Chapter XXXV: Part V: Miscellaneous (1)

INCLUDING

BAGATELLE.
BILLIARDS.
BOAT-BUILDING.
CARPENTERING.
CHESS.
CONJURING.
CRYPTOGRAPHY.
DEAF AND DUMB ALPHABET.
DOMINOES.
DRAUGHTS.
FIREWORKS.
GARDENING.
MIMICRY AND VENTRILOQUISM.
PUZZLES.
SHOWS.
STAMP-COLLECTING.
TINSELLING.

BAGATELLE.

Whatever diversity of opinion there may be with respect to the skill required to excel at bagatelle, there can be none with regard to its popularity. The familiar long green table, with its round end and nine numbered cups let in level with the cloth, is found nearly everywhere. The games played on a bagatelle board are various, the principal of which are, English bagatelle (which is the ordinary game), French bagatelle, Sans Egal, Mississippi, Tron Madame, the Cannon game or Bagatelle _versus_ Billiards. Many of the strokes at billiards will be found useful at bagatelle, but much less strength will be required.

ENGLISH BAGATELLE

May be played by any number of persons. The order of precedence is settled by each person striking a ball up the board, and whoever gets the highest number takes the lead and possession of the whole nine balls. He places his ball on the white spot nearest the striking point, and the black ball (which counts double) on the spot nearest the holes. The black ball must be struck at the commencement of every round, but afterwards the player can either play for the holes direct or by striking the other balls. The mace or cue may be used, as agreed upon. Any number of rounds may be played, and the score is counted from the marked holes into which the balls are driven. The sides of the table are filled with holes and pegs to mark the progress of the game.

THE FRENCH GAME

Differs from the English in two or three essential particulars. It is generally played by two or four persons, who, instead of playing with the whole nine balls, take it in turn to strike, and score all they make until a hole is missed. The player forfeits one point if he misses the black ball, which counts double, as in the English game. A hundred up is the usual score, and occasionally different values are given to coloured balls, so that a black counts double, a red the same, or adds two to the score otherwise made.

SANS EGAL

Is a favourite game for two persons. The lead is decided as in the English game, and each player has four balls of different colours. The black ball is placed as in the English game, and the players take alternate strokes. The one that holes the black ball counts it towards his game, as well as all he may hole of his own; but should he hole any of his adversary’s, the number is scored to the owner of them. The game is played 21 or 31 up, and the winner of one round takes the lead in the next.

THE CANNON GAME.

This is also called “Billiards _v._ Bagatelle,” and is played by two persons,--101 up. Three balls of different colours are used--black, red, and white: the choice of the two last, and the lead, is determined as in the English game. The game is commenced by placing the black ball on the spot; but should the player miss it, his opponent scores five; and if the ball is holed at the same time, the number of the cup is also counted to his opponent, who then takes the turn. The black ball invariably counts double, and is taken out of the cup every time it is holed and placed on “the spot,” as at the commencement. If the player’s ball is holed after contact with the black ball, or after having made a cannon, it counts the number of the cup, and is returned to him, when he continues to play until he misses. A cannon scores two to the game, but the black ball must be struck first, or else five is added to the adversary’s score. There are a few other points to be observed. The player continues playing after making a cannon, or after holing his own or adversary’s ball, if he has struck the black ball first. Should any ball rebound beyond the centre of the table or be forced off the board, it must not be played that round, unless it is the black ball, which must be placed on “the spot,” as at the commencement of the game.

MISSISSIPPI.

This is a variation of the game by means of a wooden perforated bridge, each arch of which bears a particular number. The bridge is placed close up to the circle, and each player strikes up one ball; he who gets the highest number takes the lead, and plays the nine balls successively. The balls must strike one of the cushions previous to entering the bridge, otherwise the number will be scored to the adversary. The game may be played 30, 60, or 100 up, as may be agreed on.

BILLIARDS.

Of all indoor games, billiards ranks highest. It is without doubt the king, and reigns triumphant over chess, backgammon, parlour croquet; and since those delightful miniature billiard tables have been introduced, it is rapidly superseding bagatelle as a parlour game. These miniature tables possess all the advantages of the larger and more aristocratic tables. The same principles operate, the practice is similar, and the laws which govern the play are alike; need it be a matter of wonder that billiards is fast becoming as popular and universal as it is excellent?

When a boy first tries his hand at billiards, he is generally confounded by the apparently erratic conduct of the balls. They are apt to diverge into the strangest places, and somehow manage to remain precisely in those spots where a practised player can make a good break from them. This arises first from the want of a knowledge of the laws which regulate moving bodies, the general principles of billiards, and an acquaintance with the various “strokes,” and the effects they produce. Thus to become a good billiard-player requires a nicety of touch, a good eye, and sound judgment. These are to be acquired if the player attends to the following principles and points of the game.

