Chapter D: SOUTH CAPPADOCIA.--Karaburna; long, incised rock-inscription (6)

HOGARTH, WILLIAM (1697-1764), the great English painter and pictorial satirist, was born at Bartholomew Close in London on the 10th of November 1697, and baptized on the 28th in the church of St Bartholomew the Great. He had two younger sisters, Mary, born in 1699, and Ann, born in 1701. His father, Richard Hogarth, who died in 1718, was a schoolmaster and literary hack, who had come to the metropolis to seek that fortune which had been denied to him in his native Westmorland. The son seems to have been early distinguished by a talent for drawing and an active perceptive faculty rather than by any close attention to the learning which he was soon shrewd enough to see had not made his parent prosper. "Shows of all sorts gave me uncommon pleasure when an infant," he says, "and mimicry, common to all children, was remarkable in me.... My exercises when at school were more remarkable for the ornaments which adorned them than for the exercise itself." This being the case, it is no wonder that, by his own desire, he was apprenticed to a silver-plate engraver, Mr Ellis Gamble, at the sign of the "Golden Angel" in Cranbourne Street or Alley, Leicester Fields. For this master he engraved a shop-card which is still extant. When his apprenticeship began is not recorded; but it must have been concluded before the beginning of 1720, for in April of that year he appears to have set up as engraver on his own account. His desires, however, were not limited to silver-plate engraving. "Engraving on copper was, at twenty years of age, my utmost ambition." For this he lacked the needful skill as a draughtsman; and his account of the means which he took to supply this want, without too much interfering with his pleasure, is thoroughly characteristic, though it can scarcely be recommended as an example. "Laying it down," he says, "first as an axiom, that he who could by any means acquire and retain in his memory, perfect ideas of the subjects he meant to draw, would have as clear a knowledge of the figure as a man who can write freely hath of the twenty-four letters of the alphabet and their infinite combinations (each of these being composed of lines), and would consequently be an accurate designer, ... I therefore endeavoured to habituate myself to the exercise of a sort of technical memory, and by repeating in my own mind, the parts of which objects were composed, I could by degrees combine and put them down with my pencil." This account, it is possible, has something of the complacency of the old age in which it was written; but there is little doubt that his marvellous power of seizing expression owed less to patient academical study than to his unexampled eye-memory and tenacity of minor detail. But he was not entirely without technical training, since, by his own showing, he occasionally "took the life" to correct his memories, and is known to have studied at Sir James Thornhill's then recently opened art school.

"His first employment" (i.e. after he set up for himself) "seems," says John Nichols, in his _Anecdotes_, "to have been the engraving of arms and shop bills." After this he was employed in designing "plates for booksellers." Of these early and mostly insignificant works we may pass over "The Lottery, an Emblematic Print on the South Sea Scheme," and some book illustrations, to pause at "Masquerades and Operas" (1724), the first plate he published on his own account. This is a clever little satire on contemporary follies, such as the masquerades of the Swiss adventurer Heidegger, the popular Italian opera-singers, Rich's pantomimes at Lincoln's Inn Fields, and last, but by no means least, the exaggerated popularity of Lord Burlington's protege, the architect painter William Kent, who is here represented on the summit of Burlington Gate, with Raphael and Michelangelo for supporters. This worthy, Hogarth had doubtless not learned to despise less in the school of his rival Sir James Thornhill. Indeed almost the next of Hogarth's important prints was aimed at Kent alone, being that memorable burlesque of the unfortunate altarpiece designed by the latter for St Clement Danes, which, in deference to the ridicule of the parishioners, Bishop Gibson took down in 1725. Hogarth's squib, which appeared subsequently, exhibits it as a very masterpiece of confusion and bad drawing. In 1726 he prepared twelve large engravings for Butler's _Hudibras_. These he himself valued highly, and they are the best of his book illustrations. But he was far too individual to be the patient interpreter of other men's thoughts, and it is not in this direction that his successes are to be sought.

To 1727-1728 belongs one of those rare occurrences which have survived as contributions to his biography. He was engaged by Joshua Morris, a tapestry worker, to prepare a design for the "Element of Earth." Morris, however, having heard that he was "an engraver, and no painter," declined the work when completed, and Hogarth accordingly sued him for the money in the Westminster Court, where, on the 28th of May 1728, the case was decided in his (Hogarth's) favour. It may have been the aspersion thus early cast on his skill as a painter (coupled perhaps with the unsatisfactory state of print-selling, owing to the uncontrolled circulation of piratical copies) that induced him about this time to turn his attention to the production of "small conversation pieces" (i.e. groups in oil of full-length portraits from 12 to 15 in. high), many of which are still preserved in different collections. "This," he says, "having novelty, succeeded for a few years." Among his other efforts in oil between 1728 and 1732 were "The Wanstead Conversation," "The House of Commons examining Bambridge," an infamous warden of the Fleet, and several pictures of the chief actors in Gay's popular _Beggar's Opera_.

On the 23rd of March 1729 he was married at old Paddington church to Jane Thornhill, the only daughter of Kent's rival above mentioned. The match was a clandestine one, although Lady Thornhill appears to have favoured it. We next hear of him in "lodgings at South Lambeth," where he rendered some assistance to the then well-known Jonathan Tyers, who opened Vauxhall in 1732 with an entertainment styled a _ridotto al fresco_. For these gardens Hogarth painted a poor picture of Henry VIII. and Anne Boleyn, and he also permitted Hayman to make copies of the later series of the "Four Times of the Day." In return, the grateful Tyers presented him with a gold pass ticket "_In perpetuam Beneficii Memoriam_." It was long thought that Hogarth designed this himself. Mr Warwick Wroth (_Numismatic Chronicle_, vol. xviii.) doubts this, although he thinks it probable that Hogarth designed some of the silver Vauxhall passes which are figured in Wilkinson's _Londina illustrata_. The only engravings between 1726 and 1732 which need be referred to are the "Large Masquerade Ticket" (1727), another satire on masquerades, and the print of "Burlington Gate" (1731), evoked by Pope's _Epistle to Lord Burlington_, and defending Lord Chandos, who is therein satirized. This print gave great offence, and was, it is said, suppressed.

