Chapter XXI: Introduction (4)

We will now speak of the vessels we have most to do with--viz. yachts.

CHARACTERS OF A YACHT.

Speed, safety, and accommodation are the three first qualities of a yacht. She ought to be pleasing to the eye when afloat, of such a breadth as to carry her canvass with ease, and at the same time so sharp in her bow and well-shapen astern as to displace her weight of water smoothly and gradually, while she leaves it in the same way.

VARIOUS KINDS OF YACHTS.

Yachts are of various kinds, according to their size. If more than eighty tons burden, the schooner is most suitable; for, as the spars are more numerous, they are proportionally lighter. The schooner, as has been before observed, has two masts--the foremast and mainmast; the one bearing the sail called the boom-foresail, and the other a mainsail. She has two or more headsails, called staysail, fore-staysail, and jib. Her topsails are either square or fore and aft.

The _Cutter_ has one mast and four sails--viz. mainsail, maintopsail, foresail, and jib. Some smaller craft have larger jibs, and no foresail.

The _Dandy-rigged Yacht_ differs from a cutter, in having no boom for her mainsail, which can consequently be brailed up by a rope passing round it. She has a mizen-mast standing in the stern, which sets a sail called a mizen, and which is stretched on a horizontal spar, projecting over the stern. This style of rig is more safe for a yacht, as the boom in ordinary cutters is liable to sweep persons overboard; and the sail can be taken in quicker by brailing it up than by lowering it down.

The _Hatteener_ has only two sails, a fore and a main sail, of a triangular shape. Each has a spar standing from the deck to the peak of the sail, and a boom at the bottom, like a cutter. This rig, from setting more canvass abaft, is well adapted for narrow waters.

One of the most handy rigs for a young sailor is a triangular mainsail and foresail rig, on a good-sized open boat. She should be at least twenty feet long, and five feet on her beam. The foresail is carried over the stem for about a foot, by means of an iron bowsprit, which ships and unships on the nose of the boat. Her mainsail has a spar reaching from the lower part of the mast to the upper corner of the sail; a rope is fastened in the middle of this spar, and passes through a block on the mast, by which the sail is hoisted. The advantages of this rig are, that it can be easily managed, while under it the boat is much safer than under most other kinds of rig; for, should a squall arise, the yachtsman has only to let fly his foresheet and put his helm alee, and the boat will right immediately. With this rig, a boat stands very well to windward, and may be easily brought about.

DESCRIPTION OF THE CUTTER YACHT.

But the vessel with which we have most to do in our directions for sailing is the Cutter Yacht, which stands closer to the wind than any other kind of European boat; and of which we propose, in the first instance, to give a general description.

CONSTRUCTION OF THE HULL.

The first step in the construction of the hull is laying down the keel or backbone of the vessel; which is done by fixing a strong piece of wood, generally oak, upon blocks, that the rest of the timber may be securely added; the stem is then joined to the fore-post, nearly at right angles, slanting a little forward as it ascends; and the stern-post to its after or hinder part, sloping upwards and backwards. The timbers and ribs are next cut out of solid wood, and placed transversely on the keel, their width varying according to the lines of a plan previously drawn out,--being, of course, farthest apart at the beam; these, as well as the planks of larger craft, are made to bend into the required shape by being steamed and bolted in while hot. The skeleton being completed, her planks are then secured by copper or iron nails to the timbers, and riveted. The deck is made of narrow planks, running fore and aft. From the level of the deck, her sides are raised by upright timbers, called “stancheons,” cased over by the bulwarks, and surmounted by a rail called the “gunwale.” Some yachts are only half-decked, the after-part being left open and fitted with seats; but, in order to prevent the water from getting in, a portion of deck, called water-ways, is left at each side; which opposes a further barrier by its terminating on the inner edge in a high crest or combing. The stepping the mast requires great care, since the good or bad sailing of the boat depends very greatly upon it. If we divide the length of a good yacht into three parts, the point at which the foremost part joins the middle part will be the widest part, and there will be nearly the place for the cutter’s mast. But the American builders have departed from this rule in the construction of their celebrated yacht, “The America,” whose model, after all the study and ingenuity that have been applied to yacht-building, seems to resemble the simple yet beautiful model which nature has given us in the duck. The bow of this vessel rises very gradually for some distance along the keel, like the breast of the duck; and, further imitating the same model, her beam or widest part is abaft, or further back than the centre. This superior vessel will sail nearly four points off the wind, and will probably work an entire change in the present style of yacht-building. We have now glanced at all the principal parts of the hull, except that all-important part, the rudder; which swings by a hinge from the stern-post, and is moved by a handle fixed to its upper part, bearing the name of “a tiller,” and which is used to steer the boat. Before proceeding with our instructions for sailing a yacht, it will be necessary to describe the action of the rudder; as the art of steering is the nicest and most important branch of seamanship.