Most boys are aware that billiards is played on an oblong table twelve feet long by six feet wide, inside the cushions: the smaller tables preserve these general proportions. In France, for instance, the table is some four feet by eight feet, and without pockets, it being used solely for the cannon game; but English tables have invariably six pockets, one at each corner and two at the sides. No good table is now made without a slate bed, perfectly level, and covered with fine green cloth. The old list cushions are now superseded by those made of vulcanized india-rubber, which not only resists the deteriorating influence of the weather, but increases the “speed” of the table. The surface of the cloth is marked with three “spots.” The first “spot” is placed about twelve inches from the upper end or top of the table, and is known as “_the_ spot.” The second is placed two feet six inches from the top, and the third is in the centre of the table. Two feet six inches from the bottom of the table is the “baulk line,” on which is inscribed a semicircle, called the “striking point,” shown on figs. 4 to 7. The position of the semicircle is also marked by three spots, one at each end and one at the centre.

The moveable adjuncts to the table are cues, balls, butt, and a rest or jigger. With respect to these one or two words of advice. See that your cue is well balanced; beware of fancy cues; let the leathered tip be moderately broad, and keep it always well chalked. The balls are perfect spheres turned out of the centre of the tusk. It may be mentioned that the ordinary length of a cue is four feet nine inches, and the diameter of “match balls” is two inches and a sixteenth. The “butt” is a stiff, thick cue, well leathered at the butt end, and is used occasionally for pushing the ball when it is necessary to come off a cushion at an exact angle. The uses of the “rest” and long cues are obvious.

Ere touching on the game itself, there are a few essential points which claim the attention of a young player. They are these: 1. The attainment of a good position. 2. The making of a firm “bridge.” 3. The acquirement of a good, easy, but firm, stroke. The last two essentials depend in a great measure on the first. It is obvious that the billiard player requires an easy play for his right arm, and firmness in his left to give solidity to the “bridge.” To ensure this he must stand firmly on his right leg, so that it supports the weight of his body. The left leg should be placed slightly in advance, and pressed gently to balance the body only. This will throw additional weight on the left arm, which rests on the table, and leave the right arm free. If the position is a good one, the left leg may be lifted from the floor without disturbing the body. To form the “bridge,” the left hand must be first extended on the table, and the fingers drawn up straight towards the wrist, so as to elevate the knuckles. If well done, the tips of the fingers, the wrist, and ball of the thumb will touch the table. The point of the thumb must be then kept slightly apart from the fingers to form a groove, in which the cue can rest, as shown in fig. 1.

The bridge should be formed almost six inches from the ball. To strike well, surely, and firmly, the cue must be held in the grasp of the right hand. This is essential, for unless the cue is so held it will be impossible to make a good, and therefore a sure, stroke. All fancy modes of holding the cue by the tips of the fingers should be avoided. The cue may be laid on the groove of the bridge, and drawn back, and then firmly and steadily send it forward in a straight line, keeping the right hand well down behind you, so that the force of the blow comes from the shoulder, not the elbow. The eye must be educated to guide the hand, and, hit or miss, the stroke should be given at once. There should be no hesitation, no see-sawing of the cue to and fro, and no violent motions whatever. The body should be so placed as to give firmness to the bridge, ease to the right arm--which should be kept straight, with the point of the cue slightly above the surface of the cloth--and a general freedom from constraint, which is highly essential to success.

The best method of practice for a young beginner is to place a ball before his cue and strike it firmly and gently into different pockets, or at different marked points of the cushion, until he can pocket the ball and hit a given point with freedom and precision. The ball must be fairly struck with the tip of the cue, not pushed or jerked forward; and hence it will be necessary to draw back the point of the cue five or six inches ere striking the ball. The stroke, though firm, must not be violent, lest the natural angles of the table should be destroyed. If the ball is watched carefully after it has struck the cushion, it will be found to return at an exactly equal angle to the one at which it was struck. In other words, “the angle of reflexion is equal to the angle of incidence.” This is the first and most important rule of billiards, and one that should never be forgotten. The variation of the strength and direction of the stroke will be found to materially affect this law, and enables the skilled player to make those formidable and seemingly impossible strokes which secure him his victory. This peculiarity of the angles is best illustrated, and the practice of the student advanced, by placing another ball at a little distance before the player, which we will call the object ball. If we place them in a line with one of the marked places on the cushion, and strike the first ball fair in the centre, and cause it to strike the object ball full,--if this is done, it will strike the marked spot, and come off at the same angle as your first ball would have done.

For the purposes of play the object ball is divided thus:--

2. Three-quarter Ball.

3. Half Ball.

4. Quarter Ball.

5. Eighth Ball.

6. Very fine Ball.

FIG. 2.--DIVIDING THE OBJECT BALL.]

