Chapter V: CHLODWIG KARL VICTOR, prince of Hohenlohe-Schillingsfurst (4)

_Flora._--The flora may be most conveniently dealt with in the four
physiographical divisions to which it belongs. These are, namely, the
heath-lands, pasture-lands, dunes and coasts. Heath (_Erica tetralix_)
and ling (_Calluna vulgaris_) cover all the waste sandy regions in the
eastern division of the country. The vegetation of the meadow-lands is
monotonous. In the more damp and marshy places the bottom is covered
with marsh trefoil, carex, smooth equisetum, and rush. In the ditches
and pools common yellow and white water-lilies are seen, as well as
water-soldier (_Stratiotes aloides_), great and lesser reed-mace,
sweet flag and bur-reed. The plant forms of the dunes are stunted and
meagre as compared with the same forms elsewhere. The most common
plant here is the stiff sand-reed (_Arundo arenaria_), called
sand-oats in Drente and Overysel, where it is much used for making
mats. Like the sand-reed, the dewberry bramble and the shrub of the
buckthorn (_Hippophae rhamnoides_) perform a useful service in helping
to bind the sand together. Furze and the common juniper are regular
dune plants, and may also be found on the heaths of Drente, Overysel
and Gelderland. Thyme and the small white dune-rose (_Rosa
pimpinellifolia_) also grow in the dunes, and wall-pepper (_Sedum
acre_), field fever-wort, reindeer moss, common asparagus, sheep's
fescue grass, the pretty Solomon-seal (_Polygonatum officinale_), and
the broad-leaved or marsh orchis (_Orchis latifolia_). The sea-plants
which flourish on the sand and mud-banks along the coasts greatly
assist the process of littoral deposits and are specially cultivated
in places. Sea-aster flourishes in the Wadden of Friesland and
Groningen, the Dollart and the Zeeland estuaries, giving place nearer
the shore to sandspurry (_Spergularia_), or sea-poa or floating meadow
grass (_Glyceria maritima_), which grows up to the dikes, and affords
pasture for cattle and sheep. Along the coast of Overysel and in the
Biesbosch lake club-rush, or scirpus, is planted in considerable
quantities for the hat-making industry, and common sea-wrack (_Zostera
marina_) is found in large patches in the northern half of the Zuider
Zee, where it is gathered for trade purposes during the months of
June, July and August. Except for the willow-plots found along the
rivers on the clay lands, nearly all the wood is confined to the sand
and gravel soils, where copses of birch and alder are common.

_Population._--The following table shows the area and population in the eleven provinces of the Netherlands:--

+--------------+-------+----------+------------+-----------+
| |Area in|Population| Population |Density per|
| Province | sq. m.| 1890. | 1900. | sq. m. in |
| | | | | 1900. |
+--------------+-------+----------+------------+-----------+
| North Brabant| 1,980 | 509,628 | 553,842 | 280 |
| Gelderland | 1,965 | 512,202 | 566,549 | 288 |
| South Holland| 1,166 | 949,641 | 1,144,448 | 981 |
| North Holland| 1,070 | 829,489 | 968,131 | 905 |
| Zeeland | 690 | 199,234 | 216,295 | 313 |
| Utrecht | 534 | 221,007 | 251,034 | 470 |
| Friesland | 1,282 | 335,558 | 340,262 | 265 |
| Overysel | 1,291 | 295,445 | 333,338 | 258 |
| Groningen | 790 | 272,786 | 299,602 | 379 |
| Drente | 1,030 | 130,704 | 148,544 | 144 |
| Limburg | 850 | 255,721 | 281,934 | 332 |
| +-------+----------+------------+-----------+
| Total |12,648 |4,511,415 | 5,104,137* | 404 |
+--------------+-------+----------+------------+-----------+
* This total includes 158 persons assigned to no province.

The extremes of density of population are found in the provinces of North Holland and South Holland on the one hand, and Drente on the other. This divergence is partly explained by the difference of soil--which in Drente comprises the maximum of waste lands, and in South Holland the minimum--and partly also by the greater facilities which the seaward provinces enjoy of earning a subsistence, and the greater variety of their industries. The largest towns are Amsterdam, Rotterdam, the Hague, Utrecht, Groningen, Haarlem, Arnhem, Leiden, Nijmwegen, Tilburg. Other considerable towns are Dordrecht, Maastricht, Leeuwarden, Zwolle, Delft, 's Hertogenbosch, Schiedam, Deventer, Breda, Apeldoorn, Helder, Enschede, Gouda, Zaandam, Kampen, Hilversum, Flushing, Amersfoort, Middelburg, Zutphen and Alkmaar. Many of the smaller towns, such as Assen, Enschede, Helmond, Hengelo, Tiel, Venlo, Vlaardingen, Zaandam, Yerseke, show a great development, and it is a noteworthy fact that the rural districts, taken as a whole, have borne an equal share in the general increase of population. This, taken in conjunction with the advance in trade and shipping, the diminution in emigration, and the prosperity of the savings banks, points to a favourable state in the condition of the people.

Roads.

_Communications._--The roads are divided into national or royal roads,
placed directly under the control of the _water-staat_ and supported
by the state; provincial roads, under the direct control of the states
of the provinces, and almost all supported by the provincial
treasuries; communal and polder roads, maintained by the communal
authorities and the polder boards; and finally, private roads. The
system of national roads, mainly constructed between 1821 and 1827,
but still in process of extension, brings into connexion nearly all
the towns.

Canals.