The rudder is a flat board, with a pole rising up on the side, which is fastened to the vessel; on the top of which is fixed the tiller. In large vessels, there are two ropes fastened to the tiller, which are carried through blocks on each side of the vessel; then brought back through blocks fastened on the mizenmast, and passed round a wheel, by which means a greater command is obtained over the rudder. When the tiller is moved to the right (starboard), the rudder, of course, is forced in the water to the left (port). As the vessel moves on, the water presses against the rudder on the port side, and thus forces her stern to the starboard side, and her bow to the port. When the tiller is moved to the left, it of course produces a contrary effect. If the ship is moving backwards, then, by moving the tiller to the right, the bow is also turned to the right; for the water presses against the rudder behind it on the left side, and thus pushes the stern to the left. In steering, care must be taken not to steer too much,--that is, not to move the rudder too violently or more than is necessary,--as this materially stops her way.

We here present the young yachtsman with a cutter at anchor, with her ropes and spars numbered; and which ought to be thoroughly known, as well as the uses to which they are applied in sailing a yacht:--

1. Stem.
2. Stern.
3. Tiller.
4. Anchor.
5. Cable.
6. Bowsprit.
7. Bobstay.
8. Mast.
9. Topmast.
10. Truck.
11. Vane and Spindle.
12. Cross-trees.
13. Trussle-trees.
14. Gaff.
15. Boom.
16. Topmast-shroud.
17. Topmast-backstay.
18. Topmast-stay.
19. Runner and Tackle.
20. Traveller for Jib.
21. Forestay.
22. Topping Lift.
23. Lift Blocks.
24. Mainsheet.
25. Peak Halliards.
28. Foresheet.
29. Signal Halliards.
30. Companion.
31. Forecastle.
32. Rudder.

SOMETHING ABOUT THE MASTS, SPARS, ROPES, ETC.

The _Mast_ (8) is a spar set nearly upright, inclining a little aft, to support yards and sails. In a yacht, it is kept in its place by two shrouds on each side, made of strong rope, and fastened to the sides of the vessel.

The _Bowsprit_ (6) is a spar carried out from the forepart of a yacht, secured at its inner end between two strong posts piercing the deck, called “the bitts.” It is kept in its place by the bobstay (7), which is fastened to the stem, and by a shroud on each side secured to the bow.

The _Boom_ (15) is that spar which sets out the mainsail below, and is attached at one end to the mast by a swivel cable, called the “goose-neck,” and is eased off or hauled in at the other by the mainsheet (24), which is a rope passing from the end of the boom through a block on the side of the vessel.

The _Gaff_ (14) sets out the mainsail above, and slides up and down the mast by means of a crescent end, which embraces it. The sides of this curve are called “horns.”

The _Topmast_ (9) stands above the mast, and is made to slide up and down. On it a topsail (_i. e._ a gaff-topsail) is set in light winds; but both sail and mast are generally lowered in squally weather. It is kept steady by a backstay (17) on each side of the foretopmast-stay. The latter is brought down to the bowsprit.

_Ropes._--There are various ropes to hoist and lower sails, called haulyards (pronounced halliards). There are also other ropes of great importance, especially those called the sheets, which are to haul in the sails, and make them stand to the wind. In a yacht, the mainsail has sometimes a sheet each side; and sometimes only one sheet reeved through double blocks, which travel on an iron rod, called “a horse,” from side to side. The jib has two sheets, the starboard and port (right and left). The foresail has the same, except in some instances, when it has but one sheet working on a traveller, like the mainsail. The topsail has only one, which is rove through a sheave at the end of the gaff and a block at the throat of the gaff, and then down to a cleat or fastening place on the deck. Signal haulyards are for hauling up the colours, and pass through a small sheave, in the truck (10), at the end of the topmast. The ensign haulyards are reeved through a small block at the peak end, and lead down to the boom. The other ropes on board a yacht are for the support of the spars, and are called “standing rigging,” while those used for the sails are called “running rigging.”

SAILING A YACHT.

If the reader has paid attention to our instructions, he ought now to be pretty well conversant with build, rigging, spars, and sails of a yacht; the next thing, therefore, is to explain the actual practical sailing of a yacht. The number of hands must depend on the tonnage of the boat and the number of sails. It is best to have a steersman, and one hand for each sail. Our yacht is now lying at anchor, or moorings, which consists of a chain and buoy, fastened to a heavy anchor sunk in the bed of the river. Having got on board, by means of the little boat called a “dingy,” we first unloose the fore and mainsail, and forestaysail; haul out the jib on the bowsprit, ready for hoisting; hoist the colours, with the name of the yacht or club to which she belongs, to the gaff-end; and stand by to hoist the canvass. We will suppose it just past high water, the yacht swinging ebb, and the wind up stream; we shall, therefore, have tide with us, and the wind against us. We now hoist the throat and peak halliards, till the former is well up block to block; then, by hauling at the peak-halliards till the after part of the sail is taut (tight), the mainsail is set, and she swings head to wind. The next thing is to hoist the forestaysail and the jib, which must be well purchased up, and the sheet well hauled in, before we can get her on the wind, _i. e._ sail close up to the wind. The ropes must now be coiled up, and hung on the cleat belonging to each. Our canvass being now up, we may cast off, slack out the mainsail, haul in jibsheet on the contrary tack to which we intend to sail, and we are under weigh.