Fig. 2, No. 1, shows the object ball struck full, fig. 2, No. 2, the three-quarter ball, and so on. The half ball is the most important in practice, as by it the natural angle is made, an angle that is of the greatest importance at billiards, though each have their particular uses, which the young player should endeavour to understand. He will find that the balls diverge at different angles, more or less acute, according as the object ball is struck “full” or “fine;” the fine ball being precisely the reverse of the three-quarter ball.

There are many ordinary hazards and cannons which can be made by simply dividing the object ball, but the motion which the striking ball obtains after contact with the object ball will be modified by the position of the cue and the manner in which it is struck. First let us take the position of the cue. For the full centre stroke or straight hazard the ball must be struck well in the centre, and produce what is termed _the retard_, or stop ball, if the object ball is struck full likewise. If the striker’s ball is struck considerably above its centre, it produces the _following stroke_. To make the ball _jump_, it must be struck sharply on the top with a “downward, forward motion,” and this, if carefully done, will cause the ball to jump over a neighbouring and intervening ball. When the ball is struck low, it produces _the recoil_, and the striker’s ball will return from the object ball to the player. This leads the beginner to the greatest of all modern improvements in the game, the _side-stroke_. It is found that it is much easier to divide the striker’s ball with accuracy than the object ball, but when both balls are divided with judgment the highest scientific play is obtained. The application of _side_ and twist to the striker’s ball is often misapplied by beginners, and is frequently the cause of mischievous results; for all students should remember that “the harder you strike the balls the more rapidly they fly apart;” and frequently a modification of the strength of the stroke will achieve the desired result better than the application of “side,” which may fail. It should always be remembered that the ball must be struck on the side on which it is intended to go after contact with the object ball, and that the effect is not produced until after it has come in contact with another ball or the cushion. It is used for the same purpose as the division of the object ball, and accomplishes the same object. In order that it may be properly understood we give in fig. 3 the player’s ball divided for the side-stroke.

The student can only acquire a knowledge of the effect of the strokes given at these varied points by practice, or from the instruction of an expert teacher; all that a writer can do is to lay down well-defined and easily-understood axioms, rules, and cautions. Thus, if the ball is struck at _c c_, at the top, it becomes the following ball; at the bottom _c c_, a recoil; at _f f_ it will give a strong side to the ball at the lower angles, the screw or twist, which causes the balls to twist back; the upper angles will give high right-hand side or left-hand side, according to the side they are struck.

THE ANGLES OF THE TABLE

Should never be forgotten. They change infinitely, and if the student has made good use of the hints given as to the elementary practice with one ball, he will have acquired some valuable information, and soon see the truth of the axiom, that the “angle of reflexion is equal to the angle of incidence;” and the advantage of a knowledge of the angles of the table will be best seen in making cannons, for many players will make them off one, two, three, and even four cushions.

Fig. 4 shows a series of very useful angles, which may be advantageously studied. The black lines represent the course of the ball before reverberation, the dotted lines its course after the first reflexion, and the faint lines its course after the second reflexion. In these examples the ball is supposed to be struck fairly in the centre with moderate force, except in case 1, where the effects of different strengths is shown. An ordinary, moderate stroke would bring the ball into the left-hand corner pocket, while a harder stroke would produce the angles _a b_: if played with greater strength the angles _c d_ will result. “_Bricole_” angles are made across the table, and are of course proportionately more acute. The _Bricole_ game is being obliged to strike a cushion, and make the ball reverberate or recoil from it previous to hitting the adversary’s ball. This is a very great disadvantage, and is used principally in “_cramp games_,” where the advantage of one player is neutralized by this; or by playing cannons against cannons and hazards, or four pockets to two, or five to one, or cannons and winning hazards against the whole game.

All strokes at billiards are distinguished by the name of cannons or hazards. Cannon is a contraction of _carambole_, and is a stroke in which the player strikes both balls in succession with his own. The “losing hazard” is when the player’s own ball is forced into either of the six pockets, after contact with the other ball. The “winning hazard” is made by forcing the ball played upon into either pocket after contact.

Here are a few examples of cannons made from the cushion, without the use of the side-stroke. They only indicate the infinite variety that can be made.