The canal system of Holland is peculiarly complete and extends into
every part of the country, giving to many inland towns almost a
maritime appearance. The united length of the canals exceeds 1500 m.
As a matter of course the smaller streams have been largely utilized
in their formation, while the necessity for a comprehensive drainage
system has also contributed in no small degree. During the years
1815-1830 a large part of the extensive scheme of construction
inaugurated by King William I. was carried out, the following canals,
among others, coming into existence in that period: the North Holland
ship canal (depth, 16(1/2) ft.) from Amsterdam to den Helder, the
Grift canal between Apeldoorn and Hattem, the Willemsvaart connecting
Zwolle with the Ysel, the Zuid Willemsvaart, or South William's canal
(6(1/2) ft.), from 's Hertogenbosch to Maastricht, and the
Ternuzen-Ghent ship canal. After 1849 the canal programme was again
taken up by the state, which alone or in conjunction with the
provincial authorities constructed the Apeldoorn-Dieren canal
(1859-1869), the drainage canals of the "Peel" marsh in North Brabant,
and of the eastern provinces, namely, the Deurne canal (1876-1892)
from the Maas to Helenaveen, the Almelo (1851-1858) and Overysel
(1884-1888) canals from Zwolle, Deventer and Almelo to Koevorden, and
the Stieltjes (1880-1884), and Orange (1853-1858 and 1881-1889) canals
in Drente, the North Williams canal (1856-1862) between Assen and
Groningen, the Ems (1866-1876) ship canal from Groningen to Delfzyl,
and the New Merwede, and enlarged the canal from Harlingen by way of
Leeuwarden to the Lauwars Zee. The large ship canals to Rotterdam and
Amsterdam, called the New Waterway and the North Sea canal
respectively, were constructed in 1866-1872 and 1865-1876 at a cost of
2(1/2) and 3 million pounds sterling, the former by widening the
channel of the Scheur north of Rozenburg, and cutting across the Hook
of Holland, the latter by utilizing the bed of the Y and cutting
through the dunes at Ymuiden. In 1876 an agreement was arrived at with
Germany for connecting the important drainage canals in Overysel,
Drente and Groningen with the Ems canal system, as a result of which
the Almelo-Noordhorn (1884-1888) and other canals came into existence.

The canals differ in character in the different provinces. In Zeeland
they connect the towns of the interior with the sea or the river
mouths; for example, the one from Middelburg to Veere and Flushing
(1866-1878), from Goes to the East Scheldt, and from Zierikzee also to
the East Scheldt. The South Beveland (1862-1866) canal connects the
East and West Scheldt; similarly in South Holland the Voorne canal
unites the Haringvliet with the New Maas, which does not allow the
passage of large vessels above Brielle; whilst owing lo the banks and
shallows in front of Hellevoetsluis the New Waterway was cut to
Rotterdam. Of another character is the Zederik canal, which unites the
principal river of central Holland, the Lek, at Vianen by means of the
Linge with the Merwede at Gorkum. Amsterdam is connected with the Lek
and the Zederik canal via Utrecht by the Vecht and the Vaart Rhine
(1881-1893; depth 10.2 ft.). Again, a totally different character
belongs to the canals in North Brabant, and the east and north-east of
Holland where, in the absence of great rivers, they form the only
waterways which render possible the drainage of the fens and the
export of peat; and unite the lesser streams with each other. Thus in
Overysel, in addition to the canals already mentioned, the Dedemsvaart
connects the Vecht with the Zwarte Water near Hasselt; in Drente the
Smildervaart and Drentsche Hoofdvaart unites Assen with Meppel, and
receives on the eastern side the drainage canals of the Drente fens,
namely, the Orange canal and the Hoogeveen Vaart (1850-1860;
1880-1893). Groningen communicates with the Lauwers Zee by the
Reitdiep (1873-1876), while the canal to Winschoten and the
Stadskanaal, or State canal (1877-1880), bring it into connexion with
the flourishing fen colonies in the east of the province and in
Drente. In Friesland, finally, besides the ship canal from Harlingen
to the Lauwers Zee there are canals from Leeuwarden to the Lemmer,
whence there is a busy traffic with Amsterdam; and the Caspar Robles
or Kolonels Diep, and the Hoendiep connect it with Groningen.

Railways.

The construction of railways was long deferred and slowly
accomplished. The first line was that between Amsterdam and Haarlem,
opened in 1839 by the Holland railway company (_Hollandsch Yzeren
Spoorweg Maatschappij_). In 1845 the state undertook to develop the
railway system, and a company of private individuals was formed to
administer it under the title of the _Maatschappij tot Exploitatie van
Staatspoorwegen_. In 1860, however, the total length of railways was
only 208 m., and in that year a parliamentary bill embodying a
comprehensive scheme of construction was adopted. By 1872 this
programme was nearly completed, and 542 m. of new railway had been
added. In 1873 and 1875 a second and a third bill provided for the
extension of the railway system at the cost of the state, and, in
1876, 1882 and 1890 laws were introduced readjusting the control of
the various lines, some of which were transferred to the Holland
railway. The state railway system was completed in 1892, and since
that time the utmost that the state has done has been to subsidize new
undertakings. These include various local lines such as the line
Alkmaar-Hoorn (1898), Ede-Barneveld-Nykerk, Enschede-Ahaus in Germany
(1902), Leeuwarden to Franeker, Harlingen and Dokkum, and the line
Zwolle-Almelo (junction at Marienberg)
Koevorden-Stadskanal-Veendam-Delfzyl, connecting all the fen countries
on the eastern borders. The electric railway Amsterdam-Zandvoort was
opened in 1904. The frame upon which the whole network of the Dutch
railways may be said to depend is formed of two main lines from north
and south and four transverse lines from west to east. The two
longitudinal lines are the railway den Helder via Haarlem
(1862-1867),[4] Rotterdam (1839-1847), and Zwaluwe (1869-1877) to
Antwerp (1852-1855), belonging to the Holland railway company, and the
State railway from Leeuwarden and Groningen (1870) (junction at
Meppel, 1867) Zwolle (1866)--Arnhem (1865)--Nijmwegen (1879)--Venlo
(1883)--Maastricht (1865). The four transverse lines belong to the
State and Holland railways alternately and are, beginning with the
State railway: (1) the line Flushing (1872)--Rozendaal (1860)--Tilburg
(1863)--Bokstel (whence there is a branch line belonging to the North
Brabant and Germany railway company via Vechel to Goch in Germany,
opened in 1873)--Eindhoven--Venlo and across Prussian border (1866);
(2) the line Hook of Holland--Rotterdam (1893)--Dordrecht
(1872-1877)--Elst (1882-1885)--Nijmwegen (1879)--Cleves, Germany
(1865); (3) the line Rotterdam--Utrecht (1866-1869) and
Amsterdam--Utrecht--Arnhem (1843-1845) to Emmerich in Germany (1856):
this line formerly belonged to the Netherlands-Rhine railway company,
but was bought by the state in 1890; and finally (4) the line
Amsterdam--Hilversum--Amersfoort--Apeldoorn (1875), whence it is
continued (a) via Deventer, Almelo and Hengelo to Salzbergen, Germany
(1865); (b) via Zutphen, Hengelo (1865), Enschede (1866) to Gronau,
Germany; (c) via Zutphen (1876) and Ruurlo to Winterswyk (1878). Of
these (1) and (2) form the main transcontinental routes in connexion
with the steamboat service to England (ports of Queenborough and
Harwich respectively). Two other lines of railway, both belonging to
the state, also traverse the country west to east, namely, the line
Rozendaal--'s Hertogenbosch (1890)--Nijmwegen, and in the extreme
north, the line from Harlingen through Leeuwarden (1863) and Groningen
(1866) to the border at Nieuwe Schans (1869), whence it was connected
with the German railways in 1876. The northern and southern provinces
are further connected by the lines Amsterdam--Zaandam
(1878)--Enkhuizen (1885), whence there is a steam ferry across the
Zuider Zee to Stavoren, from where the railway is continued to
Leeuwarden (1883-1885); the Netherlands Central railway,
Utrecht--Amersfoort--Zwoole--Kampen (1863); and the line Utrecht--'s
Hertogenbosch (1868-1869) which is continued southward into Belgium by
the lines bought in 1898 from the Grand Central Beige railway, namely,
via Tilburg to Turnhout (1867), and via Eindhoven (1866) to Hasselt.
In 1892 Greenwich mean time was adopted on the railways and in the
post-offices, making a difference of twenty minutes with mean
Amsterdam time.