We have already told the reader that “starboard” means right, and “port” means left. Formerly, the word “larboard” was used for left; but, owing to the similarity between the two words starboard and larboard, the word port was substituted for the latter. A boat is said to be on the starboard tack, when the wind is blowing from the starboard side; the port side is then called the lee side, and the starboard the weather side. She is on the port tack when the wind blows from the port side, which is then called the weather side, and the starboard the lee side. When in steering she is brought nearer the wind, she is said to “luff;” and when further from it, to “bear away.” When the helm is put so as to cause the boat to luff, the helm is “put up;” when it causes the boat to bear away, it is “put down,” or a-lee.

Proceeding to our cruise, we must haul the jib-sheet well in, put the helm up, and sail close to the wind; as, the wind being against us, we shall have to “beat up,” that is, sail in a zigzag direction. In sailing close to the wind, we must always take care _not to sail too close, but always keep the canvass quite full_. Upon the skill of the steersman, mainly depend the motions of the boat; he must endeavour to attain the happy medium of keeping the boat close to the wind, and yet not allowing the canvass to shake. The practised yachtsman feels with his helm every variation of the wind, and meets it with a turn to port or starboard; but the young sailor would do well to watch the colour at the masthead, and, by keeping it in a line with the gaff, he will not steer very wildly. We are now getting near the opposite bank from whence we started, and must therefore tack. If the boat is quick in stays (_i. e._ will go round quickly), and the bottom is not muddy, and is deep enough for the boat, we may go pretty close to the bank before we tack; but if she is a slow tub, we must begin in good time. First, we must see that all the canvass is quite full; then the mainsail must be hauled to the middle of the boat, or amidships, and the helm put gradually down. When she is head to wind, let fly the jibsheet; if she is on the starboard tack, haul in the port foresheet taut, which is called backing the foresail; the wind, by blowing on the foresail, assists the boat round. When she begins to fill on the other tack, cast off the port (now the weather) foresheet, and haul in the leesheet and also the jibsheet, and trim the mainsail (_i. e._ let go, or haul in, the mainsheet), according to the direction of the wind. If when the boat is in stays, or head to wind, she moves neither way, put the helm amidships; if she moves back, put the helm the contrary way to what you had it before, resuming its former position when she moves on again. When the wind gets more on our beam (_i. e._ blows directly across us), we may slack out the canvass a little; the more aft it blows, so much more we must square our sails. There is a heavy cloud in the wind’s eye, that admonishes us that a squall is brewing, and the dark ripple of the water to windward tells us that it will soon be here. Keep her well full, that as the squall strikes her she may have good way on; and luff into the wind as soon as the squall begins: and if she does not right at once, let go jib and foresheets; if that fails, cast off the mainsheet, and send a hand to stand by the fore and jib halliards, which must be let go when the squall becomes violent. We must now reef the mainsail; to effect this, allow plenty of room for driving to leeward; set taut the “topping-lift,” a rope which hoists up the end of the boom; lower the halliards; hook at the end of the boom an earring which is higher up in the sail, and tie up the reef-points; then, having set up our mainsail, hoisted a smaller jib, and drawn in the foresheet, we are under sail again.

We must take care always to observe the rules of sailing, when meeting with another yacht. Whichever boat is running free must make way for one close hauled; for a boat when close hauled cannot conveniently alter her course, but when she is running free she is always able to move to which side she pleases. As we get into wider water, we shall find more swell, that impedes the boat to windward; but, if the waves be long enough, there is a way of easing her over them, by putting down the helm slightly, just before the highest of them strikes her bow; thus, by stopping the boat’s way, she strikes the sea with less violence.

BRINGING UP.

Our destination outward bound being in sight, we must prepare to bring up. The anchor must be got on deck; the cable passed through the hawsehole, and shackled or fastened to the anchor, with its stock made ready and secured; then suspended over the bowsprit shrouds, and made ready to let go. Lower the head-sails, put down the helm till she is head to wind, and when she is fairly stopped we may drop the anchor.

MAKING SNUG.

The mainsail may now be triced up, with the peak lowered, and with the helm to one quarter or the other, according as the tide sets; we may then hope to lie securely as long as we choose.

GOING BACK.

In getting under weigh once more, first haul the cable short; get all the canvass ready to set up; weigh anchor, and, as the wind is fair, set the head sails first and the mainsail afterwards; the peak should not be too high in running, nor the back of the mainsail fast, but raised slightly to let the wind into the head sails. The tide is now against us; we must, therefore, keep out of the strength of it as much as possible.

JIBING.

In rounding the next point we shall jib, or jibe, one of the most difficult manœuvres in sailing; for in doing so there is danger of broaching-to, so as to run on shore; of being swept overboard by the boom as it passes from side to side; and of carrying away or snapping the boom itself. To avoid these mischances, give the shore a wide berth; take in the mainsheet, keeping its coils clear for running out; trice up the tack of the mainsail, and if the breeze is strong, lower the peak; you may then put your helm to the opposite side to which the boom swings, and, on the instant the mainsail has traversed to the other side, change your helm to the reverse and meet her;--this prevents the broaching-to which would otherwise occur.

BRINGING UP AT MOORINGS.