By 1731 Hogarth must have completed the earliest of the series of moral works which first gave him his position as a great and original genius. This was "A Harlot's Progress," the paintings for which, if we may trust the date in the last of the pictures, were finished in that year. Almost immediately afterwards he must have begun to engrave them--a task he had at first intended to leave to others. From an advertisement in the _Country Journal; or, the Craftsman_, 29th of January 1732, the pictures were then being engraved, and from later announcements it seems clear that they were delivered to the subscribers early in the following April, on the 21st of which month an unauthorized prose description of them was published. We have no record of the particular train of thought which prompted these story-pictures; but it may perhaps be fairly assumed that the necessity for creating some link of interest between the personages of the little "conversation pieces" above referred to, led to the further idea of connecting several groups or scenes so as to form a sequent narrative. "I wished," says Hogarth, "to compose pictures on canvas, similar to representations on the stage." "I have endeavoured," he says again, "to treat my subject as a dramatic writer; my picture is my stage, and men and women my players, who by means of certain actions and gestures are to exhibit _a dumb show_." There was never a more eloquent dumb show than this of the "Harlot's Progress." In six scenes the miserable career of a woman of the town is traced out remorselessly from its first facile beginning to its shameful and degraded end. Nothing of the detail is softened or abated; the whole is acted out _coram populo_, with the hard, uncompassionate morality of the age the painter lived in, while the introduction here and there of one or two well-known characters such as Colonel Charteris and Justice Gonson give a vivid reality to the satire. It had an immediate success. To say nothing of the fact that the talent of the paintings completely reconciled Sir James Thornhill to the son-in-law he had hitherto refused to acknowledge, more than twelve hundred names of subscribers to the engravings were entered in the artist's book. On the appearance of plate iii. the lords of the treasury trooped to the print shop for Sir John Gonson's portrait which it contained. The story was made into a pantomime by Theophilus Cibber, and by some one else into a ballad opera; and it gave rise to numerous pamphlets and poems. It was painted on fan-mounts and transferred to cups and saucers. Lastly, it was freely pirated. There could be no surer testimony to its popularity.

From the MSS. of George Vertue in the British Museum (Add. MSS. 23069-98) it seems that during the progress of the plates, Hogarth was domiciled with his father-in-law, Sir James Thornhill, in the Middle Piazza, Covent Garden (the "second house eastward from James Street"), and it must have been thence that set out the historical expedition from London to Sheerness of which the original record still exists at the British Museum. This is an oblong MS. volume entitled _An Account of what seem'd most Remarkable in the Five Days' Peregrination of the Five Following Persons, vizt., Messieurs Tothall, Scott, Hogarth, Thornhill and Forrest. Begun on Saturday May 27th 1732 and Finish'd On the 31st of the Same Month. Abi tu et fac similiter. Inscription on Dulwich College Porch_. The journal, which is written by Ebenezer, the father of Garrick's friend Theodosius Forrest, gives a good idea of what a "frisk"--as Johnson called it--was in those days, while the illustrations were by Hogarth and Samuel Scott the landscape painter. John Thornhill, Sir James's son, made the map. This version (in prose) was subsequently run into rhyme by one of Hogarth's friends, the Rev. Wm. Gostling of Canterbury, and after the artist's death both versions were published. In the absence of other biographical detail, they are of considerable interest to the student of Hogarth. In 1733 Hogarth moved into the "Golden Head" in Leicester Fields, which, with occasional absences at Chiswick, he continued to occupy until his death. By December of this year he was already engaged upon the engravings of a second Progress, that of a Rake. It was not as successful as its predecessor. It was in eight plates in lieu of six. The story is unequal; but there is nothing finer than the figure of the desperate hero in the Covent Garden gaming-house, or the admirable scenes in the Fleet prison and Bedlam, where at last his headlong career comes to its tragic termination. The plates abound with allusive suggestion and covert humour; but it is impossible to attempt any detailed description of them here.

"A Rake's Progress" was dated June 25, 1735, and the engravings bear the words "according to Act of Parliament." This was an act (8 Geo. II. cap. 13) which Hogarth had been instrumental in obtaining from the legislature, being stirred thereto by the shameless piracies of rival printsellers. Although loosely drawn, it served its purpose; and the painter commemorated his success by a long inscription on the plate entitled "Crowns, Mitres, &c.," afterwards used as a subscription ticket to the Election series. These subscription tickets to his engravings, let us add, are among the brightest and most vivacious of the artist's productions. That to the "Harlot's Progress" was entitled "Boys peeping at Nature," while the Rake's Progress was heralded by the delightful etching known as "A Pleased Audience at a Play, or The Laughing Audience."

We must pass more briefly over the prints which followed the two Progresses, noting first "A Modern Midnight Conversation," an admirable drinking scene which comes between them in 1733, and the bright little plate of "Southwark Fair," which, although dated 1733, was published with "A Rake's Progress" in 1735. Between these and "Marriage _a la mode_," upon the pictures of which the painter must have been not long after at work, come the small prints of the "Consultation of Physicians" and "Sleeping Congregation" (1736), the "Scholars at a Lecture" (1737); the "Four Times of the Day" (1738), a series of pictures of 18th century life, the earlier designs for which have been already referred to; the "Strolling Actresses dressing in a Barn" (1738), which Walpole held to be, "for wit and imagination, without any other end, the best of all the painter's works"; and finally the admirable plates of the Distrest Poet painfully composing a poem on "Riches" in a garret, and the Enraged Musician fulminating from his parlour window upon a discordant orchestra of knife-grinders, milk-girls, ballad-singers and the rest upon the pavement outside. These are dated respectively 1736 and 1741. To this period also (i.e. the period preceding the production of the plates of "Marriage _a la mode_") belong two of those history pictures to which, in emulation of the Haymans and Thornhills, the artist was continually attracted. "The Pool of Bethesda" and the "Good Samaritan," "with figures seven feet high," were painted _circa_ 1736, and presented by the artist to St Bartholomew's Hospital, where they remain. They were not masterpieces; and it is pleasanter to think of his connexion with Captain Coram's recently established Foundling Hospital (1739), which he aided with his money, his graver and his brush, and for which he painted that admirable portrait of the good old philanthropist which is still, and deservedly, one of its chief ornaments.

