Chapter XIV: Part 14

§ 25. The Indicative Mood is the Mood of Actuality, whilst the Subjunctive Mood is the Mood of Possibility. The nature of the Indicative may be said to be _objective_, because it is used to express positive facts. The nature of the Subjunctive may be said to be _subjective_, because it represents the statement made as a mere subjective supposition, or as resting on the mere hearsay evidence of other persons.

=The Indicative Mood denotes Positiveness and Certainty.=

=Conjunctions never determine the mood in which a verb is to be used.= The mood is always determined by the nature of the statement we wish to make. So one and the same verb may be followed, in the dependent clause, either by the Indicative or the Subjunctive Mood.

EXAMPLES.

+Der Gefangene ~ist~ tot; er ~ist~ heute Morgen gestorben.+
(Positive statement.)

The prisoner is dead; he died this morning.

+Ich bin überzeugt, daß er es ~gesagt hat~.+ (Certainty.)

I am convinced that he has said it.

+Der Mensch ~ist~ sterblich.+ (A fact.)

Man is mortal.

+Ich habe gehört, daß er zum Minister ~ernannt ist~.+

I have heard that he has been appointed a minister, (and I do
not doubt it).

(Here the Indicative Mood is used, because I wish to imply that I have _no doubt_ about the accuracy of the statement.)

+Ich habe gehört, daß er zum Minister ~ernannt sei~+ (see § 30).

I have heard that he has been appointed a minister, (but I
rather doubt it).

(Here the Subjunctive Mood is used because I wish to express a _doubt_ about the accuracy of the statement, which is expressed in English by the words ‘but I rather doubt it.’)

C. THE SUBJUNCTIVE (OR CONJUNCTIVE) MOOD.

(See § 25.)

§ 26. Since, in the best modern works of English Literature, we frequently find the Indicative employed instead of the Subjunctive in clauses of uncertainty and supposition, and since, with the exception of the verb _to be_, it is evidently the tendency of the English language to reject the distinction of the Subjunctive Mood, the student will encounter no small difficulty in learning the right use of the German Subjunctive, which is most extensively used, and gives often great power, conciseness, and elegance to the mode of speaking.

=The Subjunctive Mood= is used both in principal and subordinate clauses, and =denotes Uncertainty and Supposition=.

EXAMPLES.

+Man sagt er ~sei~ gestorben+ (see § 29). (Uncertainty.)

People say (i.e. it is rumoured) he is dead.

+Plato glaubte, daß nur ~ein~ Gott ~sei~.+ (Supposition.)

Plato thought that there was only _one_ God, (but that it was a
matter of doubt).

§ 27. =The Subjunctive expresses Command, Wish, and Concession.=

EXAMPLES.

+Er ~nehme~ seine Weite, wie’s Brauch ist!+ (Schiller.)
(Command.)

Let him take his distance as it is customary!

+Gott ~sei~ mit dir!+ (Wish.)

God be with you!

+Er ~gehe~, wohin er Lust hat.+ (Concession.)

He may go wherever he pleases.

§ 28. =The Subjunctive is used in Indirect Speech= (oratio obliqua), i.e. when words which have been actually spoken are _quoted_ not as they were spoken, but _in substance_ only; it stands especially after the verbs +~sagen~+, to say; +~erzählen~+, to relate; +~melden~+, to report; +~berichten~+, to relate, to report; +~hören~+, to hear; as—

+Er sagte ihm, er ~sei~ ein Verschwender.+

He told him he was a spendthrift.

+Sie behauptete, sie ~habe~ den Brief nicht erhalten.+

She asserted that she had not got the letter.

+Sein Freund meldete, daß er nicht kommen ~könne~, mich zu
besuchen.+

His friend reported that he could not come to see me.

§ 29. =The Subjunctive is used when the statement made in the subordinate clause is intended to be represented not as a fact, but as a mere idea, as a mere conception of the person speaking.= We find it, therefore, especially after verbs denoting _a request_, _a wish_, _a hope_, _an apprehension_, _a permission_, _an advice_, and _a command_; as—

+meinen+, to mean.
+glauben+, to believe.
+vermuten+, to presume.
+zweifeln+, to doubt.
+scheinen+, to seem.
+hoffen+, to hope.
+fürchten+, to fear.
+wollen+, to be willing.
+bitten+, to ask.
+befehlen+, to command.
+verlangen+, to demand.
+ermahnen+, to admonish.
+raten+, to advise.
+bestehen+, to insist upon,

And others of a like meaning.

