization in its principles and practice. Unfortunately even this part of the work remains incomplete; two chapters of book i. and the whole of book ii., which was to have dealt with "the rights and duties of the members of the hierarchy," remain unwritten; the most notable omission is that of the ecclesiastical law in relation to the regular orders. Incomplete as it is, however, the _Kirchenrecht_ remains a work of the highest scientific authority. Epoch-making in its application of the modern historical method to the study of ecclesiastical law in its theory and practice, it has become the model for the younger school of canonists.

See the articles s.v. by E. Seckel in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_
(3rd ed., 1900), and by Ulrich Steitz in the _Allgemeine deutsche
Biographie_, vol. 50 (Leipzig, 1905).

HINTERLAND (German for "the land behind"), the region lying behind a coast or river line, or a country dependent for trade or commerce on any other region. In the purely physical sense "interior" or "back country" is more commonly used, but the word has gained a distinct political significance. It first came into prominence during 1883-1885, when Germany insisted that she had a right to exercise jurisdiction in the territory behind those parts of the African coast that she had occupied. The "doctrine of the hinterland" was that the possessor of the littoral was entitled to as much of the back country as geographically, economically or politically was dependent upon the coast lands, a doctrine which, in the space of ten years, led to the partition of Africa between various European powers.

HINTON, JAMES (1822-1875), English surgeon and author, son of John Howard Hinton (1791-1873), Baptist minister and author of the _History and Topography of the United States_ and other works, was born at Reading in 1822. He was educated at his grandfather's school near Oxford, and at the Nonconformist school at Harpenden, and in 1838, on his father's removal to London, was apprenticed to a woollen-draper in Whitechapel. After retaining this situation about a year he became clerk in an insurance office. His evenings were spent in intense study, and this, joined to the ardour, amounting to morbidness, of his interest in moral problems, so affected his health that in his nineteenth year he resolved to seek refuge from his own thoughts by running away to sea. His intention having, however, been discovered, he was sent, on the advice of the physician who was consulted regarding his health, to St Bartholomew's Hospital to study for the medical profession. After receiving his diploma in 1847, he was for some time assistant surgeon at Newport, Essex, but the same year he went out to Sierra Leone to take medical charge of the free labourers on their voyage thence to Jamaica, where he stayed some time. He returned to England in 1850, and entered into partnership with a surgeon in London, where he soon had his interest awakened specially in aural surgery, and gave also much of his attention to physiology. He made his first appearance as an author in 1856 by contributing papers on physiological and ethical subjects to the _Christian Spectator_; and in 1859 he published _Man and his Dwelling-place_. A series of papers entitled "Physiological Riddles," in the _Cornhill Magazine_, afterwards published as _Life in Nature_ (1862), as well as another series entitled _Thoughts on Health_ (1871), proved his aptitude for popular scientific exposition. After being appointed aural surgeon to Guy's Hospital in 1863, he speedily acquired a reputation as the most skilful aural surgeon of his day, which was fully borne out by his works, _An Atlas of Diseases of the membrana tympani_ (1874), and _Questions of Aural Surgery_ (1874). But his health broke down, and in 1874 he gave up practice; and he died at the Azores of acute inflammation of the brain on the 16th of December 1875. In addition to the works already mentioned, he was the author of _The Mystery of Pain_ (1866) and _The Place of the Physician_ (1874). On account of their fresh and vigorous discussion of many of the important moral and social problems of the time, his writings had a wide circulation on both sides of the Atlantic.

His _Life and Letters_, edited by Ellice Hopkins, with an introduction
by Sir W. W. Gull, appeared in 1878.

HIOGO [HYOGO], a town of Japan in the province of Settsu, Nippon, on the western shore of the bay of Osaka, adjoining the foreign settlement of Kobe, 21 m. W. of Osaka by rail. The growth of its prosperity has been very remarkable. Its population, including that of Kobe, was 135,639 in 1891, and 285,002 in 1903. From 1884 to the close of the century its trade increased nearly eightfold, and the increase was not confined to a few staples of commerce, but was spread over almost the whole trade, in which silk and cotton fabrics, floor-mats, straw-plaits, matches, and cotton yarns are specially important. Kobe owes much of its prosperity to the fact of serving largely as the shipping port of Osaka, the chief manufacturing town in Japan. The foreign community, exclusive of Chinese, exceeds 1000 persons. Kobe is considered the brightest and healthiest of all the places assigned as foreign settlements in Japan, its pure, dry air and granite subsoil constituting special advantages. It is in railway communication with all parts of the country, and wharves admit of steamers of large size loading and discharging cargo without the aid of lighters. The area originally appropriated for a foreign settlement soon proved too restricted, and foreigners received permission to lease lands and houses direct from Japanese owners beyond the treaty limits, a privilege which, together with that of building villas on the hills behind the town, ultimately involved some diplomatic complications. Kobe has a shipbuilding yard, and docks in its immediate neighbourhood.