In "A Harlot's Progress" Hogarth had not strayed much beyond the lower walks of society, and although, in "A Rake's Progress," his hero was taken from the middle classes, he can scarcely be said to have quitted those fields of observation which are common to every spectator. It is therefore more remarkable, looking to his education and antecedents, that his masterpiece, "Marriage _a la mode_," should successfully depict, as the advertisement has it, "a variety of modern occurrences in high life." Yet, as an accurate delineation of upper class 18th century society, his "Marriage _a la mode_" has never, we believe, been seriously assailed. The countess's bedroom, the earl's apartment with its lavish coronets and old masters, the grand saloon with its marble pillars and grotesque ornaments, are fully as true to nature as the frowsy chamber in the "Turk's Head Bagnio," the quack-doctor's museum in St Martin's Lane, or the mean opulence of the merchant's house in the city. And what story could be more vividly, more perspicuously, more powerfully told than this godless alliance of _sacs et parchemins_--this miserable tragedy of an ill-assorted marriage? There is no defect of invention, no superfluity of detail, no purposeless stroke. It has the merit of a work by a great master of fiction, with the additional advantages which result from the pictorial fashion of the narrative; and it is matter for congratulation that it is still to be seen by all the world in the National Gallery in London, where it can tell its own tale better than pages of commentary. The engravings of "Marriage _a la mode_" were dated April 1745. Although by this time the painter found a ready market for his engravings, he does not appear to have been equally successful in selling his pictures. The people bought his prints; but the richer and not numerous connoisseurs who purchased pictures were wholly in the hands of the importers and manufacturers of "old masters." In February 1745 the original oil paintings of the two Progresses, the "Four Times of the Day" and the "Strolling Actresses" were still unsold. On the last day of that month Hogarth disposed of them by an ill-devised kind of auction, the details of which may be read in Nichols's _Anecdotes_, for the paltry sum of L427, 7s. No better fate attended "Marriage _a la mode_," which six years later became the property of Mr Lane of Hillingdon for 120 guineas, being then in Carlo Maratti frames which had cost the artist four guineas a piece. Something of this was no doubt due to Hogarth's impracticable arrangements, but the fact shows conclusively how completely blind his contemporaries were to his merits as a painter, and how hopelessly in bondage to the all-powerful picture-dealers. Of these latter the painter himself gave a graphic picture in a letter addressed by him under the pseudonym of "Britophil" to the _St James's Evening Post_, in June 1737.

But if Hogarth was not successful with his dramas on canvas, he occasionally shared with his contemporaries in the popularity of portrait painting. For a picture, executed in 1746, of Garrick as Richard III. he was paid L200, "which was more," says he, "than any English artist ever received for a single portrait." In the same year a sketch of Simon Fraser, Lord Lovat, afterwards beheaded on Tower Hill, had an exceptional success.

We must content ourselves with a brief enumeration of the most important of his remaining works. These are "The Stage Coach or Country Inn Yard" (1747); the series of twelve plates entitled "Industry and Idleness" (1747), depicting the career of two London apprentices; the "Gate of Calais" (1749), which had its origin in a rather unfortunate visit paid to France by the painter after the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle; the "March to Finchley" (1750); "Beer Street," "Gin Lane" and the "Four Stages of Cruelty" (1751); the admirable representations of election humours in the days of Sir Robert Walpole, entitled "Four Prints of an Election" (1755-1758); and the plate of "Credulity, Superstition and Fanaticism, a Medley" (1762), adapted from an earlier unpublished design called "Enthusiasm Delineated." Besides these must be chronicled three more essays in the "great style of history painting," viz. "Paul before Felix," "Moses brought to Pharaoh's Daughter" and the Altarpiece for St Mary Redcliffe at Bristol. The first two were engraved in 1751-1752, the last in 1794. A subscription ticket to the earlier pictures, entitled "Paul before Felix Burlesqued," had a popularity far greater than that of the prints themselves.

In 1745 Hogarth painted that admirable portrait of himself with his dog Trump, which is now in the National Gallery. In a corner of this he had drawn on a palette a serpentine curve with the words "The Line of Beauty." Much inquiry ensued as to the meaning of this hieroglyphic; and in an unpropitious hour the painter resolved to explain himself in writing. The result was the well-known _Analysis of Beauty_ (1753), a treatise to fix "the fluctuating ideas of Taste," otherwise a desultory essay having for pretext the precept attributed to Michelangelo that a figure should be always "Pyramidall, Serpent like and multiplied by one two and three." The fate of the book was what might have been expected. By the painter's adherents it was praised as a final deliverance upon aesthetics; by his enemies and professional rivals, its obscurities, and the minor errors which, notwithstanding the benevolent efforts of literary friends, the work had not escaped, were made the subject of endless ridicule and caricature. It added little to its author's fame, and it is perhaps to be regretted that he ever undertook it. Moreover, there were further humiliations in store for him. In 1759 the success of a little picture called "The Lady's Last Stake," painted for Lord Charlemont, procured him a commission from Sir Richard Grosvenor to paint another picture "upon the same terms." Unhappily on this occasion he deserted his own field of genre and social satire, to select the story from Boccaccio (or rather Dryden) of Sigismunda weeping over the heart of her murdered lover Guiscardo, being the subject of a picture in Sir Luke Schaub's collection by Furini which had recently been sold for L400. The picture, over which he spent much time and patience, was not regarded as a success; and Sir Richard rather meanly shuffled out of his bargain upon the plea that "the constantly having it before one's eyes, would be too often occasioning melancholy ideas to arise in one's mind." Sigismunda, therefore, much to the artist's mortification, and the delight of the malicious, remained upon his hands. As, by her husband's desire, his widow valued it at L500, it found no purchaser until after her death, when the Boydells bought it for 56 guineas. It was exhibited, with others of Hogarth's pictures, at the Spring Gardens exhibition of 1761, for the catalogue of which Hogarth engraved a Head-piece and a Tail-piece which are still the delight of collectors; and finally, by the bequest of Mr J. H. Anderdon, it passed in 1879 to the National Gallery, where, in spite of theatrical treatment and a repulsive theme, it still commands admiration for its colour, drawing and expression.