EXAMPLES.

+Lassen Sie uns ~hoffen~, daß unser Streben von Erfolg ~sein
werde~.+

Let us hope that our endeavours may be successful.

+Ich bat ihn, daß er mir ~helfen möge~.+

I asked him to help me.

+Ich ~fürchtete~, daß er ein Bein ~gebrochen habe~.+

I was afraid that he had broken a leg.

+Wir ~bitten~, daß der Gefangene frei ~gelassen werde~.+

We request that the prisoner be released.

+Er ~zweifelt~ daran, daß man ihn für unschuldig ~erklären
werde~.+

He doubts if he will be declared innocent.

+Wir werden stets ~verlangen~, daß man uns unsere Rechte
~gewähre~.+

We shall always demand that our rights be given to us.

+Ich ~rate~ dir, daß du fleißiger ~werdest~.+

I advise you to become more industrious.

+Ich ~bestehe darauf~, daß sich der Lord ~entferne~.+
(Schiller.)

I insist upon the Lord’s retiring.

§ 30. With regard to the _Tense_ in which the Subjunctive ought to stand in subordinate clauses of the character mentioned above, the general rule is, that—

=We use the same tense of the Subjunctive Mood which, in
direct speech, or in a principal clause, would be used in the
Indicative Mood=,

except that

=the Perfect of the Subjunctive is used instead of the
Imperfect of the Indicative, and that the Pluperfect of the
Indicative is changed into the Perfect of the Subjunctive,
with the help of one of the conjunctions +ehe+, +bevor+, and
+nachdem+.=

The following table will make this clear:—

_Direct Speech._ _Indirect Speech._

+Er sagte: »Ich lese.«+ +Er sagte, er lese.+ (Present
(Present.) Subj.)

+Er sagte: »Ich habe gelesen.«+ +Er sagte, er habe gelesen.+
(Perfect.) (Perfect Subj.)

+Er sagte: »Ich werde lesen.«+ +Er sagte, er werde lesen.+
(First Future.) (First Future Subjunctive.)

+Er sagte: »Ich werde gelesen +Er sagte, er werde gelesen haben+
haben+ (Second Future), +wenn (Second Future Subj.), +wenn sein
mein Freund mich abholen wird.«+ Freund ihn abholen werde+ (First
(First Future.) Future Subjunctive).

But— But—

+Er sagte: »Ich las, als sein +Er sagte, er =habe gelesen=, als
Freund schrieb.«+ (Imperfect.) sein Freund =geschrieben habe=.+
(Perfect Subjunctive.)

+Er sagte: »Ich hatte gelesen+ +Er sagte, er =habe gelesen=+
(Pluperfect), +als mein Freund (Perfect Subjunctive), +=ehe=
schrieb.«+ (Imperfect.) sein Freund =geschrieben habe=.+
(Perfect Subjunctive.)

It will be seen, therefore, that =the verb= in the subordinate clause =stands either in the Present, in the Perfect, or in the Future=.

EXAMPLES.

+Der Diener antwortete, er ~sei~ nicht imstande die Arbeit zu
thun, denn er ~sei~ zu schwach.+ (Present Subj.)

The servant answered that he was unable to do the work, for he
was too weak.

+Er erzählte mir, er ~habe~ ein Unglück ~gehabt~.+ (Perfect
Subj.)

He told me he had met with a misfortune.

+Sie behauptete, daß sie nie in ihrem Leben krank ~gewesen
sei~.+ (Perfect Subj.)

She affirmed that she had never been ill in all her life.

+Er sagte, daß er sich um eine Stelle bewerben ~werde~.+ (First
Future.)

He said that he was going to apply for a situation.

§ 31. =The Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive, however, must be used instead of the Present and Perfect Subjunctive, and the Conditional instead of the Future Subjunctive=, when any ambiguity might arise as to the mood employed, that is to say in cases where the form of the Present, of the Perfect, or of the Future is _identical_ both in the Indicative and the Subjunctive Mood. For example, in the sentence—

»+Sie sagte mir, ihre Töchter ~gingen~ niemals auf Bälle+;«

‘She said to me that her daughters never went to balls;’

the verb +~gingen~+ stands in the _Imperfect Subjunctive_ and _not_ in the _Present_, because the third person plural of the Present Indicative and the corresponding person of the Present Subjunctive _are identical_ in the conjugation of this verb. Both are »+~sie gehen~+,« the verb, therefore, must be put in the _Imperfect Subjunctive_ to show clearly the mood employed.