Tramways.

Since 1877 railway communication has been largely supplemented by
steam-tramways, which either run along the main roads or across the
country on special embankments, while one of them is carried across
the river Ysel at Doesburg on a pontoon bridge. The state first began
to encourage the construction of these local light railways by means
of subsidies in 1893, since when some of the most prominent lines have
come into existence, such as Purmerend--Alkmaar (1898),
Zutphen--Emmerich (1902), along the Dedemsvaart in Overysel (1902),
from 's Hertogenbosch via Utrecht and Eindhoven to Turnhout in Belgium
(1898), and especially those connecting the South Holland and Zeeland
islands with the railway, namely, between Rotterdam and Numansdorp on
the Hollandsch Diep (1898), and from Breda or Bergen-op-Zoom, via
Steenbergen to St Philipsland, Zierikzee and Brouwershaven (1900). An
electric tramway connects Haarlem and Zandvoort. The number of
passengers carried by the steam-tramways is relatively higher than
that of the railways. The value of the goods traffic is not so high,
owing, principally, to the want of intercommunication between the
various lines on account of differences in the width of the gauge.

_Agriculture._--Waste lands are chiefly composed of the barren stretches of heaths found in Drente, Overysel, Gelderland and North Brabant. They formerly served to support large flocks of sheep and some cattle, but are gradually transformed by the planting of woods, as well as by strenuous efforts at cultivation. Zeeland and Groningen are the two principal agricultural provinces, and after them follow Limburg, North Brabant, Gelderland and South Holland. The chief products of cultivation on the heavy clay soil are oats, barley and wheat, and on the sand-grounds rye, buckwheat and potatoes. Flax and beetroot are also cultivated on the clay lands. Tobacco, hemp, hops, colza and chicory form special cultures. With the possible exception of oats, the cereals do not suffice for home consumption, and maize is imported in large quantities for cattle-feeding, and barley for the distilleries and breweries. Horticulture and market-gardening are of a high order, and flourish especially on the low fen soil and _geest_ grounds along the foot of the dunes in the provinces of North and South Holland. The principal market products are cauliflower, cabbage, onions, asparagus, gherkins, cucumbers, beans, peas, &c. The principal flowers are hyacinths, tulips, crocuses, narcissus and other bulbous plants, the total export of which is estimated at over L200,000. Fruit is everywhere grown, and there is a special cultivation of grapes and figs in the Westland of South Holland. The woods, or rather the plantations, covering 6%, consist of (1) the so-called forest timber (_opgaandhout_; Fr. _arbres de haute futaie_), including the beech, oak, elm, poplar, birch, ash, willow and coniferous trees; and (2) the copse wood (_akkermaal_ or _hakhout_), embracing the elder, willow, beech, oak, &c. This forms no unimportant branch of the national wealth.

Livestock.

With nearly 35% of the total surface of the country under permanent
pasture, cattle-breeding forms one of the most characteristic
industries of the country. The provinces of Friesland, North and South
Holland, and Utrecht take the lead as regards both quality and
numbers. A smaller, hardier kind of cattle and large numbers of sheep
are kept upon the heath-lands in the eastern provinces, which also
favour the rearing of pigs and bee-culture. Horse-breeding is most
important in Friesland, which produces the well-known black breed of
horse commonly used in funeral processions. Goats are most numerous in
Gelderland and North Brabant. Poultry, especially fowls, are generally
kept. Stock-breeding, like agriculture, has considerably improved
under the care of the government (state and provincial), which grants
subsidies for breeding, irrigation of pasture-lands, the importation
of finer breeds of cattle and horses, the erection of factories for
dairy produce, schools, &c.

_Fisheries._--The fishing industry of the Netherlands may be said to
have been in existence already in the 13th century, and in the
following century received a considerable impetus from the discovery
how to cure herring by William Beukelszoon, a Zeeland fisherman. It
steadily declined during the 17th and 18th centuries, however, but
again began to revive in the last half of the 19th century. The
fisheries are commonly divided into four particular fishing areas,
namely, the "deep-sea" fishery of the North Sea, and the "inner"
(_binnengaatsch_) fisheries of the Wadden, the Zuider Zee, and the
South Holland and Zeeland waters. The deep-sea fishery may be farther
divided into the so-called "great" or "salt-herring" fishery, mainly
carried on from Vlaardingen and Maasluis during the summer and autumn,
and the "fresh-herring" fishery, chiefly pursued at Scheveningen,
Katwijk and Noordwijk. The value of the herring fisheries is enhanced
by the careful methods of smoking and salting, the export of salted
fish being considerable. In the winter the largest boats are laid up
and the remainder take to line-fishing. Middelharnis, Pernis and
Zwartewaal are the centres of this branch of fishery, which yields
halibut, cod, ling and haddock. The trawl fisheries of the coast yield
sole, plaice, turbot, brill, skate, &c., of which a large part is
brought alive to the market. In the Zuider Zee small herring, flat
fish, anchovies and shrimps are caught, the chief fishing centres
being the islands of Texel, Urk and Wieringen, and the coast towns of
Helder, Bunschoten, Huizen, Enkhuizen, Vollendam, Kampen, Harderwyk,
Vollenhove. The anchovy fishing which takes place in May, June and
July sometimes yields very productive results. Oysters and mussels are
obtained on the East Scheldt, and anchovies at Bergen-op-Zoom; while
salmon, perch and pike are caught in the Maas, the Lek and the New
Merwede. The oyster-beds and salmon fisheries are largely in the hands
of the state, which lets them to the highest bidder. Large quantities
of eels are caught in the Frisian lakes. The fisheries not only supply
the great local demand, but allow of large exports.