In 1761 Hogarth was sixty-five years of age, and he had but three years more to live. These three years were embittered by an unhappy quarrel with his quondam friends, John Wilkes and Churchill the poet, over which most of his biographers are contented to pass rapidly. Having succeeded John Thornhill in 1757 as serjeant painter (to which post he was reappointed at the accession of George III.), an evil genius prompted him in 1762 to do some "timed" thing in the ministerial interest, and he accordingly published the indifferent satire of "The Times, plate i." This at once brought him into collision with Wilkes and Churchill, and the immediate result was a violent attack upon him, both as a man and an artist, in the opposition _North Briton_, No. 17. The alleged decay of his powers, the miscarriage of Sigismunda, the cobbled composition of the _Analysis_, were all discussed with scurrilous malignity by those who had known his domestic life and learned his weaknesses. The old artist was deeply wounded, and his health was failing. Early in the next year, however, he replied by that portrait of Wilkes which will for ever carry his squinting features to posterity. Churchill retaliated in July by a savage _Epistle to William Hogarth_, to which the artist rejoined by a print of Churchill as a bear, in torn bands and ruffles, not the most successful of his works. "The pleasure, and pecuniary advantage," writes Hogarth manfully, "which I derived from these two engravings" (of Wilkes and Churchill), "together with occasionally riding on horseback, restored me to as much health as can be expected at my time of life." He produced but one more print, that of "Finis, or The Bathos," March 1764, a strange jumble of "fag ends," intended as a tail-piece to his collected prints; and on the 26th October of the same year he died of an aneurism at his house in Leicester Square. His wife, to whom he left his plates as a chief source of income, survived him until 1789. He was buried in Chiswick churchyard, where a tomb was erected to him by his friends in 1771, with an epitaph by Garrick. Not far off, on the road to Chiswick Gardens, still stands the little red-brick Georgian villa in which from September 1749 until his death he spent the summer seasons. After many vicissitudes and changes of ownership it was purchased in 1902 by Lieut.-Colonel Shipway of Chiswick, who turned it into a Hogarth museum and preserved it to the nation.

From such records of him as survive, Hogarth appears to have been much what from his portrait one might suppose him to have been--a blue-eyed, honest, combative little man, thoroughly insular in his prejudices and antipathies, fond of flattery, sensitive like most satirists, a good friend, an intractable enemy, ambitious, as he somewhere says, in all things to be singular, and not always accurately estimating the extent of his powers. With the art connoisseurship of his day he was wholly at war, because, as he believed, it favoured foreign mediocrity at the expense of native talent; and in the heat of argument he would probably, as he admits, often come "to utter blasphemous expressions against the divinity even of Raphael Urbino, Correggio and Michelangelo." But it was rather against the third-rate copies of third-rate artists--the "ship-loads of dead Christs, Holy Families and Madonnas"--that his indignation was directed; and in speaking of his attitude with regard to the great masters of art, it is well to remember his words to Mrs Piozzi:--"The connoisseurs and I are at war, you know; and because I hate _them_, they think I hate _Titian_--and let them!"

But no doubt it was in a measure owing to this hostile attitude of his towards the all-powerful picture-brokers that his contemporaries failed to recognize adequately his merits as a painter, and persisted in regarding him as an ingenious humorist alone. Time has reversed that unjust sentence. He is now held to have been a splendid painter, pure and harmonious in his colouring, wonderfully dexterous and direct in his handling, and in his composition leaving little or nothing to be desired. As an engraver his work is more conspicuous for its vigour, spirit and intelligibility than for finish and beauty of line. He desired that it should tell its own tale plainly, and bear the distinct impress of his individuality, and in this he thoroughly succeeded. As a draughtsman his skill has sometimes been debated, and his work at times undoubtedly bears marks of haste, and even carelessness. If, however, he is judged by his best instead of his worst, he will not be found wanting in this respect. But it is not after all as a draughtsman, an engraver or a painter that he claims his unique position among English artists--it is as a humorist and a satirist upon canvas. Regarded in this light he has never been equalled, whether for his vigour of realism and dramatic power, his fancy and invention in the decoration of his story, or his merciless anatomy and exposure of folly and wickedness. If we regard him--as he loved to regard himself--as "author" rather than "artist," his place is with the great masters of literature--with the Thackerays and Fieldings, the Cervantes and Molieres.

AUTHORITIES.--The main body of Hogarth literature is to be found in
the autobiographical _Memoranda_ published by John Ireland in 1798,
and in the successive _Anecdotes_ of the antiquary John Nichols. Much
minute information has also been collected in F. G. Stephens's
_Catalogue of the Satirical Prints and Drawings in the British
Museum_. But a copious bibliography of books, pamphlets, &c., relating
to Hogarth, together with detailed catalogues of his paintings and
prints, will be found in the _Memoir_ of Hogarth by Austin Dobson.
First issued in 1879, this was reprinted and expanded in 1891, 1897,
1902 and finally in 1907. Pictures by Hogarth from private collections
are constantly to be found at the annual exhibitions of the Old
Masters at Burlington House; but most of the best-known works have
permanent homes in public galleries. "Marriage _a la mode_."
"Sigismunda," "Lavinia Fenton," the "Shrimp Girl," the "Gate of
Calais," the portraits of himself, his sister and his servants, are
all in the National Gallery; the "Rake's Progress" and the Election
Series, in the Soane Museum; and the "March to Finchley" and "Captain
Coram" in the Foundling. There are also notable pictures in the
Fitzwilliam Museum at Cambridge and the National Portrait Gallery. At
the Print Room in the British Museum there is also a very interesting
set of sixteen designs for the series called "Industry and Idleness,"
the majority of which formerly belonged to Horace Walpole. (A. D.)