Some rather difficult, but useful, _winning hazards_ are shown in fig. 6. The stroke A is termed the “spot stroke.” This stroke is sometimes made a score or more times in succession by a good player. It is one of the best of winning hazards. It requires a nearly full ball of moderate strength, and to repeat it from one side to the other you should slightly divide your own ball by putting on a little side (see D _e_ in fig. 3); and you will find your ball in the right position to repeat the stroke. Sometimes it may be made by a slow hoist, which causes the ball to come back to the starting-point; or the ball may be stopped a little behind the object ball, and thus make a succession of hazards from the same pocket. The champion billiard-player, Roberts, makes tremendous breaks from the “spot stroke.” Get a good player to show the variety of ways in which it can be made, and practise it. Here are a few examples of the effect of dividing the object ball. Strokes 1 to 14 are made from the baulk into the top end pockets by dividing the object ball from a nearly full ball, as in 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, to an eighth in 1 and 9. Stroke 5 represents a half ball vulgarly called a pair of breeches. Stroke 11 should be made to hug the cushion. Strokes 15 and 16 must be played gently with a half ball, and 17 with a quarter ball. Strokes 18 to 33 show a variety of cuts made by striking the ball in the direction shown by the line between the white ball and the red.

Now for a few _losing hazards_. They require a little different treatment. Here are a few.

The first eight strokes require a screw, and more or less side, according to their position; 9, 10, 11, and 12 require strong side, as shown; and in 13 the striker’s ball must first strike the cushion gently, rebound, hit the other ball, and fall into the corner pocket. Stroke 14 is an ugly position for a beginner, yet it frequently occurs. You must put on plenty of side to your own ball, which will remove the object ball, and your ball will then roll along the cushion into the pocket. Stroke 22 alone requires a word in explanation. It shows now the losing hazard is made from baulk off the red on the spot. Put on a strong-side twist, and practise it well. Remember that practice can alone make perfect. Be always decided, play steadily, and do not lose your temper.

Now for a few hints with respect to the games to be played. With every billiard table a set of rules is supplied, and these must be studied and obeyed, as regulating the game; but an endless variety of games may be extemporised to suit the various parties and skill of the professors.

THE AMERICAN GAME

Is played with four balls, a light red, or pink, and dark red. The balls are placed on the spots in the centre between the pockets. The baulk is not confined to the semicircle, but you can place your ball anywhere within the line which is extended level with the winning-hazard spot. The game is usually played 63 up, and consists of winning hazards and cannons. In this game “doubles” are of great advantage. Doubles are so called when a player strikes his own or an object ball at a certain angle of the cushion, so as to cause it to come off at an equal angle and go into a pocket at the opposite side of the table. It is called a “double double” if the ball returns and goes into a pocket on the side of the table it first struck; and there is a game in which no score is made unless the cushion is first struck with the ball.

PYRAMIDS, OR PYRAMID POOL,

Is played with fifteen red and one white ball. The red balls are arranged in a triangle, thus:--

o o o o o
o o o o
o o o
o o
o

The first ball is placed on the winning-hazard spot. The white ball is placed in baulk. The game is placed by holing all the red balls. A great deal will depend in this on keeping the white ball safe, so that your adversary may have to play a cramp stroke. It is a pretty game to play with friends. Pyramids can be so modified as to suit a number of players, each striking in succession, and scoring according to the number of balls pocketed. A small stake is placed on each ball to give an interest in the game. When played in this manner, the winner who scores the greatest number takes the stakes.

“WINNING AND LOSING CARAMBOLE GAME”

Is played by either two or four persons. Winning and losing hazards, cannons, and forfeits, go to make the score, which is usually 50. If four players make a match, and play side against side, they play 63 up, and the partners may instruct each other. This plan is open to objection, and a far better one is for each to play his own game, and handicap the inferior players by giving them ten or fifteen points at the commencement. In this case, if either party gives a miss, it is far better that he should lose one point than the others should take one each. The white and spot white balls are then played alternately, as if only two were playing. The game commences by stringing for the lead and the choice of balls. The player must place his ball within the striking ring, and stand within the limits of the corner of the table. He whose ball rests nearest to the cushion at the baulk end of the table wins the lead, and chooses his own ball. A few general hints respecting the rules only is necessary. The red ball is placed on the lower of the two spots at the bottom of the table, and replaced there when it is holed (_i. e._ pocketed) or forced over the edge of the table, or when the balls are broken or, in other words, placed as at the commencement of a game. Whoever breaks the balls leads off. With respect to scoring: if the striker holes the white ball (called a white winning hazard), or if he holes his own ball from the white ball (called a white losing hazard), he gains two points; if he does both, he gains four points. If he holes the red ball, he wins three; and if by the same stroke he holes his own from the red, he wins three more.

POOL.

There are several ways of playing pool. There is the ordinary game, with as many balls as there are players, or with two balls only, the players playing in turns, and playing with alternate balls; playing with the nearest ball; playing at the last player; or the player playing at whichever ball he chooses. The most popular game is that in which the player plays at the last player. When coloured balls are used, they are played as the colours are placed on the marking board. Each player has three lives at starting. But there is this drawback to pool: if the player happens to lose all his lives in rapid succession, he is condemned to inglorious idleness until the pool is played out, and then the same thing may happen. This may be obviated by allowing the lives to be unlimited, and paying nothing into the general pool, so that if a player’s ball be pocketed, he has only to pay his stake and remain on hand until his turn comes round again. In this manner the players may continue their game for an unlimited period, and a new-comer may join the game at any time.