_Manufacturing Industries._--The mineral resources of Holland give no encouragement to industrial activity, with the exception of the coal-mining in Limburg, the smelting of iron ore in a few furnaces in Overysel and Gelderland, the use of stone and gravel in the making of dikes and roads, and of clay in brickworks and potteries, the quarrying of stone at St Pietersberg, &c. Nevertheless the industry of the country has developed in a remarkable manner since the separation from Belgium. The greatest activity is shown in the cotton industry, which flourishes especially in the Twente district of Overysel, where jute is also worked into sacks. In the manufacture of woollen and linen goods Tilburg ranks first, followed by Leiden, Utrecht and Eindhoven; that of half-woollens is best developed at Roermond and Helmond. Other branches of industry include carpet-weaving at Deventer, the distillation of brandy, gin and liqueurs at Schiedam, Rotterdam and Amsterdam, and beer-brewing in most of the principal towns; shoe-making and leather-tanning in the Langstraat district of North Brabant; paper-making at Apeldoorn, on the Zaan, and in Limburg; the manufacture of earthenware and faience at Maastricht, the Hague and Delft, as well as at Utrecht, Purmerend and Makkum; clay pipes and stearine candles at Gouda; margarine at Osch; chocolate at Weesp and on the Zaan; mat-plaiting and broom-making at Genemuiden and Blokzyl; diamond-cutting and the manufacture of quinine at Amsterdam; and the making of cigars and snuff at Eindhoven, Amsterdam, Utrecht, Kampen, &c. Shipbuilding is of no small importance in Holland, not only in the greater, but also in the smaller towns along the rivers and canals. The principal shipbuilding yards are at Amsterdam, Kinderdijk, Rotterdam and at Flushing, where there is a government dockyard for building warships.

_Trade and Shipping._--To obtain a correct idea of the trade of
Holland, greater attention than would be requisite in the case of
other countries must be paid to the inland traffic. It is impossible
to state the value of this in definite figures, but an estimate may be
formed of its extent from the number of ships which it employs in the
rivers and canals, and from the quantity of produce brought to the
public market. In connexion with this traffic there is a large fleet
of tug boats; but steam- or petroleum-propelled barges are becoming
more common. Some of the lighters used in the Rhine transport trade
have a capacity of 3000 tons. A great part of the commercial business
at Rotterdam belongs to the commission and transit trade. The other
principal ports are Flushing, Terneuzen (for Belgium), Harlingen,
Delfzyl, Dordrecht, Zaandam, Schiedam, Groningen, den Helder,
Middelburg, Vlaardingen. Among the national mail steamship services
are the lines to the East and West Indies, Africa and the United
States. An examination of its lists of exports and imports will show
that Holland receives from its colonies its spiceries, coffee, sugar,
tobacco, indigo, cinnamon; from England and Belgium its manufactured
goods and coals; petroleum, raw cotton and cereals from the United
States; grain from the Baltic provinces, Archangel, and the ports of
the Black Sea; timber from Norway and the basin of the Rhine, yarn
from England, wine from France, hops from Bavaria and Alsace; iron-ore
from Spain; while in its turn it sends its colonial wares to Germany,
its agricultural produce to the London market, its fish to Belgium and
Germany, and its cheese to France, Belgium and Hamburg, as well as
England. The bulk of trade is carried on with Germany and England;
then follow Java, Belgium, Russia, the United States, &c. In the last
half of the 19th century the total value of the foreign commerce was
more than trebled.

_Constitution and Government._--The government of the Netherlands is regulated by the constitution of 1815, revised in 1848 and 1887, under which the sovereign's person is inviolable and the ministers are responsible. The age of majority of the sovereign is eighteen. The crown is hereditary in both the male and the female line according to primogeniture; but it is only in default of male heirs that females can come to the throne. The crown prince or heir apparent is the first subject of the sovereign, and bears the title of the prince of Orange. The sovereign alone has executive authority. To him belong the ultimate direction of foreign affairs, the power to declare war and peace, to make treaties and alliances, and to dissolve one or both chambers of parliament, the supreme command of the army and navy, the supreme administration of the state finances and of the colonies and other possessions of the kingdom, and the prerogative of mercy. By the provisions of the same constitution he establishes the ministerial departments, and shares the legislative power with the first and second chambers of parliament, which constitute the states-general and sit at the Hague. The heads of the departments to whom the especial executive functions are entrusted are eight in number--ministers respectively of the interior, of "water-staat," trade and industry (that is, of public works, including railways, post-office, &c.), of justice, of finance, of war, of marine, of the colonies and of foreign affairs. There is a department of agriculture, but without a minister at its head. The heads of departments are appointed and dismissed at the pleasure of the sovereign, usually determined, however, as in all constitutional states, by the will of the nation as indicated by its representatives.