HOGG, JAMES (1770-1835), Scottish poet, known as the "Ettrick Shepherd," was baptized at Ettrick in Selkirkshire on the 9th of December 1770. His ancestors had been shepherds for centuries. He received hardly any school training, and seems to have had difficulty in getting books to read. After spending his early years herding sheep for different masters, he was engaged as shepherd by Mr Laidlaw, tenant of Blackhouse, in the parish of Yarrow, from 1790 till 1799. He was treated with great kindness, and had access to a large collection of books. When this was exhausted he subscribed to a circulating library in Peebles. While attending to his flock, he spent a great deal of time in reading. He profited by the company of his master's sons, of whom William Laidlaw is known as the friend of Scott and the author of _Lucy's Flittin'_. Hogg's first printed piece was "The Mistakes of a Night" in the _Scots Magazine_ for October 1794, and in 1801 he published his _Scottish Pastorals_. In 1802 Hogg became acquainted with Sir Walter Scott, who was then collecting materials for his _Border Minstrelsy_. On Scott's recommendation Constable published Hogg's miscellaneous poems (_The Mountain Bard_) in 1807. By this work, and by _The Shepherd's Guide, being a Practical Treatise on the Diseases of Sheep_, Hogg realized about L300. With this money he unfortunately embarked in farming in Dumfriesshire, and in three years was utterly ruined, having to abandon all his effects to his creditors. He returned to Ettrick, only to find that he could not even obtain employment as a shepherd; so he set off in February 1810 to push his fortune in Edinburgh as a literary adventurer. In the same year he published a collection of songs, _The Forest Minstrel_, to which he was the largest contributor. This book, being dedicated to the countess of Dalkeith (afterwards duchess of Buccleuch), and recommended to her notice by Scott, was rewarded with a present of 100 guineas. He then began a weekly periodical, _The Spy_, which he continued from September 1810 till August 1811. The appearance of _The Queen's Wake_ in 1813 established Hogg's reputation as a poet; Byron recommended it to John Murray, who brought out an English edition. The scene of the poem is laid in 1561; the queen is Mary Stuart; and the "wake" provides a simple framework for seventeen poems sung by rival bards. It was followed by the _Pilgrims of the Sun_ (1815), and _Mador of the Moor_ (1816). The duchess of Buccleuch, on her death-bed (1814), had asked her husband to do something for the Ettrick bard; and the duke gave him a lease for life of the farm of Altrive in Yarrow, consisting of about 70 acres of moorland, on which the poet built a house and spent the last years of his life. In order to obtain money to stock his farm Hogg asked various poets to contribute to a volume of verse which should be a kind of poetic "benefit" for himself. Failing in his applications he wrote a volume of parodies, published in 1816, as _The Poetic Mirror, or the Living Bards of Great Britain_. He took possession of his farm in 1817; but his literary exertions were never relaxed. Before 1820 he had written the prose tales of _The Brownie of Bodsbeck_ (1818) and two volumes of _Winter Evening Tales_ (1820), besides collecting, editing and writing part of two volumes of _The Jacobite Relics of Scotland_ (1819-1821), and contributing largely to _Blackwood's Magazine_. "The Chaldee MS.," which appeared in _Blackwood's Magazine_ (October 1817), and gave such offence that it was immediately withdrawn, was largely Hogg's work.

In 1820 he married Margaret Phillips, a lady of a good Annandale family, and found himself possessed of about L1000, a good house and a well-stocked farm. Hogg's connexion with _Blackwood's Magazine_ kept him continually before the public; his contributions, which include the best of his prose works, were collected in the _Shepherd's Calendar_ (1829). The wit and mischief of some of his literary friends made free with his name as the "Shepherd" of the _Noctes Ambrosianae_, and represented him in ludicrous and grotesque aspects; but the effect of the whole was favourable to his popularity. "Whatever may be the merits of the picture of the Shepherd [in the _Noctes Ambrosianae_]--and no one will deny its power and genius," writes Professor Veitch--"it is true, all the same, that this Shepherd was not the Shepherd of Ettrick or the man James Hogg. He was neither a Socrates nor a Falstaff, neither to be credited with the wisdom and lofty idealizings of the one, nor with the characteristic humour and coarseness of the other." _The Three Perils of Woman_ (1820), and _The Three Perils of Man_ (1822), were followed in 1825 by an epic poem, _Queen Hynde_, which was unfavourably received. He visited London in 1832, and was much lionized. On his return a public dinner was given to him in Peebles,--Professor Wilson in the chair,--and he acknowledged that he had at last "found fame." His health, however, was seriously impaired. With his pen in his hand to the last, Hogg in 1834 published a volume of _Lay Sermons_, and _The Domestic Manners and Private Life of Sir Walter Scott_, a book which Lockhart regarded as an infringement on his rights. In 1835 appeared three volumes of _Tales of the Wars of Montrose_. Hogg died on the 21st of November 1835, and was buried in the churchyard of his native parish Ettrick. His fame had seemed to fill the whole district, and was brightest at its close; his presence was associated with all the border sports and festivities; and as a man James Hogg was ever frank, joyous and charitable. It is mainly as a great peasant poet that he lives in literature. Some of his lyrics and minor poems--his "Skylark," "When the Kye comes Hame," his verses on the "Comet" and "Evening Star," and his "Address to Lady Ann Scott"--are exquisite. _The Queen's Wake_ unites his characteristic excellences--his command of the old romantic ballad style, his graceful fairy mythology and his aerial flights of imagination. In the fairy story of Kilmeny in this work Hogg seems completely transformed; he is absorbed in the ideal and supernatural, and writes under direct and immediate inspiration.