Hiogo has several temples of interest, one of which has near it a huge bronze statue of Buddha, while by the Minatogawa, which flows into the sea between Hiogo and Kobe, a temple commemorates the spot where Kusunoki Masashige, the mirror of Japanese loyalty, met his death in battle in 1336. The temple of Ikuta was erected on the site of the ancient fane built by Jingo on her return from Korea in the 3rd century.

Hiogo's original name was Bako. Its position near the entrance of the Inland Sea gave it some maritime importance from a very early period, but it did not become really prominent until the 12th century, when Kiyomori, chief of the Taira clan, transferred the capital from Kioto to Fukuhara, in Hiogo's immediate neighbourhood, and undertook various public works for improving the place. The change of capital was very brief, but Hiogo benefited permanently from the distinction.

HIP. (1) (From O. Eng. _hype_, a word common in various forms to many Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch _heup_, and Ger. _Hufte_), the projecting part of the body formed by the top of the thighbone and the side of the pelvis, in quadrupeds generally known as the haunch (see JOINTS). (2)(O. Eng. _heope_, from same root as M.H. Ger. _hiefe_, a thorn-bush), the fruit of the dog-rose (_Rosa canina_); "hips" are usually joined with "haws," the fruit of the hawthorn.

HIP-KNOB, in architecture, the finial on the hip of a roof, between the barge-boards of a gable.

HIPPARCHUS (fl. 146-126 B.C.), Greek astronomer, was born at Nicaea in Bithynia early in the 2nd century B.C. He observed in the island of Rhodes probably from 161, certainly from 146 until about 126 B.C., and made the capital discovery of the precession of the equinoxes in 130 (see ASTRONOMY: _History_). The outburst of a new star in 134 B.C. is stated by Pliny (_Hist. nat._ ii. 26) to have prompted the preparation of his catalogue of 1080 stars, substantially embodied in Ptolemy's _Almagest_. Hipparchus founded trigonometry, and compiled the first table of chords. Scientific geography originated with his invention of the method of fixing terrestrial positions by circles of latitude and longitude. There can be little doubt that the fundamental part of his astronomical knowledge was derived from Chaldaea. None of his many works has survived except a Commentary on the _Phaenomena_ of Aratus and Eudoxus, published by P. Victorius at Florence in 1567, and included by D. Petavius in his _Uranologium_ (Paris, 1630). A new edition was published by Carolus Manitius (Leipzig, 1894).

See J. B. J. Delambre, _Histoire de l'astronomie ancienne_, i. 173; P.
Tannery, _Recherches sur l'histoire de l'astr. ancienne_, p. 130; A.
Berry, _Hist. of Astronomy_, pp. 40-61; M. Marie, _Hist. des
sciences_, i. 207; G. Cornewall Lewis, _Astronomy of the Ancients_, p.
207; R. Grant, _Hist. of Phys. Astronomy_, pp. 318, 437; F. Boll,
_Sphaera_, p. 61 (Leipzig, 1903); R. Wolf, _Geschichte der
Astronomie_, p. 45; J. F. Montucla, _Hist. des mathematiques_, t. i.
p. 257; J. A. Schmidt, _Variorum philosophicorum decas_, cap. i.
(Jenae, 1691). (A. M. C.)

HIPPASUS OF METAPONTUM, Pythagorean philosopher, was one of the earliest of the disciples of Pythagoras. He is mentioned both by Diogenes Laertius and by Iamblichus, but nothing is known of his life. Diogenes says that he left no writings, but other authorities make him the author of a [Greek: mystikos logos] directed against the Pythagoreans. According to Aristotle (_Metaphysica_, i. 3), he was an adherent of the Heraclitean fire-doctrine, whereas the Pythagoreans maintained the theory that number is the principle of everything. He seems to have regarded the soul as composed of igneous matter, and so approximates the orthodox Pythagorean doctrine of the central fire, or Hestia, to the more detailed theories of Heraclitus. In spite of this divergence, Hippasus is always regarded as a Pythagorean.