The number of members in the first chamber is 50, South Holland sending 10, North Holland 9, North Brabant and Gelderland each 6, Friesland 4, Overysel, Limburg and Groningen each 3, Zeeland, Utrecht and Drente each 2. According to the fundamental law (_Grondwet_) of 1887, they are chosen by the provincial states, not only from amongst those who bear the greatest burden of direct taxation in each province, but also from amongst great functionaries and persons of high rank. Those deputies who are not resident in the Hague are entitled to receive 16s. 8d. a day during the session. The duration of parliament is nine years, a third of the members retiring every three years. The retiring members are eligible for re-election. The members of the second chamber are chosen in the electoral districts by all capable male citizens not under 23 years of age, who pay one or more direct taxes, ranging from a minimum of one guilder (1s. 8d.) towards the income tax. The number of members is 100, Amsterdam returning 9, Rotterdam 5, the Hague 3, Groningen and Utrecht 2 members each. Members must be at least thirty years old, and receive an annual allowance of L166, besides travelling expenses. They only, and the government, have the right of initiating business, and of proposing amendments. Their term is four years, but they are re-eligible. All communications from the sovereign to the states-general and from the states to the sovereign, as well as all measures relating to internal administration or to foreign possessions, are first submitted to the consideration of the council of state, which consists of 14 members appointed by the sovereign, who is the president. The state council also has the right of making suggestions to the sovereign in regard to subjects of legislation and administration.

The provincial administration is entrusted to the provincial states,
which are returned by direct election by the same electors as vote for
the second chamber. The term is for six years, but one-half of the
members retire every three years subject to re-election or renewal.
The president of the assembly is the royal commissioner for the
province. As the provincial states only meet a few times in the year,
they name a committee of deputy-states which manages current general
business, and at the same time exercises the right of control over the
affairs of the communes. At the head of every commune stands a
communal council, whose members must be not under 23 years of age.
They are elected for six years (one-third of the council retiring
every two years) by the same voters as for the provincial states.
Communal franchise is further restricted, however, to those electors
who pay a certain sum to the communal rates. The number of councillors
varies according to the population between 7 and 45. One of the
special duties of the council is the supervision of education. The
president of the communal council is the burgomaster, who is named by
the sovereign in every instance for six years, and receives a salary
varying from L40 to over L600. Provision is made for paying the
councillors a certain fee--called "presence-money"--when required.
The burgomaster has the power to suspend any of the council's decrees
for 30 days. The executive power is vested in a college formed by the
burgomaster and two, three or four magistrates (_wethouders_) to be
chosen by and from the members of the council. The provinces are
eleven in number.

_National Defence._--The home defence system of Holland is a militia
with strong cadres based on universal service. Service in the
"militia" or 1st line force is for 8 years, in the 2nd line for 7.
Every year in the drill season contingents of militiamen are called up
for long or short periods of training, and the maximum peace strength
under arms in the summer is about 35,000, of whom half are permanent
cadres and half militiamen. In 1908 12,300 of the year's contingent
were trained for eight months and more, and 5200 for four months. The
war strength of the militia is 105,000, that of the second line or
reserve 70,000. The defence of the country is based on the historic
principle of concentrating the people and their resources in the heart
of the country, covered by a wide belt of inundations. The chosen line
of defence is marked by a series of forts which control the sluices,
extending from Amsterdam, through Muiden, thence along the Vecht and
through Utrecht to Gorinchem (Gorkum) on the Waal. The line continues
thence by the Hollandsche Diep and Volkerak to the sea, and the coast
also is fortified. The army in the colonies numbers in all about
26,000, all permanent troops and for the most part voluntarily
enlisted European regulars. The military expenditure in 1908 was
L2,331,255. The Dutch navy at home and in Indian waters consists
(1909) of 9 small battleships, 6 small cruisers and 80 other vessels,
manned by 8600 officers and men of the navy and about 2250 marines.
Recruiting is by voluntary enlistment, with contingent powers of
conscription amongst the maritime population.

_Justice._--The administration of justice is entrusted (1) to the high
council (_hooge raad_) at the Hague, the supreme court of the whole
kingdom, and the tribunal for all high government officials and for
the members of the states-general; (2) to the five courts of justice
established at Amsterdam, the Hague, Arnhem, Leeuwarden and 's
Hertogenbosch; (3) to tribunals established in each arrondissement;
(4) to cantonal judges appointed over a group of communes, whose
jurisdiction is restricted to claims of small amount (under 200
guilders), and to breaches of police regulations, and who at the same
time look after the interest of minors. The high council is composed
of 12 to 14 councillors, a procureur-general and three
advocates-general. Criminal and correctional procedure were formerly
divided between the courts of justice and the arrondissement
tribunals; but this distinction was suppressed by the penal code of
1886, thereby increasing the importance of the arrondissement courts,
which also act as court of appeal of the cantonal courts.

Besides the prisons, which include one built on the cellular principle
at Breda, the state supports three penal workhouses for drunkards and
beggars. There are also the penal colonies at Veenhuizen in Drente,
which were brought from the Society of Charity (_Maatschappij van
Weldadigkeid_) in 1859. The inmates practise agriculture, as well as
various industries for supplying all the requirements of the colony.
The objection raised against these establishments is that the
prisoners do not represent the real vagabondage of the country, but a
class of more or less voluntary inmates. Children under 16 years of
age are placed in the three state reformatories, and there is an
institution for vagabond women at Rotterdam.

_Charitable and other Institutions._--Private charities have always
occupied a distinguished position in the Netherlands, and the
principle of the law of 1854 concerning the relief of the poor is,
that the state shall only interfere when private charity fails. All
private and religious institutions have to be inscribed before they
can collect public funds. In some cases these institutions are
organized and administered conjointly with the civil authorities. At
the head of the charitable institutions stand the agricultural
colonies belonging to the Society of Charity (see DRENTE). Of the
numerous institutions for the encouragement of the sciences and the
fine arts, the following are strictly national--the Royal Academy of
Sciences (1855), the Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute
(1854), the National Academy of the Plastic Arts, the Royal School of
Music, the National Archives, besides various other national
collections and museums. Provincial scientific societies exist at
Middelburg, Utrecht, 's Hertogenbosch and Leeuwarden, and there are
private and municipal associations, institutions and collections in a
large number of the smaller towns. Among societies of general utility
are the Society for Public Welfare (_Maatschappij tot nut van't
algemeen_, 1785), whose efforts have been mainly in the direction of
educational reform; the Geographical Society at Amsterdam (1873);
Teyler's Stichting or foundation at Haarlem (1778), and the societies
for the promotion of industry (1777), and of sciences (1752) in the
same town; the Institute of Languages, Geography and Ethnology of the
Dutch Indies (1851), and the Indian Society at the Hague, the Royal
Institute of Engineers at Delft (1848), the Association for the
Encouragement of Music at Amsterdam, &c.