See Hogg's "Memoir of the Author's Life, written by himself," prefixed
to the 3rd edition (1821) of _The Mountain Bard_, also _Memorials of
James Hogg, the Ettrick Shepherd_, edited by his daughter, Mrs M. G.
Garden (enlarged edition with preface by Professor Veitch, 1903), and
Sir G. B. S. Douglas, _James Hogg_ (1899) in the "Famous Scots"
series; also _The Poems of James Hogg_, selected by William Wallace
(1903). John Wilson ("Christopher North") had a real affection for
Hogg, but for some reason or other made no use of the materials placed
in his hands for a biography of the poet. The memoir mentioned on the
title-page of the _Works_ (1838-1840) never appeared, and the memoir
prefixed to the edition of Hogg's works published by Blackie & Co.
(1865) was written by the Rev. Thomas Thompson. See also Wilson's
_Noctes Ambrosianae_; Mrs Oliphant's _Annals of a Publishing House_,
vol. i. chap. vii.; Gilfillan's _First Gallery of Literary Portraits_;
Cunningham's _Biog. and Crit. Hist. of Lit._; and the general index to
_Blackwood's Magazine_. A collected edition of Hogg's Tales appeared
in 1837 in 6 vols., and a second in 1851; his _Poetical Works_ were
published in 1822, 1838-1840 and 1865-1866. For an admirable account
of the social entertainments Hogg used to give in Edinburgh, see
_Memoir of Robert Chambers_ (1874), by Dr William Chambers, pp.
263-270.

HOGG, THOMAS JEFFERSON (1792-1862), English man of letters, was born at Norton, Durham, on the 24th of May 1792. He was educated at Durham grammar school and at University College, Oxford. Here he became the intimate friend of the poet Shelley, with whom in 1811 he was expelled from the university for refusing to disclaim connexion with the authorship of the pamphlet _The Necessity for Atheism_. He was then sent to study law at York, where he remained for six months. Hogg's behaviour to Harriet Shelley interrupted his relations with her husband for some time, but in 1813 the friendship was renewed in London. In 1817 Hogg was called to the bar, and became later a revising barrister. In 1844 he inherited L2000 under Shelley's will, and in 1855, in accordance with the wishes of the poet's family, began to write Shelley's biography. The first two volumes of it were published in 1858, but they proved to be far more an autobiography than a biography, and Shelley's representatives refused Hogg further access to the materials necessary for its completion. Hogg died on the 27th of August 1862.

HOGMANAY, the name in Scotland and some parts of the north of England for New Year's Eve, as also for the cake then given to the children. On the morning of the 31st of December the children in small bands go from door to door singing:

"Hogmanay
Trollolay
Gie's o' your white bread and nane o' your grey";

and begging for small gifts or alms. These usually take the form of an oaten cake. The derivation of the term has been much disputed. Cotgrave (1611) says: "It is the voice of the country folks begging small presents or New Year's gifts ... an ancient term of rejoicing derived from the Druids, who were wont the first of each January to go into the woods, where, having sacrificed and banquetted together, they gathered mistletoe, esteeming it excellent to make beasts fruitful and most soverayne against all poyson." And he connects the word, through such Norman French forms as _hoguinane_, with the old French _aguilanneuf_, which he explains as _au gui-l'an-neuf_, "to the mistletoe! the New Year!"--this being (on his interpretation) the Druidical salutation to the coming year as the revellers issued from the woods armed with boughs of mistletoe. But though this explanation may be accepted as containing the truth in referring the word to a French original, Cotgrave's detailed etymology is now repudiated by scientific philologists, and the identical French _aguilanneuf_ remains, like it, in obscurity.

HOGSHEAD, a cask for holding liquor or other commodities, such as tobacco, sugar, molasses, &c.; also a liquid measure of capacity, varying with the contents. As a measure for beer, cider, &c., it equals 54 gallons. A statute of Richard III. (1483) fixed the hogshead of wine at 63 wine-gallons, i.e. 52(1/2) imperial gallons. The etymology of the word has been much discussed. According to Skeat, the origin is to be found in the name for a cask or liquid measure appearing in various forms in several Teutonic languages, in Dutch _oxhooft_ (modern _okshoofd_), Dan. _oxehoved_, O. Swed. _oxhufvod_, &c. The word should therefore be "oxhead," and "hogshead" is a mere corruption. It has been suggested that the name arose from the branding of such a measure with the head of an ox (see _Notes and Queries_, series iv. 2, 46, note by H. Tiedeman). The _New English Dictionary_ does not attempt any explanation of the term, and takes "hogshead" as the original form, from which the forms in other languages have been corrupted. The earlier Dutch forms _hukeshovet_ and _hoekshoot_ are nearer to the English form, and, further, the Dutch for "ox" is os.

HOHENASPERG, an ancient fortress of Germany, in the kingdom of Wurttemberg, 10 m. N. of Stuttgart, is situated on a conical hill, 1100 ft. high, overlooking the town of Asperg. It was formerly strongly fortified and was long the state prison of the kingdom of Wurttemberg. Among the many who have been interned here may be mentioned the notorious Jew financier, Joseph Suss-Oppenheimer (1692-1738) and the poet C. F. D. Schubart (1739-1791). It is now a reformatory. Hohenasperg originally belonged to the counts of Calw; it next passed to the counts palatine of Tubingen and from them was acquired in 1308 by Wurttemberg. In 1535 the fortifications were extended and strengthened, and in 1635 the town was taken by the Imperialists, who occupied it until 1649.

See Schon, _Die Staatsgefangenen von Hohenasperg_ (Stuttgart, 1899);
and Biffart, _Geschichte der Wurttembergischen Feste Hohenasperg_
(Stuttgart, 1858).