There is a cannon game which affords excellent practice. All the pool or pyramid balls are ranged in a line against the top and bottom cushion, having the plain white ball in the middle. A cue is then laid flat against them, and they are pushed along the table, so as to strike the opposite cushion. The object of the player is to take the white ball and make as many consecutive cannons as possible. Should his own ball run into a pocket, he is obliged to stop and let the next player in; and if any of the coloured balls run into a pocket, it must stay there, and of course decrease the chances of a long series of cannons. This is much more difficult than it looks.

There is a cannon game with one red and the two white balls. In this pocketing either of the white balls causes two to be deducted from the score, and pocketing the red ball loses three. The regular French game consists of cannons only; misses and pockets do not count either way. It is usually played on a French table, without pockets, with two and a half inch balls, and a heavy one. The baulk is not confined to the semicircle. At the commencement the red is placed on the winning spot, and the non-striker’s ball on the centre spot in baulk.

ITALIAN SKITTLE POOL

Is an excellent game for boys. It is played thirty-one points up. Four balls are used, two being white, one red, and one blue; and five skittles are placed in the centre of the table. Each of the skittles is numbered in the following order:--The first opposite the baulk is numbered 1; the one to the right 2; the one opposite to the first 3; the opposite to the second, on the left, 4; and the one in the centre 5. The red ball is placed as in the cannon game, the blue one beneath it. The two white balls are kept by the two players who have to play first. There is a peculiarity in this game, from the fact that a number, from one to sixteen, is chosen by the player at random, and the marker secretly adds it to the score, and in order to win the pool the player must make between the points of the game and those on the hidden ball thirty-one points, neither more nor less: if he makes more he is technically dead, and out of the game. The first player has to strike the red ball, the second the blue one, while the following players may use either. The points are made by knocking down the skittles, each of which counts as many points as its number, and by whatever ball these skittles are knocked down they always count. If a ball is knocked out of the table, it destroys all the points made by the stroke. Any player reaching twenty-nine or thirty points has a right to stop on his declaring so, only the points he makes in his subsequent play count to the advantage or disadvantage, whichever it may be, of the previous player. The survivor from amongst all the players who have died by overstepping the thirty-one points wins the pool. He who knocks down the four outside skittles, leaving the centre one only standing, makes what is called the royal, and wins the pool. There are some minute rules about stopping, which must be declared immediately on reaching twenty-nine or thirty points, and only one person can stop. The advantage of stopping is the chance of being the survivor.

On a wet day, in a country house, the best round game is _Penny Pot_, played like pool, and for every ball pocketed the player receives a small stake, and plays until he ceases to score. After making a winning hazard, the nearest ball is played on. A life is forfeited for every miss, coup (_i. e._ playing a ball into a pocket without its touching another ball), or losing hazard, and paid to the owner of the ball played on.

This truly English amusement cannot be too highly extolled, as it is calculated to incite boys to emulate each other in acquiring proficiency in an art which exercises their ingenuity and taste, while it inculcates habits of patient industry. A good sailing ship is rather a troublesome thing to construct; but when a lad sees it “walk the waters like a thing of life” he experiences feelings which fully repay him for all his labour. Every boy ought to learn to swim, if only to prevent anxious parents including boat-sailing with dangerous pastimes that ought not to be encouraged. We are always pleased to see boys sailing their miniature vessels, and we cannot think that an occasional ducking ought to interfere with an occupation so befitting to the youth of a great maritime nation. As long as French boys amuse themselves with playing at soldiers, we trust English boys will continue to build and sail their model ships.

If you wish to possess a good ship, you must make it yourself, as the smartly-painted vessels of the toy-shops are usually made to sell, and not to sail. To form the hull you will require a few carpenter’s tools, such as a couple of chisels, a gouge, and a saw, in addition to that invaluable instrument, a good pocket-knife. Having procured a suitable piece of good white deal, with a straight grain, mark a line down the middle, on the upper and lower sides, and at both ends; then mark out with pencil the shape of the intended vessel, which should be broad in proportion to length, and deep in proportion to the width. Most boys shape their vessels before scooping them out, but it is far better to reverse the process, and hollow out the wood before commencing the outside. The deck is to be made of a thin piece of deal, and must be fitted very accurately, so that no water may enter the hold. A flush deck, without a raised edge or gunwale, is to be preferred, as such a deck does not hold the water.

The mast should be made of strong, light wood; should be tapering, and rather long. The less rigging there is the better; two shrouds and a few stays will be enough. The best models for miniature ships are those vessels that are rigged “fore and aft,” such as cutters and schooners; square-rigged ships are unmanageable unless made very large.