_Religion._--Religious conviction is one of the most characteristic
traits of the Dutch people, and finds expression in a large number of
independent religious congregations. The bond between church and
state which had been established by the synod of Dort (1618) and the
organization of the Low-Dutch Reformed Church (_Nederlandsche
Hervormde Kerk_) as the national Protestant church, practically came
to an end in the revolution of 1795, and in the revision of the
Constitution in 1848 the complete religious liberty and equality of
all persons and congregations was guaranteed. The present organization
of the Reformed Church dates from 1852. It is governed by a general
assembly or "synod" of deputies from the principal judicatures,
sitting once a year. The provinces are subdivided into "classes," and
the classes again into "circles" (_ringen_), each circle comprising
from 5 to 25 congregations, and each congregation being governed by a
"church council" or session. The provincial synods are composed of
ministers and elders deputed by the classes; and these are composed of
the ministers belonging to the particular class and an equal number of
elders appointed by the local sessions. The meetings of the circles
have no administrative character, but are mere brotherly conferences.
The financial management in each congregation is entrusted to a
special court (_kerk-voogdij_) composed of "notables" and church
wardens. In every province there is besides, in the case of the
Reformed Church, a provincial committee of supervision for the
ecclesiastical administration. For the whole kingdom this supervision
is entrusted to a common "collegium" or committee of supervision,
which meets at the Hague, and consists of 11 members named by the
provincial committee and 3 named by the synod. Some congregations have
withdrawn from provincial supervision, and have thus free control of
their own financial affairs. The oldest secession from the Orthodox
Church is that of the Remonstrants, who still represent the most
liberal thought in the country, and have their own training college at
Leiden. Towards 1840 a new congregation calling itself the Christian
Reformed Church (_Christelijke Gereformeerde Kerk_) arose as a protest
against the government and the modern tendencies of the Reformed
Church; and for the same reason those who had founded the Free
University of Amsterdam (1880) formed themselves in 1886 into an
independent body called the _Nederlandsche Gereformeerde Kerk_. In
1892 these two churches united under the name of the Reformed Churches
(_Gereformeerde Kerken_) with the doctrine and discipline of Dort.
They have a theological seminary at Kampen. Other Protestant bodies
are the Walloons, who, though possessing an independent church
government, are attached to the Low-Dutch Reformed Church; the
Lutherans, divided into the main body of Evangelical Lutherans and a
smaller division calling themselves the Re-established or Old
Lutherans (_Herstelde Lutherschen_) who separated in 1791 in order to
keep more strictly to the Augsburg confession; the Mennonites founded
by Menno Simons of Friesland, about the beginning of the 16th century;
the Baptists, whose only central authority is the General Baptist
Society founded at Amsterdam in 1811; the Evangelical Brotherhood of
Hernhutters or Moravians, who have churches and schools at Zeist and
Haarlem; and a Catholic Apostolic Church (1867) at the Hague. There
are congregations of English Episcopalians at the Hague, Amsterdam and
Rotterdam, and German Evangelicals at the Hague (1857) and Rotterdam
(1861). In 1853 the Roman Catholic Church, which before had been a
mission in the hands of papal legates and vicars, was raised into an
independent ecclesiastical province with five dioceses, namely, the
archbishopric of Utrecht, and the suffragan bishoprics of Haarlem,
Breda, 's Hertogenbosch and Roermond, each with its own seminary. Side
by side with the Roman Catholic hierarchy are the congregations of the
Old Catholics or Old Episcopalian Church (_Oud Bisschoppelijke
Clerezie_), and the Jansenists (see JANSENISM). The Old Catholics,
with whom the Jansenists are frequently confused, date from the 17th
century. Besides an archbishop at Utrecht, the Old Catholics have
bishops at Deventer and Haarlem, and a training college at Amersfoort.
They numbered in 1905 about 9000 (see UTRECHT). The large Jewish
population in Holland had its origin in the wholesale influx of
Portuguese Jews at the end of the 16th, and of German Jews in the
beginning of the 17th century. In 1870 they were reorganized under the
central authority of the Netherlands Israelite Church, and divided
into head and "ring" synagogues and associated churches. The Roman
Catholic element preponderates in the southern provinces of Limburg,
and North Brabant, but in Friesland, Groningen and Drente the Baptists
and Christian Reformed are most numerous.

_Education._--Every grade of education in the Netherlands is under the
control and supervision of the state, being administered by a special
department under the ministry for the interior. In 1889 the state
recognized private denominational schools, and in 1900 passed a law of
compulsory attendance. Infant schools, which are generally in the
hands of private societies or the municipal authorities, are not
interfered with by the state. According to the law of 1889 primary
education is carried on in the ordinary and in continuation schools
for boys and girls (co-education having been long in vogue). These
schools are established in every commune, the state contributing aid
at the rate of 25% of the total expenditure. The age of admission is
six; and the course is for six years, 7-13 being the legal age limits;
the fee, from which poverty exempts, is almost nominal. Nature-study,
continued in the secondary schools, is an essential part in the
curriculum of these schools, and elementary general history, English,
French and German are among the optional subjects. While the boys are
instructed in woodwork, needlework is taught to the girls, its
introduction in 1889 having been the first recognition of practical
instruction in any form. Continuation schools (_herhalingsscholen_)
must be organized wherever required, and are generally open for six
months in winter, pupils of twelve to fourteen or sixteen attending.
Secondary schools were established by the law of 1863 and must be
provided by every commune of 10,000 inhabitants; they comprise the
Burgher-Day-and-Evening schools and the Higher-Burgher schools. The
first named schools being mainly intended for those engaged in
industrial or agricultural pursuits, the day classes gradually fell
into disuse. The length of the course as prescribed by law is two
years, but it is usually extended to three or four years, and the
instruction, though mainly theoretical, has regard to the special
local industries; the fees, if any, may not exceed one pound sterling
per annum. Special mention must be made in this connexion of the
school of engineering in Amsterdam (1878) and the Academy of Plastic
Arts at Rotterdam. The higher-burgher schools have either a three or a
five years' course, and the fees vary from L2, 10s. to L5 a year. The
instruction given is essentially non-classical and scientific. In both
schools certificates are awarded at the end of the course, that of the
higher-burgher schools admitting to the natural science and medical
branches of university education, a supplementary examination in Greek
and Latin being required for other branches. The gymnasia, or
classical schools, fall legally speaking under the head of higher
education. By the law of 1876, every town of 20,000 inhabitants,
unless specially exempted, must provide a gymnasium. A large
proportion of these schools are subsidized by the state to the extent
of half their net cost. The curriculum is classical and philological,
but in the two upper classes there is a bifurcation in favour of
scientific subjects for those who wish. The fees vary from L5 to L8 a
year, but, owing to the absence of scholarships and bursaries, are
sometimes remitted, as in the case of the higher-burgher schools.
Among the schools which give specialized instruction, mention must be
made of the admirable trade schools (_ambachtsscholen_) established in
1861, and the corresponding industrial schools for girls; the fishery
schools and schools of navigation; the many private schools of
domestic science, and of commerce and industry, among which the
municipal school at Enschede (1886) deserves special mention; and the
school of social work, "Das Huis," at Amsterdam (1900). For the
education of medical practitioners, civil and military, the more
important institutions are the National Obstetrical College at
Amsterdam, the National Veterinary School at Utrecht, the National
College for Military Physicians at Amsterdam and the establishment at
Utrecht for the training of military apothecaries for the East and
West Indies. The organization of agricultural education under the
state is very complete, and includes a state professor of agriculture
for every province (as well as professors of horticulture in several
cases), "winter schools" of agriculture and horticulture, and a state
agricultural college at Wageningen (1876) with courses in home and
colonial agriculture. The total fees at this college, including board
and lodging, are about L50 a year. According to the law of 1898, the
state also maintains or subsidizes experimental or testing-stations.
Other schools of the same class are the Gerard Adriaan van Swieten
schools of agriculture, gardening and forestry in Drente, the school
of instruction in butter and cheese making (_zuivelbereiding_) at
Bolsward and the state veterinary college at Utrecht.