HOHENFRIEDBERG, or HOHENFRIEDEBERG, a village of Silesia, about 6 m. from the small town of Striegau. It gives its name to a battle (also called the battle of Striegau) in the War of the Austrian Succession, fought on the 3rd of June 1745 between the Prussians under Frederick the Great and the Austrians and Saxons commanded by Prince Charles of Lorraine. In May the king, whose army had occupied extended winter quarters in Silesia, had drawn it together into a position about Neisse whence he could manoeuvre against the Austrians, whether they invaded Silesia by Troppau or Glatz, or joined their allies (who, under the duke of Weissenfels, were on the upper Elbe), and made their advance on Schweidnitz, Breslau or Liegnitz. On the Austrians concentrating towards the Elbe, Frederick gradually drew his army north-westward along the edge of the mountain country until on the 1st of June it was near Schweidnitz. At that date the Austro-Saxons were advancing (very slowly owing to the poorness of the roads and the dilatoriness of the Saxon artillery train) from Waldenburg and Landshut through the mountains, heading for Striegau. After a few minor skirmishes at the end of May, Frederick had made up his mind to offer no opposition to the passage of the Allies, but to fall upon them as they emerged, and the Prussian army was therefore kept concentrated out of sight, while only selected officers and patrols watched the debouches of the mountains. On the other hand the Allies had no intention of delivering battle, but meant only, on emerging from the mountains, to take up a suitable camping position and thence to interpose between Breslau and the king, believing that "the king was at his wits' end, and, once the army really began its retreat on Breslau, there would be frightful consternation in its ranks." But in fact, as even the coolest observers noticed, the Prussian army was in excellent spirits and eager for the "decisive affair" promised by the king. On the 3rd of June, watched by the invisible patrols, the Austrians and Saxons emerged from the hills at Hohenfriedberg with bands playing and colours flying. Their advanced guard of infantry and cavalry spread out into the plain, making for a line of hills spreading north-west from Striegau, where the army was to encamp. But the main body moved slowly, and at last Prince Charles and Weissenfels decided to put off the occupation of the line of hills till the morrow. The army bivouacked therefore in two separate wings, the Saxons (with a few Austrian regiments) between Gunthersdorf and Pilgramshain, the Austrians near Hausdorf. They were about 70,000 strong, Frederick 65,000.

The king had made his arrangements in good time, aided by the enemy's slowness, and in the evening he issued simple orders to move. About 9 P.M. the Prussians marched off from Alt-Jauernigk towards Striegau, the guns on the road, the infantry and cavalry, in long open columns of companies and squadrons, over the fields on either side--a night march well remembered by contrast with others as having been executed in perfect order. Meanwhile General Dumoulin, who commanded an advanced detachment between Striegau and Stanowitz, broke camp silently and moved into position below the hill north-west of Striegau, which was found to be occupied by Saxon light infantry outposts. The king's orders were for Dumoulin and the right wing of the main army to deploy and advance towards Haslicht against the Saxons, and for the left wing infantry to prolong the line from the marsh to Gunthersdorf, covered by the left-wing cavalry on the plain near Thomaswaldau. On the side of the Austrians, the outlying hussars are said to have noticed and reported the king's movement, for the night was clear and starlit, but their report, if made, was ignored.

At 4 A.M. Dumoulin advanced on Pilgramshain, neglecting the fire of the Saxon outpost on the Spitzberg, whereupon this promptly retired in order to avoid being surrounded. Dumoulin then posted artillery on the slope of the hill and deployed his six grenadier battalions facing the village. The leading cavalry of the main army came up and deployed on Dumoulin's left front in open rolling ground. Meantime the duke of Weissenfels had improvised a line of defence, posting his infantry in the marshy ground and about Pilgramshain, and his cavalry, partly in front of Pilgramshain and partly on the intervening space, opposite that of the Prussians. But before the marshy ground was effectively occupied by the duke's infantry, his cavalry had been first shaken by the fire of Dumoulin's guns on the Spitzberg and a heavy battery that was brought up on to the Grabener Fuchsberg, and then charged by the Prussian right-wing cavalry, and in the melee the Allies were gradually driven in confusion off the battlefield. The cavalry battle was ended by 6.30 A.M., by which time Dumoulin's grenadiers, stiffened by the line regiment Anhalt (the "Old Dessauer's" own), were vigorously attacking the garden hedges and walls of Pilgramshain, and the Saxon and Austrian infantry in the marsh was being attacked by Prince Dietrich of Dessau with the right wing of the king's infantry. The line infantry of those days, however, did not work easily in bad ground, and the Saxons were steady and well drilled. After an hour's fight, well supported by the guns and continually reinforced as the rest of the army closed up, the prince expelled the enemy from the marsh, while Dumoulin drove the light troops out of Pilgramshain. By 7 A.M. the Saxons, forming the left wing of the allied army, were in full retreat.

While his allies were being defeated, Prince Charles of Lorraine had done nothing, believing that the cannonade was merely an outpost affair for the possession of the Spitzberg. His generals indeed had drawn out their respective commands in order of battle, the infantry south of Gunthersdorf, the cavalry near Thomaswaldau, but they had no authority to advance without orders, and stood inactive, while, 1 m. away, the Prussian columns were defiling over the Striegau Water. This phase of the king's advance was the most delicate of all, and the moment that he heard from Prince Dietrich that the marsh was captured he stopped the northward flow of his battalions and swung them westward, the left wing cavalry having to cover their deployment. But when one-third of this cavalry only had crossed at Teichau the bridge broke. For a time the advanced squadrons were in great danger. But they charged boldly, and a disjointed cavalry battle began, during which (Ziethen's hussars having discovered a ford) the rest of the left-wing cavalry was able to cross. At last 25 intact squadrons under Lieut.-General von Nassau charged and drove the Austrians in disorder towards Hohenfriedberg. This action was the more creditable to the victors in that 45 squadrons in 3 separate fractions defeated a mass of 60 squadrons that stood already deployed to meet them.