We are still against the tide, and our moorings are in sight. To bring her up handsomely calls for more skill than even handling her well. Our object now must be to lay her still at the moorings from whence we started, and at the same time to have enough way to reach them. In our present case it will be best to round her to about an hundred yards short of the moorings, and, when head to wind, lower the mainsail, leaving the head sails standing--this with putting up the helm will bring her head round again--then take in the jib, and, if she has way enough, the foresail also; and with the opposing tide we may steer our craft so steadily to the buoy as to take it on board with ease.

Having informed the young sailor of what is necessary to be done on board, we will now impress on his mind a few useful nautical terms and maxims, which may lead to the preservation of life and limb.

OF THE MARINERS’ COMPASS, AND VARIOUS NAUTICAL TERMS.

The ancients, whose only guides over the trackless waters were the heavenly bodies, so often obscured by clouds, could not venture far from shore. It is the compass which has enabled us to steer boldly across the deep. The directive power of the loadstone has been long known to the Chinese, and it was brought over to Europe about the year 1260. The communication of the magnetic power to steel and suspending it on a pivot, is undoubtedly an European invention. The compass is composed of a magnetic needle suspended freely on a pivot, and supporting a card marked with the thirty-two points of direction into which the horizon is divided, and which are thence called the points of the compass. The needle always points nearly north, and the direction of the boat may be easily seen by looking at the card. The whole apparatus on board a ship is enclosed in a box with a glass cover, to allow the card to be seen without being disturbed by the wind. This box is also sometimes suspended, to prevent the needle being affected by the motion of the vessel. The whole is then placed at the binnacle, in sight of the helmsman. In the inside of that part of the compass-box which is directly in a line with the bow, is a clear black stroke, called the lubber line, which the helmsman uses to keep his course; that is, he must always keep the point of the card which indicates her course pointing at the lubber line. Every young yachtsman must learn to box the compass; that is, to repeat all its points in order.

CAUTIONS AND DIRECTIONS.

1. Never leave anything in the gangway, and keep the decks clear.

2. Coil up all ropes; and have a place for everything, and everything in its place.

3. Take care that in tacking or jibing the boom does not knock you overboard.

4. Stand clear of ropes’ ends and blocks flying about, when you are tacking, and the sails shaking.

5. Keep a good look out ahead, and also for squalls, which may generally be observed to windward.

6. Always obey the orders of the steersman promptly.

7. Keep all your standing rigging taut.

8. When the boat is on the wind, sit on the weather side.

9. Should the boat capsize, keep yourself clear of the rigging, and swim ashore.

The young yachtsman should on no account attempt to take command of a boat till he is thoroughly experienced, and should never go in one without having at least one experienced hand on board; he should also always have his eyes open to what is going on, and be ever ready to lend assistance with the greatest promptitude. Quickness and agility are the characteristics of a sailor; without these, numerous would be the losses at sea. The casting off or belaying a rope quickly, is often attended with the most important consequences, in which the losing or saving of life may be concerned; and we would therefore advise all who are emulous of being sailors, to be attentive to their duties, quick in their evolutions, and steady in all their doings.

NAUTICAL TERMS.

_Aback_, the situation of the sails when the wind presses their surfaces against the mast.

_Abaft_, towards the stern; _e.g._, abaft the mainmast, behind the mainmast.

_About_, on the other tack; going about, tacking.

_Abreast_, alongside of.

_Adrift_, broken from moorings.

_Afloat_, on the surface of the water.

_Ahead_, in the direction of the vessel’s head.

_Amidships_, in the middle of the vessel.

_Apeak_, when the cable is hove taut, so as to bring the vessel nearly over the anchor.

_Astern_, in the direction of her stern.

_Avast_, an order to stop.

_Athwart_, across--as “thwart hawse.”

_Backstays_, ropes running from topmast and top-gallantmast to her sides.

_Ballast_, heavy materials placed in the bottom of the boat, to bring her low in the water.

_Beacon_, a post or buoy placed over a shallow bank, to warn vessels.

_Bearings_, the widest part of the vessel below the upper deck. The bearings of an object is its direction according to the points of the compass.

_Belay, to_; to make a rope fast.

_Bend, to_; is to make a sail fast to the yard, or a cable to the anchor.

_Berth_, the place where the vessel lies; a man’s sleeping place on board.

_Bulwarks_, the woodworks of a vessel above deck; also the wooden partition between cabins.

_Bunting_, the woollen stuff of which ships’ colours are made.

_Buoy_, a floating cask or piece of wood.

_Cabin_, the after part of the vessel in which the officers live.

_Capstan_, a machine placed perpendicularly on deck, round which the cable is passed, in order to hoist the anchor. It is moved round with bars of wood stuck into it, which are called handspikes or capstanbars.

_Cathead_, large pieces of wood over the bow, having sheaves within them, by which the anchor is hoisted or lowered.

_Cleat_, pieces of wood on which ropes are belayed.

_Combings_, raised woodwork round the hatches, to prevent the water going down to the hold.

_Companion_, ladder leading down to the state cabins.

_Davits_, rods of timber or iron, with sheaves or blocks at their ends, projecting over a vessel’s side or stern, to hoist boats up to.

_Draught_, the depth of water which a vessel requires to float her.