There are three state universities in Holland, namely, Leiden (1575),
Groningen (1585) and Utrecht (1634). The ancient athenaeums of
Franeker (1585) and Harderwyk (1603) were closed in 1811, but that of
Amsterdam was converted into a municipal university in 1877. In each
of these universities there are five faculties, namely, law, theology,
medicine, science and mathematics, and literature and philosophy, the
courses for which are respectively four, five, eight, and six or seven
years for the two last named. The fees amount to 200 florins (L16,
13s. 4d.) per annum and are payable for four years. Two kinds of
degrees are conferred, namely, the ordinary (_candidaats_) and the
"doctor's" degrees. Pupils from the higher-burgher schools are only
eligible for the first. There is also a free (Calvinistic) university
at Amsterdam founded in 1880 and enjoying, since 1905, the right of
conferring degrees. It has, however, no faculties of law or science.
The state polytechnic school at Delft (1864) for the study of
engineering in all its branches, architecture and naval construction,
has a nominal course of four years, and confers the degree of
"engineer." The fees are the same as those of the universities, and as
at the universities there are bursaries. A national institution at
Leiden for the study of languages, geography and ethnology of the
Dutch Indies has given place to communal institutions of the same
nature at Delft and at Leiden, founded in 1864 and 1877. The centre of
Dutch university life, which is non-residential, is the students'
corps, at the head of which is a "senate," elected annually from among
the students of four years' standing. Membership of the corps is
gained after a somewhat trying novitiate, but is the only passport to
the various social and sports societies.

All teachers in the Netherlands must qualify for their profession by
examination. Under the act of 1898 they are trained either in the
state training-colleges, or in state-aided municipal, and private
denominational colleges; or else by means of state or private
state-aided courses of instruction. The age of admission to this class
of training is from 14 to 18, and the course is for four years. In the
last year practice in teaching is obtained at the primary "practice"
school attached to each college, and students are also taught to make
models explanatory of the various subjects of instruction after the
manner of the Swedish Sloyd (Slojd) system. Assistant-teachers wishing
to qualify as head-teachers must have had two years' practical
experience. Pupil-teachers can only give instruction under the
supervision of a certificated teacher. The minimum salary of teachers
is determined by law. The teaching, which follows the so-called
"Heuristic" method, and the equipment of schools of every description,
are admirable.

_Finance._--The following statement shows the revenue and expenditure
of the kingdom for the years 1889, 1900-1901 and 1905:--

_Revenue._

+-------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| Source. | 1889. | 1901. | 1905. |
+-------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| | L | L | L |
| Excise | 3,678,075 | 4,042,500 | 4,514,998 |
| Direct taxation | 2,300,865 | 2,900,175 | 3,135,665 |
| Indirect taxation | 2,004,745 | 1,805,583 | 1,946,666 |
| Post Office | 539,405 | 865,750 | 1,103,333 |
| Government telegraphs | 106,970 | 187,375 | 211,333 |
| Export and Import duties| 440,247 | 801,500 | 930,912 |
| State domains | 213,186 | 147,000 | 139,000 |
| Pilot dues | 106,079 | 191,667 | 200,000 |
| State lotteries | 54,609 | 54,250 | 52,666 |
| Game and Fisheries | 11,660 | 11,000 | 11,750 |
| Railways | .. | 361,512 | 349,011 |
| Part paid by East Indies| | | |
| on account of interest | | | |
| and redemption of | | | |
| public debt | .. | .. | 321,916 |
| Netherland Bank | | | |
| contribution | .. | .. | 160,500 |
+-------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| Total* | 9,475,337 |11,394,220 |14,017,079 |
+-------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
* Including various miscellaneous items not specified in detail.

_Expenditure._

+-------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| Object. | 1889. | 1901. | 1905. |
+-------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| | L | L | L |
| National Debt | 2,727,591 | 2,906,214 | 2,899,770 |
| Department of War | 1,708,698 | 1,893,036 | 2,474,011 |
| " Waterstaat| 1,790,291 | 2,448,339 | 2,869,951 |
| " Finance | 1,537,404 | 2,092,343 | 2,297,180 |
| " Marine | 1,038,536 | 1,388,141 | 1,396,137 |
| " Interior | 815,188 | 1,330,563 | 1,613,134 |
| " Justice | 426,343 | 529,159 | 592,073 |
| " Colonies | 93,829 | 109,768 | 251,150 |
| Dept. of Foreign Affairs| 57,312 | 71,101 | 82,403 |
| Royal Household | 54,166 | 66,667 | 66,666 |
| Superior Authorities of | | | |
| the State | 52,476 | 56,792 | 58,251 |
| Unforeseen Expenditure | 1,745 | 4,166 | 4,166 |
+-------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| Total* |10,393,579 |12,896,289 |14,907,781 |
+-------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
* Including, besides the ordinary budget, the outlays in payment
of annuities, in funding and discharging debt, in railway
extension, &c.