Meanwhile the Prussian infantry columns of the centre and left had crossed Striegau Water and deployed to their left, and by 8.30 they were advancing on Gunthersdorf and the Austrian infantry south of that place. Frederick's purpose was to roll up the enemy from their inner flank, and while Prince Dietrich, with most of the troops that had forced the Saxons out of the marsh, pursued Weissenfels, two regiments of his and one of Dumoulin's were brought over to the left wing and sent against the north side of Gunthersdorf. In the course of the general forward movement, which was made in what was for those days a very irregular line, a wide gap opened up between the centre and left, behind which 10 squadrons of the Bayreuth dragoon regiment, with Lieut.-General von Gessler, took up their position. Thus the line advanced. The grenadiers on the extreme left cleared Thomaswaldau, and their fire galled the Austrian squadrons engaged in the cavalry battle to the south. Then Gunthersdorf, attacked on three sides, was also evacuated by the enemy. But although Frederick rode back from the front saying "the battle is won," the Prussian infantry, in spite of its superior fire discipline, failed for some time to master the defence, and suffered heavily from the eight close-range volleys they received, one or two regiments losing 40 and 50% of their strength. The Austrians, however, suffered still more; feeling themselves isolated in the midst of the victorious enemy, they began to waver, and at the psychological moment Gessler and the Bayreuth dragoons charged into their ranks and "broke the equilibrium." These 1500 sabres scattered twenty battalions of the enemy and brought in 2500 prisoners and 66 Austrian colours, and in this astounding charge they themselves lost no more than 94 men. By nine o'clock the battle was over, and the wrecks of the Austro-Saxon army were retreating to the mountains. The Prussians, who had been marching all night, were too far spent to pursue.

The loss of the allies was in all 15,224, 7985 killed and wounded, and
7239 prisoners, as well as 72 guns and 83 standards and colours. The
Prussians lost 4666 killed and wounded, 71 missing.

HOHENHEIM, a village of Germany, in the kingdom of Wurttemberg, 7 m. S. of Stuttgart by rail. Pop. 300. It came in 1768 from the counts of Hohenheim to the dukes of Wurttemberg, and in 1785 Duke Karl Eugen built a country house here. This house with grounds is now the seat of the most important agricultural college in Germany; it was founded in 1817, was raised to the position of a high school in 1865, and now ranks as a technical high school with university status.

See Frohlich, _Das Schloss und die Akademie Hohenheim_ (Stuttgart,
1870).

HOHENLIMBURG, a town of Germany, on the Lenne, in the Prussian prov. of Westphalia, 30 m. by rail S.E. of Dortmund. Pop. (1905) 12,790. It has two Evangelical churches, a Roman Catholic church and a synagogue. The town is the seat of various iron and metal industries, while dyeing, cloth-making and linen-weaving are also carried on here. It is the chief town of the county of Limburg, and formerly belonged to the counts of Limburg, a family which became extinct in 1508. Later it passed to the counts of Bentheim-Tecklenburg. The castle of Hohenlimburg, which overlooks the town, is now the residence of Prince Adolf of Bentheim-Tecklenburg.

HOHENLOHE, a German princely family which took its name from the district of Hohenlohe in Franconia. At first a countship, its two branches were raised to the rank of principalities of the Empire in 1744 and 1764 respectively; in 1806 they lost their independence and their lands now form part of the kingdoms of Bavaria and of Wurttemberg. At the time of the mediatization the area of Hohenlohe was 680 sq. m. and its estimated population was 108,000. The family is first mentioned in the 12th century as possessing the castle of Hohenloch, or Hohenlohe, near Uffenheim, and its influence was soon perceptible in several of the Franconian valleys, including those of the Kocher, the Jagst and the Tauber. Henry I. (d. 1183) was the first to take the title of count of Hohenlohe, and in 1230 his grandsons, Gottfried and Conrad, supporters of the emperor Frederick II., founded the lines of Hohenlohe-Hohenlohe and Hohenlohe-Brauneck, names taken from their respective castles. The latter became extinct in 1390, its lands passing later to Brandenburg, while the former was divided into several branches, only two of which, however, Hohenlohe-Weikersheim and Hohenlohe-Uffenheim-Speckfeld, need be mentioned here. Hohenlohe-Weikersheim, descended from Count Kraft I. (d. 1313), also underwent several divisions, that which took place after the deaths of Counts Albert and George in 1551 being specially important. At this time the lines of Hohenlohe-Neuenstein and Hohenlohe-Waldenburg were founded by the sons of Count George. Meanwhile, in 1412, the family of Hohenlohe-Uffenheim-Speckfeld had become extinct, and its lands had passed through the marriages of its heiresses into other families.

The existing branches of the Hohenlohe family are descended from the lines of Hohenlohe-Neuenstein and Hohenlohe-Waldenburg, established in 1551. The former of these became Protestant, while the latter remained Catholic. Of the family of Hohenlohe-Neuenstein, which underwent several partitions and inherited Gleichen in 1631, the senior line became extinct in 1805, while in 1701 the junior line divided itself into three branches, those of Langenburg, Ingelfingen and Kirchberg. Kirchberg died out in 1861, but members of the families of Hohenlohe-Langenburg and Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen are still alive, the latter being represented by the branches of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen and Hohenlohe-Ohringen. The Roman Catholic family of Hohenlohe-Waldenburg was soon divided into three branches, but two of these had died out by 1729. The surviving branch, that of Schillingsfurst, was divided into the lines of Hohenlohe-Schillingsfurst and Hohenlohe-Bartenstein; other divisions followed, and the four existing lines of this branch of the family are those of Waldenburg, Schillingsfurst, Jagstberg and Bartenstein. The family of Hohenlohe-Schillingsfurst possesses the duchies of Ratibor and of Corbie inherited in 1824.

The principal members of the family are dealt with below.