_Feather, to_; to lift the blade of the oar horizontally as it comes out of the water.

_Fenders_, pieces of wood or rope hanging over the side of a boat, to keep it from chafing.

_Fathom_, six feet.

_Flat_, a sheet is said to be hauled flat, when it is hauled down close.

_Fore and Aft_, lengthwise with the vessel.

_Forecastle_, the part of the vessel before the foremast.

_Foul Anchor_, when the cable has a turn round the anchor.

_Gaff_, a spar to which the head of a fore and aft sail is bent.

_Gage_, depth of water in a vessel--this water is called “bilge water.”

_Gangway_, that part of a vessel’s side through which people pass in and out of the vessel.

_Gaskets_, pieces of rope or plaited stuff, used to fasten the sail to the yard when it is furled.

_Give way, to_; to row more forcibly.

_Grapnel_, a small anchor with several claws, generally four, used to secure boats.

_Gunwale_, (pron. _Gun’el_,) the upper rail of a boat or vessel.

_Gybe_, or _Jibe, to_; to shift over the boom of a fore-and-aft sail.

_Halliards_, ropes used for hoisting or lowering yards and sails.

_Hatchway_, an opening of the deck.

_Hatches_, the coverings of hatchways.

_Hawser_, a large rope.

_Helm_, the steering apparatus.

_Hold water, to_; to stop the progress of a boat, by keeping the oars in the water.

_Jib_, a triangular headsail.

_Jib-boom_, a spar rigged out beyond the bowsprit.

_Jurymast_, a temporary mast rigged in the place of a lost one.

_Lee Board_, a board fitted to the lee side of flat-bottomed boats, to prevent their drifting to leeward.

_Log_, a journal of the proceedings of a vessel; also a line with a triangular piece of board, called the log ship, which is cast overboard to ascertain the ship’s rate of sailing.

_Luff, to_; to steer the boat nearer the wind.

_Lurch_, the sudden rolling of a vessel to one side.

_Marling-spike_, an iron pin sharpened at one end, to separate the strands of a rope.

_Martingale_, or _Dolphin-striker_, a short perpendicular spar under the bowsprit’s end.

_Miss stays_, to fail going about.

_Oakum_, pieces of yarn picked to pieces, used for caulking.

_Overhaul, to_; when a rope is passed through two blocks, in order to make a tackle, the rope which is hauled on is called the fall; if one of the blocks gets loose, the act of hauling on the rope between the blocks, in order to separate them, is called overhauling.

_Painter_, a rope attached to the bow of a boat.

_Pendant_, a long narrow flag at the mast-head.

_Quarter_, that part of the vessel between the stern and the main chains.

_Ratlines_ (pron. _Rat’lin’s_,) ropes fastened across the shrouds, like the steps of a ladder.

_Scud, to_; to drive along before a gale with no sail, or only enough to keep her ahead of the sea. Also, low thin clouds flying swiftly before the wind.

_Spanker_, or _Driver_, the after sail of a ship or bark. It is fore and aft sail set with a boom and gaff.

_Splice, to_; to join two ropes together by entwining their strands; a rope is generally formed of three strands twisted together.

_Spring, to_; to split a mast.

_Stays_, large ropes leading from the masthead forward.

_Staysail_, a sail hoisted on a stay.

_Steerage_, the part of the between decks just before the after cabin.

_Stretcher_, pieces of wood placed across a boat’s bottom for the rowers to put their feet against.

_Surge_, large swelling waves breaking over rocks.

_Taut_, tight.

_Throat_, the inner edge of the gaff which embraces the mast.

_Unbend, to_; to untie.

_Unmoor, to_; to heave up one anchor, or to unfasten the ship from her moorings.

_Vane_, a piece of bunting flying at the masthead to show the direction of the wind.

_Waist_, the part of the upper deck between the quarterdeck and forecastle.

_Wake_, the path that a ship leaves behind her in the water.

_Wear, to_; to come round on the other side of the wind without backing.

SKATING.

Skating is one of the finest gymnastic exercises, by which man, as Klopstock says, “like the Homeric gods, strides with winged feet over the sea transmuted into solid ground.” It is one of the healthiest exercises, bringing the body into action by a great variety of motions. The art is mentioned in the Edda, written eight hundred years ago, in which the god Uller is represented as distinguished by beauty, arrows, and _skates_.

It is not known at what period skating was introduced into England, but there are indications of it in the thirteenth century, for Fitz Stephen, in his History of London, says, that it was in that time customary, when the ice was sufficiently strong, for the young citizens of London to fasten the leg-bones of animals under the soles of the feet by tying them round the ancles, and then taking a pole shod with iron into their hands, they pushed themselves forward by striking it against the ice, and moved with a celerity equal to a bird flying through the air or an arrow from a cross-bow.

Fitz Stephen describes another kind of diversion on the ice in these words, which may be acceptable to the young reader. He says: “Others make a seat of ice as large as a millstone, and having placed one of their companions on it, they draw him along, when it sometimes happens that moving in slippery places they all fall down together, which is rare sport, provided no harm be engendered.” Ibral mentions, that in his time it was customary to use sledges, which being extended from the centre by means of a strong rope, those who are seated on them are moved round with great rapidity.