See Diogenes viii. 84; Brandis, _History of Greek and Roman
Philosophy_; also PYTHAGORAS.

HIPPEASTRUM, in botany, a genus of the natural order Amaryllidaceae, containing about 50 species of bulbous plants, natives of tropical and sub-tropical South America. In cultivation they are generally known as _Amaryllis_. The handsome funnel-shaped flowers are borne in a cluster of two to many, at the end of a short hollow scape. The species and the numerous hybrids which have been obtained artificially, show a great variety in size and colour of the flower, including the richest deep crimson and blood-red, white, or with striped, mottled or blended colours. They are of easy culture, and free-blooming habit. Like other bulbs they are increased by offsets, which should be carefully removed when the plants are at rest, and should be allowed to attain a fair size before removal. These young bulbs should be potted singly in February or March, in mellow loamy soil with a moderate quantity of sand, about two-thirds of the bulb being kept above the level of the soil, which should be made quite solid. They should be removed to a temperature of 60 deg. by night and 70 deg. by day, very carefully watered until the roots have begun to grow freely, after which the soil should be kept moderately moist. As they advance the temperature should be raised to 70 deg. at night, and to 80 deg. or higher with sun heat by day. They do not need shading, but should have plenty of air, and be syringed daily in the afternoon. When growing they require a good supply of water. After the decay of the flowers they should be returned to a brisk moist temperature of from 70 deg. to 80 deg. by day during summer to perfect their leaves, and then be ripened off in autumn. Through the winter they should have less water, but must not be kept entirely dry. The minimum temperature should now be about 55 deg., to be increased 10 deg. or 15 deg. in spring. As the bulbs get large they will occasionally need shifting into larger pots. Propagation is also readily effected by seeds for raising new varieties. Seeds are sown when ripe in well drained pans of sandy loam at a temperature of about 65 deg. The seedlings when large enough to handle are placed either singly in very small pots or several in a pot or shallow pan, and put in a bottom heat, in a moist atmosphere with a temperature from 60 deg. to 70 deg. _H. Ackermanni_, with large, handsome, crimson flowers--itself a hybrid--is the parent of many of the large-flowered forms; _H. equestre_ (Barbados lily), with yellowish-green flowers tipped with scarlet, has also given rise to several handsome forms; _H. aulicum_ (flowers crimson and green), _H. pardinum_ (flowers creamy-white spotted with crimson), and _H. vittatum_ (flowers white with red stripes, a beautiful species and the parent of many varieties), are stove or warm greenhouse plants. These kinds, however, are now only regarded as botanical curiosities, and are rarely grown in private or commercial establishments. They have been ousted by the more gorgeous looking hybrids, which have been evolved during the past 100 years. _H. Johnsoni_ is named after a Lancashire watchmaker who raised it in 1799 by crossing _H. Reginae_ with _H. vittatum_. Since that time other species have been used for hybridizing, notably _H. reticulatum_, _H. aulicum_, _H. solandriflorum_, and sometimes _H. equestre_ and _H. psittacinum_. The finest forms since 1880 have been evolved from _H. Leopoldi_ and _H. pardinum_. (J. Ws.)

HIPPED ROOF, the name given in architecture to a roof which slopes down on all four sides instead of terminating on two sides against a vertical gable. Sometimes a compromise is made between the two, half the roof being hipped and half resting on the vertical wall; this gives much more room inside the roof, and externally a most picturesque effect, which is one of the great attractions of domestic architecture in the south of England, and is rarely found in other countries.