Our first illustration shows a model cutter, with her sails set. The principal sail is termed the mainsail, the one above it the gaff topsail, and the triangular sail attached to the bowsprit the foresail or jib.

The blocks used in rigging a model ship are to be made of boxwood or alder. The latter is a softer wood than the former, and can be more readily fashioned into shape with a penknife. The holes for the cords should be bored through the pieces of wood before they are shaped into blocks, as it is not easy to drill the blocks without splitting them. The rudder should be attached to the keel by bent pins. The little staples on the keel, in which the bent pins work, are to be formed of brass wire. The stem of the rudder passes through a hole in the stern of the vessel, and is provided with a tiller. Before launching the ship, the tiller must be fixed so as to keep the rudder at the required angle. Many boys fear to launch their ships in large ponds; but if a ship is properly rigged, and answers to her rudder, there need be no doubt as to her safe arrival at port.

The smack is not so graceful as the cutter, but is a capital sailer. The large sail is called a spritsail, from the spar or sprit which crosses it diagonally from the mast to the upper aftmost corner.

A schooner is a vessel with two masts, and fore-and-aft sails like those of a cutter. The schooner-rig is not suited to very small boats.

The lugger is shown in the annexed engraving. The lug-sail which distinguishes this rig is a square sail fastened to a yard that hangs obliquely to the mast at one-third of its length. A lug-sail may be fitted to a single-masted boat. The lugger is an excellent boat for sailing, but it lacks the trim appearance of the cutter.

Cutters or schooners intended for fast sailing should have but one foresail, as a large balloon-jib rigged with a boom holds more wind than an ordinary jib and staysail. The ships should be well ballasted to prevent the wind capsizing them, and their topmasts should be made moveable, as in rough weather it will be found necessary to “strike” them. Each boat may have two sets of sails--one set large, for light winds, and the other considerably smaller, to be set up when the wind is high. The sails should be made of very light stuff--thin calico is best--and should have a line run round them, with loops for hooking them on to the spars. Beware of putting too many blocks and useless ropes about your boats, as the lighter the upper part of a vessel is the better she will sail. In conclusion, spare no pains in finishing your work neatly, so that your boats may bear witness to your skill and patience.

CARPENTERING.

“All made out of my own head.
And wood enough left for another.”

Nothing is more useful to a youth than to be able to do a little carpentering. To be handy with a chisel and saw, a nail and a hammer, saves many a pound in the course of the year. If you call in a carpenter for a little work he is sure to spin out a “regular job.” I remember once buying some oak saplings, which cost me eightpence a stick; and wanting to build a summer-house, I required eight of them to be sawn through, so I applied to a carpenter, and the sticks were cut, but to my astonishment, sixteen shillings was charged for this little “job,” although the wood cost me only five shillings and fourpence. I found out afterwards that the proper price for sawing would have amounted to about four shillings, so that twelve shillings profit was clapped on for the benefit of my experience. I just mention this to show my young friends, that if they wish to make summer-houses for their gardens, cages for their birds, fowl-houses, rabbit-hutches, or boxes for their books, they must learn to make them for themselves. I shall therefore offer them a little advice upon “carpentering.”

THE SHOP AND BENCH.

Endeavour to procure some small outhouse, in which you may erect what is called a carpenter’s or joiner’s bench. These may very often be bought second-hand, or if not, can easily be procured at a reasonable rate. I am very particular in recommending a bench, as without it you will find many obstacles to your work. You must also provide yourself with a set of tools,--gimlets, hammers, planes, saws, gouges, files, nails, screws, and such articles of use.

The bench is composed of a platform or top, supported by four stout legs; A is what is called the bench hook; this ought to be fitted in tight, so as to move up and down with a hammer only. The use of it is to keep any wood steady you may have to plane: B is the bench screw, used for keeping any wood firm and steady you may have to saw, which is to be put in the grip and screwed tight. Sometimes the edges of wood require to be planed, and then the wood is put in the grip or cheeks of the bench and held tight while you plane it. The holes in the side of the bench, C C, are for the insertion of a movable pin to support the end of the board you have to plane or saw, which is not in the screw. The height of your bench should be about 2 feet 8 inches. The common length is from 10 to 12 feet, and the breadth about 3 feet 6 inches.

OF PLANES.

C is what is called the jack plane, which is the first to be used. It is about 17 inches in length, and is used to take the rough parts from a piece of wood. It should be held steadily by fixing the right hand at the handle (_h_), and the left over the top and side at (_s_), and pushed forward on the wood, when the knife (_k_) will take off a shaving which runs through the hole (_o_), and falls on the side. In using the plane the endeavour should be to take off a clean shaving, which is done by using the instrument uniformly and steadily over every surface to be planed.