The use of the modern skate is supposed to have been brought from Holland, and for many years skating has been exercised with much elegance in England and in Scotland. Somehow or other, we do not of late years have those severe frosts which enable the skater to practise his art with vigour; but there is now a skating club in London who anticipate trips to Holland during the winter months, where the art may be practised in all its perfection.

In early days we were “prodigiously,” as Dominie Sampson would say, fond of the sport. Our first attempts were made during the great frost in 1813-14, which lasted eleven weeks, and during which time there was a fair on the Thames, and skating was practised in a most delightful manner. One of the finest and most beautiful skaters of that period was Robert Fergusson, a Scotchman, who had been a “gentleman of means,” in the early part of his life, but having shot, horsed, tandem’d, dog’d, and skated away his substance, was so reduced as to become a teacher of his favourite art, and near the water works of old London Bridge, on the west side, he pitched his tent during the frost, inviting “gentlemen,” who could afford a “crown” to become his pupils in the art of “Land flying,” as he termed it. He boasted of having taught the Prince of Wales, and he sported the three ostrich feathers and “Ich dien” over his canvas. To him in youthful ardour we repaired, and the substance of his teachings we subjoin for the special benefit of our young friends.

The first maxim of Fergusson to his pupils was, “Throw fear to the dogs;” the next, “Put on your skates securely;” and the third, “Keep your balance:” and premising this as a “start,” I shall now describe the various kinds of skates, and the methods of using them.

THE SKATE.

There are various kinds of skates. Some, such as the Dutch skates, are very large and somewhat cumbersome, but very safe for those who skate with heavy loads on their shoulders, as they do in Holland, Denmark, and Russia. In these the iron often projects above six inches from the wood, and curls up towards the shin-bone above a foot, that the skater may glide the more easily over the hillocks of snow common to large expanses of ice.

Some skates are what are called fluted, that is, they have a groove running along the centre of the iron, which are the best for beginners, as they take a better hold of the ice. The plain skates have no such groove, and are better adapted for those who have partially acquired the art, as with them the utmost velocity and elegance of movement may be performed.[4]

[4] Fluted skates, however, are dangerous for any but those of light
weight, as the cut ice is apt to “ball” in the groove, and so to
throw the wearer, if he leans on one side.

The iron of the skate, which lies under the foot, is called its _blade_; this varies in different kinds of skates, and the practised professor of skating will choose a high or a low bladed skate, according to the nature of the ice; but the beginner should never use a skate whose blade is more than three quarters of an inch in depth and a quarter of an inch in breadth, for when the blades are deeper than this, the balance of the body is not so easily preserved, and the ancles are liable to be sprained or twisted.

PUTTING ON THE SKATES.

In putting on the skate, the “youngster” should kneel on one knee and fasten the skate on the foot of the other leg. If he should have a high laced boot, called in the eastern counties a “high-low,” he will find such an excellent support to the whole machinery. Or if he can provide himself with a “skate boot,” in which the skate and shoe are all of a piece, he will do better. Such skates were invented in the great frost about seven years ago, but just as they were coming in the frost went out; but they can still be procured. At all events, the skater should bear in mind that the skate must be fastened securely and firmly to the foot, by being well fastened to the heel and sole of the boot by means of the screw and points, and well, but not clumsily, strapped round the ancle, exactly so tight as to confine the foot without hurting it or impeding the motions of the ancle joints. There is a new skate now in use by the London Skating Club, called the elastic skate, or spring skate, in which a spring is introduced at the bottom of the foot, which keeps it fast in every part. Skates are also now made of gutta percha, and these are well worthy the notice of the young skater.

HOW TO START UPON THE INSIDE EDGE.

Having risen to the perpendicular, the learner should first ascertain, by moving his feet about on the ice, whether the skates are firmly and comfortably fixed on his feet. He should then walk a little on them, supporting himself by a light pole about six feet in length, having an iron spike at its end. Having in this manner got a little used to the feel of the skate on his foot, he should then endeavour to throw away all fear and strike out slowly with the right foot, leaning on the inside edge of the skate, and making the pressure greatest at that part of the skate opposite the ball of the great toe, at the same time bending slightly forward. When the skate has moved about a yard forward in this manner, the left foot should be brought to the ice in precisely similar manner. The figure represents the skater starting and proceeding on the inside edge.

MOVEMENT ON THE OUTSIDE EDGE.

Having practised on the inside edge for some days, to get used to the skates, the learner may afterwards attempt the “outside edge,” which is nothing more than throwing themselves upon the outer edge of the skate, and making the balance of the body bend to that side which will necessarily enable them to form a semicircle. In this much assistance will be derived by placing a bag of lead shot in the pocket next to the foot employed in making the outside stroke, which will produce an artificial poise of the body at first very useful. At the commencement of the outside stroke the knee of the employed leg should be a little bent, and gradually brought to a rectilineal position when the stroke is completed. The best method of getting to the “outside edge” is to form the circle inwards--say with the right foot and with considerable force; in the course of this, place the left foot down in front of the right, and lean powerfully on the outside of the left heel. A little practice and confidence in his balance will enable the student to lift his right foot, and hang it behind while he proceeds to cut outside with his _left_ foot. Let him then stop, and begin the inward circle with the left foot, and slip down the outer edge of the right heel in the same way.