HIPPEL, THEODOR GOTTLIEB VON (1741-1796), German satirical and humorous writer, was born on the 31st of January 1741, at Gerdauen in East Prussia, where his father was rector of a school. He enjoyed an excellent education at home, and in his sixteenth year he entered Konigsberg university as a student of theology. Interrupting his studies, he went, on the invitation of a friend, to St Petersburg, where he was introduced at the brilliant court of the empress Catherine II. Returning to Konigsberg he became a tutor in a private family; but, falling in love with a young lady of high position, his ambition was aroused, and giving up his tutorship he devoted himself with enthusiasm to legal studies. He was successful in his profession, and in 1780 was appointed chief burgomaster in Konigsberg, and in 1786 privy councillor of war and president of the town. As he rose in the world, however, his inclination for matrimony vanished, and the lady who had stimulated his ambition was forgotten. He died at Konigsberg on the 23rd of April 1796, leaving a considerable fortune. Hippel had extraordinary talents, rich in wit and fancy; but his was a character full of contrasts and contradictions. Cautiousness and ardent passion, dry pedantry and piety, morality and sensuality; simplicity and ostentation composed his nature; and, hence, his literary productions never attained artistic finish. In his _Lebenslaufe nach aufsteigender Linie_ (1778-1781) he intended to describe the lives of his father and grandfather, but he eventually confined himself to his own. It is an autobiography, in which persons well known to him are introduced, together with a mass of heterogeneous reflections on life and philosophy. _Kreuz- und Querzuge des Ritters A bis Z_ (1793-1794) is a satire levelled against the follies of the age--ancestral pride and the thirst for orders, decoration and the like. Among others of his better known works are _Uber die Ehe_ (1774) and _Uber die burgerliche Verbesserung der Weiber_ (1792). Hippel has been called the fore-runner of Jean Paul Richter, and has some resemblance to this author, in his constant digressions and in the interweaving of scientific matter in his narrative. Like Richter he was strongly influenced by Laurence Sterne.

In 1827-1838 a collected edition of Hippel's works in 14 vols., was
issued at Berlin. _Uber die Ehe_ has been edited by E. Brenning
(Leipzig, 1872), and the _Lebenslaufe nach aufsteigender Linie_ has in
a modernized edition by A. von Ottingen (1878), gone through several
editions. See J. Czerny, _Sterne, Hippel und Jean Paul_ (Berlin,
1904).

HIPPIAS OF ELIS, Greek sophist, was born about the middle of the 5th century B.C. and was thus a younger contemporary of Protagoras and Socrates. He was a man of great versatility and won the respect of his fellow-citizens to such an extent that he was sent to various towns on important embassies. At Athens he made the acquaintance of Socrates and other leading thinkers. With an assurance characteristic of the later sophists, he claimed to be regarded as an authority on all subjects, and lectured, at all events with financial success, on poetry, grammar, history, politics, archaeology, mathematics and astronomy. He boasted that he was more popular than Protagoras, and was prepared at any moment to deliver an extempore address on any subject to the assembly at Olympia. Of his ability there is no question, but it is equally certain that he was superficial. His aim was not to give knowledge, but to provide his pupils with the weapons of argument, to make them fertile in discussion on all subjects alike. It is said that he boasted of wearing nothing which he had not made with his own hands. Plato's two dialogues, the _Hippias major_ and _minor_, contain an expose of his methods, exaggerated no doubt for purposes of argument but written with full knowledge of the man and the class which he represented. Ast denies their authenticity, but they must have been written by a contemporary writer (as they are mentioned in the literature of the 4th century), and undoubtedly represent the attitude of serious thinkers to the growing influence of the professional Sophists. There is, however, no question that Hippias did a real service to Greek literature by insisting on the meaning of words, the value of rhythm and literary style. He is credited with an excellent work on Homer, collections of Greek and foreign literature, and archaeological treatises, but nothing remains except the barest notes. He forms the connecting link between the first great sophists, Protagoras and Prodicus, and the innumerable eristics who brought their name into disrepute.

For the general atmosphere in which Hippias moved see SOPHISTS; also
histories of Philosophy (e.g. Windelband, Eng. trans. by Tufts, pt. 1,
c. 2, SS 7 and 8).

HIPPO, a Greek philosopher and natural scientist, classed with the Ionian or physical school. He was probably a contemporary of Archelaus and lived chiefly in Athens. Aristotle declared that he was unworthy of the name of philosopher, and, while comparing him with Thales in his main doctrine, adds that his intellect was too shallow for serious consideration. He held that the principle of all things is moisture ([Greek: to hygron]); that fire develops from water, and from fire the material universe. Further he denied all existence save that of material things as known through the senses, and was, therefore, classed among the "Atheists." The gods are merely great men canonized by popular tradition. It is said that he composed his own epitaph, wherein he claims for himself a place in this company.

HIPPOCRAS, an old medicinal drink or cordial, made of wine mixed with spices--such as cinnamon, ginger and sugar--and strained through woollen cloths. The early spelling usual in English was _ipocras_, or _ypocras_. The word is an adaptation of the Med. Lat. _Vinum Hippocraticum_, or wine of Hippocrates, so called, not because it was supposed to be a receipt of the physician, but from an apothecary's name for a strainer or sieve, "Hippocrates' sleeve" (see W. W. Skeat, _Chaucer_, note to the _Merchant's Tale_).