D is another kind of plane, called the trying plane, having a double top or handle. It is used to regulate and smooth, to a higher degree, the surface of the wood that had previously been smoothed from the rough by the jack plane. Its length is about 22 inches, and it is broader than the jack plane. There is another plane called the _long_ plane, which is used for facing a piece of stuff, which it does with the greatest exactness; its length is about 2 feet 4 inches. There is also the joiner’s plane, which is the longest of all the planes, being 30 inches long. But the most handy of the planes to the boy carpenter is the smoothing plane, E. It is the last plane used in joining, and gives the utmost degree of smoothness to the surface of a piece of finished work; it is about 7 inches in length, the sides of the stock are curved, and resemble in figure a coffin; it is used in a similar way to the other.

SAWS.

There are many kinds of saws, but the most useful one is what is called the “hand saw.” It has a blade or plate about 28 inches long; the teeth of which are so formed as to allow you to cut the wood crossways as well as lengthways. The handle of the saw is made so as to allow a full yet free grasp of the hand, either for a pull or a thrust.

The _panel saw_. This saw has a plate nearly of the same size as a hand saw, and is used for cutting very thin boards, which the rough teeth of the hand saw would not cut through without breaking them.

The _tenon saw_ is of a different shape to the others, and is made to cut across the grain of the wood so as to leave the ends nicely even, that it may fit to the piece it is joined to, which is called a shoulder, being that part which comes in contact with the fibre of the wood thus:

To do this it requires that the teeth should be much smaller, and they are therefore placed so close as eight or ten to the inch, according to the length of the blade.

The _dovetail saw_. There is another most useful saw it would be of advantage for the young carpenter to have, namely, the dovetail saw. It is about 9 inches long, and contains at least fifteen teeth in the inch. It is used for cutting the dovetails of boxes. Its plate is very thin, and it requires some care in using. It has a back for the purpose of strength, formed of a thin piece of brass or iron, let in so as to give the blade the requisite firmness necessary in using it.

The _compass saw_. The plate of this kind of saw is very narrow, and not more than one inch wide at the broadest part, gradually diminishing to about a quarter of an inch at the lower end. It is about 15 inches in length, and is used for cutting a piece of wood into a circular form, and the plate being narrow allows it to follow the foot of the compass to a very small diameter.

The _keyhole saw_. The keyhole saw is much smaller than the above. It is used for cutting short curves, small holes, &c., such as a keyhole. The handle is the same form as that of the chisel, a small slit being cut through from end to end. It has a screw on one side, in order that the blade may be set to any length, according to the circumference of the hole to be cut.

THE SPOKE SHAVE.

This is a very useful tool. It is employed for smoothing the edges of round pieces, or other ends requiring to be shaved down. It is a narrow plane made of boxwood, and has generally a steel blade let into it to cut; it is used by taking hold of each end with a hand, and moving it to and fro over the wood to be shaved down.

STOCK AND BITS.

There are about thirty-six bits to a set, all of different shapes and sizes; but our young friends need not get quite so many: if they provide themselves with a couple of a medium size, this will be sufficient, such as the centre bit and the auger bit. The centre bit will cut holes varying from a quarter of an inch to three quarters of an inch in diameter, and is used by pressing the knob end against the chest, and twirling the centre part round with the hand. It cuts a hole very clean, leaving it quite smooth inside. The auger bit is for the same purpose, and is used in the same manner. Another bit, called the taper shell bit, is used for making holes wider, and is a very useful implement.

HOW TO MAKE A WHEELBARROW.

One of the handiest things in a garden is a wheelbarrow, and one of the prettiest for the young carpenter to exercise his ingenuity upon. To make one, take a wide plank or board about an inch and a quarter thick. Proceed to your bench, and having fitted it to its proper position, take your jack plane and plane off the rough, next use your smoothing plane to make it smooth. Then take your pencil and draw upon its side the following figure, A. Then take your compass saw and cut round the marks you have made: to do this you will have to fix your board in the screw of your bench. When this is done take your spoke shave, and shave the edges all round till they are very smooth and even, and you have one side of your barrow. Lay this on another piece of board, and mark the shape of it with your pencil; cut and shave it exactly as you did the first side, so that when finished the two will exactly correspond; then cut a piece off another board for the back and front of the barrow, of the subjoined shape, by the same method you cut the sides, and plane and finish them up in a similar way. Cut some tenons at the end of each exactly to correspond with the mortices shown on the sides, D D; let them be a trifle larger than the mortices, so that they will drive in tight. Then cut the bottom out neatly, and nail it to the sides. Having proceeded thus far, cut out the legs of your barrow, B, and nail one on each side as shown in the figure. Give each leg a shoulder for the sides to rest upon.