The young skater has now learned to balance himself, and can venture to strike out at once to the right, on the heel of the right foot, keeping the left suspended behind, with its toe closely pointed to the heel of the right. As he advances, the left must be brought past the inside of the right with a slight jerk; this slight jerk produces an opposing balancing motion of the body; the right foot then quickly poises, first on the outside of the heel, and then on the inside of its toe, and by placing the left foot down before it, and striking outside to the left, giving at the same time a slight push with the inside of the right toe, he passes from right to left. Having learned this much, the skater will proceed to change from left to right, and then from right to left again, without any trouble. To skate “outside edge” properly, the toe of the suspended foot must be pointed close to the ice behind the other, and kept there until the foot be regained, when it must be brought sharply round to the change. The skater must keep himself erect, leaning most on the heel.

This mode of skating having been acquired, an endless variety of figures, devices, and modes of movement may be practised; such as “the roll,” the figure of 3, of 6, or of 8, “the spread-eagle,” “the mercury,” “the backward outside edge,” “the circle,” “the waltz,” “the minuet,” “the pirouette,” “the quadrille,” &c.

The first step towards figure skating is the

FORWARD ROLL,

which is performed in the manner already prescribed in the directions on the “outside edge.” To perform it gracefully, the skater should bring his left shoulder forward, throw his right arm back, look over that shoulder, and boldly incline his body to that side, proceeding alternately, with ease, grace, and deliberation. When he wishes to stop, he should bring both his feet together, and stop gradually; or he may stop suddenly, by pressing on the heels of his skates, taking care not to throw his toes up too much, or he will cut “all-fours.”

THE DUTCH ROLL

is so called from the motion being used in Holland by the travelling and trading classes in their common avocation. The figures it presents on the ice are small segments of very large circles; which enables the skater to diverge but very slightly from the right line of his course, and consequently accelerates his progress.

THE FIGURE OF EIGHT.

This is composed by merely finishing the great circles, of which the above segments form a part. To produce it, when the skater comes to the finish of the stroke on the right foot, he should throw the left quite across it, which will make him bear hard on the outside of the right skate, from which he must immediately strike. By completing the circle in this manner on each leg, the figure subjoined is performed.

THE FIGURE OF THREE.

This is performed principally on the inside edge backwards. The head of the 3 is formed of half a small circle on the heel of the outside edge; but when the circle is nearly completed, the skater leans suddenly forward, and rests on the same toe inside, and a backward motion is produced, which develops the tail of the 3. The right legged figure is that of the 3 in its natural position, and the figure made by the left leg is the same figure reversed; as per example. In these evolutions, the motion is not, strictly speaking, backwards, but rather sideways, as his face and body are always in the direction of his motions.

THE BACK ROLL.

By the “back roll,” as it is termed, the skater moves from one foot to the other alternately. His face is turned towards the left shoulder. The inside of the left skate bears on the ice, and the skater immediately strikes from it to the outside back of the other, by pressing it into the ice as forcibly as he can at the toe. The “back cross roll” is performed in a similar manner, the stroke being from the outside, instead of the inside of the skate.

The above motions combine the elements of skating, and having acquired these, the learner may perform an infinite variety of movements, such as “the cornua ammonis,” “the Dutch maze,” “the fish,” “the kite,” “the true lovers’ knot,” &c.; with any other devices his imagination may suggest. He may also engage in the quadrille or waltz, and exhibit his person in every variety of graceful form, at the same time that he exercises every muscle of the body.

GENERAL DIRECTIONS TO BE FOLLOWED BY PERSONS LEARNING TO SKATE.

1. Let your dress fit closely, but at the same time be of sufficient ease to ensure freedom of motion. Neither skirts to coats nor full trowsers should be worn.

2. Let flannel be worn next the skin by the delicate, and an extra under-garment by the robust. Let the chest be well defended against the cold. A piece of brown paper laid between the waistcoat and shirt is one of the best chest protectors.

3. Be careful in venturing upon the ice, unless it be sufficiently strong to bear the weight of the number that flock to it; and watch for the increase of numbers, that you may retire before danger ensues.

4. Avoid rough and very smooth ice, and look carefully out for obstructions thereon; such as small twigs of trees, stones, or “hobbles;” as well as for rotten ice, cracks where the ice has risen higher on one side than the other, or holes. Should you suddenly come upon rotten ice, do not stop, but pass over it as rapidly as possible. Should you fall down upon it, roll lengthwise towards the firmer part, without attempting to stand or walk upon it.

5. Should the skater fall into a hole, he should extend his pole or stick across it, and hold on to it till assistance arrives: should he have no stick, he may extend his arms horizontally across the edges of the ice, till a rope can be thrown to him.

6. After an unlucky immersion in the water, the unfortunate skater should immediately take off his skates, and, if able, run home as quickly as he can. He should then pull off all his wet clothes, take a tablespoonful of brandy in a glass of hot water, rub himself thoroughly with dry towels, and go to bed.

SLIDING.