The total debt in 1905 amounted to L96,764,266, the annual interest
amounted to L3,396,590. During the years 1850-1905, L27,416,651 has
been devoted to the redemption of the public debt. The total wealth of
the kingdom is estimated at 900 millions sterling. The various
provinces and communes have separate budgets. The following table
gives a statement of the provincial and communal finances:--

_Revenue._

+---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| | 1889. | 1900. | 1905. |
+---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| | L | L | L |
| Provincial | 722,583 | 445,333 | 718,199 |
| Communal | 6,132,000 | 9,311,666 |12,750,083 |
+---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+

_Expenditure._

+---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| | 1889. | 1900. | 1905. |
+---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| | L | L | L |
| Provincial | 740,333 | 445,333 | 702,718 |
| Communal | 5,683,800 | 8,503,250 |12,085,250 |
+---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+

_Colonies._--The Dutch colonies in the Malay Archipelago have an area of 600,000 sq. m., with a population of 23,000,000, among which are 35,000 Europeans, 319,000 Chinese, 15,000 Arabs, and 10,000 other immigrant Asiatics. The West Indian possessions of Holland include Dutch Guiana or the government of Surinam, and the Dutch Antilles or the government of Curacoa and its dependencies (St Eustatius, Saba, the southern half of St Martin, Curacoa, Bonaire and Aruba), a total area of 60,000 sq. m., with 90,000 inhabitants, of whom a small portion are Europeans, and the rest negroes and other people of colour, and Chinese.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The chief place is due to the following geographical
publications:--Dr H. Blink, _Nederland en zijne Bewoners_ (Amsterdam,
1888-1892), containing a copious bibliography; _Tegenwoordige Staat
van Nederland_ (Amsterdam, 1897); R. Schuiling, _Aardrijkskunde van
Nederland_ (Zwolle, 1884); A. A. Beekman, _De Strijd om het Bestaan_
(Zutphen, 1887), a manual on the characteristic hydrography of the
Netherlands; and E. Reclus' _Nouvelle geographie universelle_ (1879;
vol. iv.). The _Gedenboek uitgeven ter gelegenheid van het
fijftig-jarig bestaan van het Koninklijk Instituut van Ingenieurs_,
1847-1897 ('s Gravenhage, 1898), is an excellent aid in studying
technically the remarkable works on Dutch rivers, canals, sluices,
railways and harbours, and drainage and irrigation works. The
_Aardrijkskundig Woordenboek van Nederland_, by P. H. Witkamp (Arnhem,
1895), is a complete gazetteer with historical notes, and _Nomina
Geographica Neerlandica_, published by the Netherlands Geographical
Society (Amsterdam, 1885, &c.), contains a history of geographical
names. _Geschiedenis van den Boereastand en den landbouw in
Nederland_, H. Blink (Groningen, 1902), and the report on agriculture,
published at the Hague by the Royal Commission appointed in 1896,
furnish special information in connexion with this subject. Of more
general interest are: _Eene halve Eeuw, 1848-1898_, edited by Dr P. H.
Ritter (Amsterdam, 1898), containing a series of articles on all
subjects connected with the kingdom during the second half of the 19th
century, written by specialists; and _Les Pays Bas_ (Leiden, 1899),
and _La Hollande geographique, ethnologique, politique, &c._ (Paris,
1900), both works of the same class as the preceding.

Books of travel include some of considerable topographical as well as
literary interest, from Lodovico Guicciardini (1567) down to Edmondo
de Amicis (_Holland_, translated from the Italian, London, 1883); H.
Havard, _Dead Cities of the Zuider Zee, &c._ (translated from the
French, London 1876), and D. S. Meldrum, _Holland and the Hollanders_
(London, 1899) in the 19th century. Mention may also be made of _Old
Dutch Towns and Villages of the Zuider Zee_, by W. J. Tuyn (translated
from the Dutch, London, 1901), _Nieuwe Wandelingen door Nederland_, by
J. Craandijk and P. A. Schipperus (Haarlem, 1888); _Friesland Meres
and through the Netherlands_, by H. M. Doughty (London, 1887); _On
Dutch Waterways_, by G. C. Davis (London, 1887); _Hollande et
hollandais_, by H. Durand (Paris, 1893); and _Holland and Belgium_ by
Professor N. G. van Kampen (translated from the Dutch, London, 1860),
the last three being chiefly remarkable for their fine illustrations.
Works of historical and antiquarian interest of a high order are
_Merkwaardige Kasteelen in Nederland_, by J. van Lennep and W. J.
Hofdyk (Leiden, 1881-1884); _Noord-Hollandsche Oudheden_, by G. van
Arkel and A. W. Weisman, published by the Royal Antiquarian Society
(Amsterdam, 1891); and _Oud Holland_, edited by A. D. de Vries and N.
de Roever (Amsterdam, 1883-1886), containing miscellaneous
contributions to the history of ancient Dutch art, crafts and letters.
Natural history is covered by various periodical publications of the
Royal Zoological Society "Natura Artis Magistra" at Amsterdam, and the
_Natuurlijke Historie van Nederland_ (Haarlem, 1856-1863) written by
specialists, and including ethnology and flora. Military and naval
defence may be studied in _De vesting Holland_, by A. L. W. Seijffardt
(Utrecht, 1887), and the _Handbook of the Dutch Army_, by Major W. L.
White, R.A. (London, 1896); ecclesiastical history in _The Church in
the Netherlands_, by P. H. Ditchfield (London, 1893); and education in
vol. viii. of the _Special Reports on Educational Subjects_ issued by
the Board of Education, London. Statistics are furnished by the annual
publication of the Society for Statistics in the Netherlands,
Amsterdam.

HISTORY FROM 1579 TO MODERN TIMES[5]

Consequences of the Union of Utrecht.

Sovereignty offered to the Duke of Anjou.

The Ban against William of Orange.

The Act of Abjuration.

The Apology.