_To make the wheel._ Take a piece of board, A, and strike a circle upon it the size you wish your wheel to be of, B, and with the compass saw cut close round to the stroke; cut out a square hole, C, in the centre for the nave to join. Then get the blacksmith to put an iron rim round the wheel to keep it from splitting, and a round pin in each side of the nave, and put a staple in each side of the barrow to keep the wheel in its place. Paint the whole of any colour you choose, and you will have

PUNCH’S COACH.

THE WAY TO MAKE A BOX.

First ascertain the size you wish your box to be of. Then cut off your stuff, but take care to cut it a quarter of an inch longer than the size of your box from outside to outside. Should you want it deeper or broader than the length of a deal, the widest of which is generally only eleven inches; suppose, for instance, you wish your box to be 18 inches deep, and you have only 9-inch deal to make it with, you will of course have to join two together, or make what is called in carpentering a _glue joint_. First, then, after you have cut off your stuff, take your jack plane and “scuffle the rough off;” then put your board edgeways into the bench-screw, and take your trying plane or long plane to get the edge of the deals that are to be glued together perfectly straight and even; and lastly, use the joiner plane, which will take off a nice uniform shaving of the whole length of the board. Proceed exactly in the same manner with the other board to be joined to the first. Then, after having made each thoroughly smooth, clap the two together and see if they will lie close in every part, if not, you must plane them till they do, taking care to plane the edges perfectly square, or at right angles to the surface of the board, for if you are not careful in this particular, when your boards are glued together they will be of this form. When you have joined them properly for glueing, let your glue be nicely hot and not too thick, and hold both edges of the boards together so that you can with a brush put the glue on both at one time, put the two together very quickly, let one of them be in the bench-screw, and while there rub the other backwards and forwards till the glue sets, which it will soon do if well joined. Let the whole dry, and then the glued part will be as strong as any other part of the board.

After your sides, ends, bottom, and top are thus prepared, you must then plane them up nicely, so that they are perfectly smooth and straight. Use first the jack plane, then the trying plane. When this is done you have to proceed to a nice little job, namely, to dovetail the corners together, so as to form your box. In this process much depends upon the planing and squaring of the stuff, for if you have not done this nicely the dovetailing will be very imperfectly performed. Assuming that everything has been well done, then take the two ends of the box, and see that each is perfectly square and true to the other. Then allow one-eighth of an inch more than the thickness of your sides, and set out the ends, squaring it over on both sides, which when the dovetails are cut out will form the inside of the box.

TO CUT THE DOVETAILS.

Take one “end-piece” of the box and place it endways into the bench-screw, and mark out the dovetails on the edge of the board inside, thus:

then with your dovetail saw cut in into the marks down to the lines squared over on the flat side like this--

Then with a chisel cut out that part of the wood that is crossed, and leave the other part, this being the part which will form the pins or tails. Then take one side of your box and lay it flat on the bench, the inside uppermost; then place the end you have cut on it, keeping the edges flush, and mark round the shape of the pins, which will leave them after this form--

the black places being the mortices which are to be cut out. In cutting out these you must be careful to cut within side of the stroke, so that the mortices will be a little smaller than the pins, which will admit of their being driven in quite tight, and will allow the glue to adhere to them (for you have to glue these when you fix them). When you have thus put the ends and sides together let them stand till the glue gets dry, then take your planes and plane the quarter of an inch off the pins which you allowed to be a little longer than the length of the box, and you have then made the body of your box.

THE BOTTOM OF THE BOX.

Cut your bottom the exact size of the box, nail the bottom on, and “get out” a piece of wood (by cutting and planing in the usual manner) to nail round so as to form a skirting to it, and at the same time hide the joints of the bottom; “get out” a similar piece of wood to nail round the top which will form the lid. Then get a pair of box joints and a lock, and having put them on by a stroke of your own ingenuity you will have a “box.”

THE GAME OF CHESS.

It is the principal aim of this little treatise to assist the young player in his examination of the theory of the openings in the game of chess--a branch of study that to the beginner generally appears to be of a most dull and uninviting character, but which, nevertheless, is of the highest importance to all those who are ambitious of attaining to any degree of proficiency in the game.

Before proceeding further, we would presume that the young player possesses at least an elementary knowledge of the game, such as the moves and value of the various pieces, the laws of checking, &c. Should he not be thus fortunate, we would strongly advise him to have recourse to the assistance of some chess-friend for an explanation of the elementary principles; for, thanks to the almost daily increasing knowledge of the game, there are few localities so remote that cannot produce a brother of the free-masonry of chess. Though, in compliance with the time-honoured custom of all writers on chess, we subjoin a brief description of the various pieces and their moves, yet it is our firm conviction that no beginner has ever succeeded in mastering by the assistance of “the books” alone, the mere elementary principles of the game.