What can be jollier or more enjoyable than sliding for an hour upon a crisp wintry morning, when the snow is lying three inches deep on the ground? You may say what you please about the pleasures of skating, but if you talk for an hour you’ll never convince us that there’s more fun in it than in sliding. We confess we gaze with admiration at a man twisting about on the ice like a teetotum on a ricketty tea-tray, and that when, like a crab, he goes backwards or waltzes round on one foot, while the other is gracefully poised in the air, we feel a pleasure in looking at him; but then, after watching a party of skaters for a short time, we begin to wonder how it is that they all look so solemn, as if each man were engaged on such an important task that he could not speak a word to his neighbour, and then we come to the conclusion that there is more display than real jolly pleasure in skating, and that the highly-trained skater goes through his evolutions rather in the hope of affording satisfaction to the spectators than of deriving enjoyment himself, for we defy any jolly-tempered fellow to feel jovial on a winter morning in company without laughing and shouting with glee at any person he comes across.

Therefore, when on turning from the mystic movements of a troup of skaters to a party of sliders, we hear them laugh and shout at each other, “now, then, keep the pot boiling,” and other choice sentences, and when we see a broad grin of pleasure plainly depicted on their rosy faces, we cannot but think that the enjoyment of sliding shows itself in a far more demonstrative manner than skating, and that more pleasure is derived from looking at a crowd of merry urchins going gaily down a slide than in seeing quadrilles danced, or names cut on the ice, by a band of skilled _pâtineurs_.

We also like sliding on account of its simplicity. All that its devotees require is a good sharp frost. What care they for ice? The hobnails in London boys’ boots soon produce a shiny slippery surface, and in a short time a respectable slide is made out of the drippings from a water-can, which a servant may have filled at the pump the day before.

There are, we are sure, few English lads who do not know how to slide. It seems to come as a matter of course to most boys; but still, lest there be some benighted youth to whom the pleasures of the slide are still unknown, we must insert a few hints on the subject.

Take a sharp run of about ten yards, and as soon as you feel that you are upon the slide, push the sole of the left foot as far along as you can, making the weight of the body rest almost upon it. You will then slide away, the right foot following without any effort on your part. We say advisedly do not push your foot until you feel well upon the slide, for if you are not very careful about this point you will endeavour to slide on that part of the earth which is not slippery, and although the momentum may impel you as far as the slippery portion, yet your progress will not be very great, as the force which was required to carry you along the whole length of the slide is partly wasted by the resistance which, at the start-off, the hard earth offers to your foot. Then, we have seen many boys in their first attempts to slide, place the heel upon the slide before the toe. The consequence is that they either fall over, or else only slip along a few yards, for a moment’s reflection will show that much greater force can be exerted by pushing the sole along than is exerted when the heel takes its place, and in the latter case, instead of the weight of the body assisting one’s progress, it probably causes the youthful tyro to fall backwards upon Mother Earth, and to wonder how it happens that he does not get on so well at first as other boys.

And now surmising that the slider is proficient in the first rudiments of the art, let us enumerate a few of the feats which a slider may perform while on the glassy track.

Foremost amongst these stands the postman’s knock, in which a boy slides upon one foot only, while with the other he gives double taps quickly upon the ice, in imitation of the noise made by the red-coated messenger at our street doors. This, however, should not be attempted until the performer is well on the slide, or the result will probably be that he’ll measure his length upon the ground. This is also known as “knocking at the cobbler’s door.”

Then comes the “carambole,” which consists in the slider sinking down two or three times during his journey, and rising as he reaches its termination; unless, however, he is very careful the weight of his body will drag him down altogether, and he will continue his journey on another portion of his frame, rather than on his feet. But the best accomplishment to be performed on a slide is the game known as “turnpikes.” Two stones or bricks are placed on the slide, with sufficient distance between them for a boy’s foot to pass through. The turnpike, thus roughly made, is to be kept by one of the party. Off start the sliders, taking care to pass through the pike, without displacing or even touching its walls. Woe betide the unlucky wight whose foot infringes this rule! He is instantly turned off the slide, and has to wait until some other incautious player commits a like offence, and is thus compelled to take his place.

Such are a few of the feats performed by adepts in this graceful art. Most lads, however, will be able to invent many more for themselves, and numerous are the sports that can be indulged in.

SWIMMING

Swimming is the most useful of all athletic accomplishments, as by it human life is frequently saved which might have been sacrificed. It is also useful in the development of muscular strength, as well as highly beneficial to the nervous system, and repairs the vital functions when falling into decline. In places near the sea or rivers, to know how to swim is an indispensable accomplishment. The ancients, particularly the Greeks, held the art in such high estimation as to bestow rewards upon the most perfect swimmers.

From the little familiarity with immersion in water which the inhabitants of our over-grown towns and cities possess, a very great proportion of the English population are but little acquainted with the art of swimming, and with the mode in which they should conduct themselves when risk of drowning presents itself. The English, above all other persons, should be good swimmers, exposed as they are by their insular situation, and commercial pursuits, and disposition to visit other lands, so frequently to perils by sea; yet, while most towns on the Continent abound in baths and swimming-schools, in British towns they are still few in number.