§ 32. =The Subjunctive is employed in adverbial clauses of purpose and of manner=, when the subordinate clause generally begins with the conjunctions +~daß~+, +~auf daß~+, +~damit~+, and +~als ob~+; as—

+Du sollst deinen Vater und deine Mutter ehren, ~auf daß~ dir’s
~wohlgehe~ und du lange ~lebest~ auf Erden.+

Thou shalt honour thy father and thy mother, that thou mayest
prosper and thy days be long on earth.

+Ist es nicht, ~als ob~ dies Volk mich zum Gott ~mache~?+
(Schiller.)

Does it not seem as if the people meant to make a God of me?

§ 33. =The Imperfect Subjunctive and the Pluperfect Subjunctive= are used to express something possible, or something capable of being done, also to denote a mere supposition on the part of the speaker, or for the purpose of stating an opinion with _caution_ or _modesty_; as—

+Es ~könnte~ sein, daß er nicht zu Hause ~wäre~.+

Literally: It might be possible that he were not at home, i.e.
He may possibly not be at home.

+Ich ~hätte~ wohl Lust, ihm einen Besuch zu machen.+

I should like indeed to pay him a visit.

+Ich ~wüßte~ wohl, was zu thun ~wäre~.+

I fancy I know what ought to be done.

+Es ~wäre~ vielleicht besser, das Unternehmen aufzugeben.+

Perhaps it would be better to give up the undertaking.

§ 34. =To express a wish= we use the _Present Subjunctive_, when we believe in the fulfilment of the wish, but the _Imperfect Subjunctive_, when we want to indicate that the fulfilment of the wish is unlikely, and even impossible; as—

+Gott ~sei~ mit dir!+

God be with you!

+~Möge~ er bald gesund werden!+

May he soon recover his health!

+Lang ~lebe~ der König!+

Long live the king!

+Gott ~helfe~ mir!+ (Luther.)

May God help me!

But with the Imperfect Subjunctive:

+~Möchte~ er bald gesund werden!+

Would he might soon recover his health!

+Wenn er doch noch ~lebte~!+

I would he were still alive!

+~Möchte~ er bald kommen!+

Would he might soon come!

§ 35. It must always be remembered that both moods (the Indicative and the Subjunctive) may stand in Principal Clauses as well as in Subordinate Clauses, since _their use depends alone on the nature of the statement we wish to make_ (see § 25). Nor has the notion connected with the verb standing in the principal clause an absolute influence on the mood to be used in the subordinate clause. The Indicative stands in subordinate clauses not merely after verbs expressing Certainty, but also after such as denote Belief, Supposition, and Doubt, when the statement contained in the subordinate clause is represented _objectively_, i.e. as being based upon a fact, or as being, in the speaker’s opinion, not open to any doubt. So we say—

+Ich glaube, daß er in der Schlacht geblieben ~ist~+ (not
+sei+).

I believe that he was killed in battle.

+Ich weiß nicht, ob er ~lebt~, oder ob er tot ~ist~.+

I do not know whether he is alive, or whether he is dead.

+Ich zweifle, daß der Kranke ~genesen wird~.+

I doubt if the patient will recover.

+Ich hoffe, daß er sich wohl ~befindet~.+

I hope that he is well.

But when the statement contained in the subordinate clause is represented _subjectively_, i.e. as being based upon a mere idea or belief, the correctness of which is still open to doubt, the Subjunctive must be used; as—

+Man glaubt, man sagt+, etc., +er ~sei~ in der Schlacht
geblieben.+

People believe, people say, etc., that he was killed in battle,
(but it is still doubtful).

+Er fürchtet, daß man ihn verraten ~habe~.+

He is afraid that they have betrayed him, (yet he does not
know).

D. THE CONDITIONAL MOOD.

§ 36. The Conditional is the mood for representing a state or an event as dependent on another, which other, however, is not based upon a real fact, but is a mere hypothesis or supposition. As such we use not only the First and Second Conditional (+ich würde+, etc.), as given in the tables of verbs, but also the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive. The latter two, in fact, may be called the simple forms of the Conditional Mood, and the former (+ich würde+, etc.) the compound forms. Every true conditional statement consists of two clauses: (_a_) the hypothetical clause, which contains the supposition, (_b_) the conditioning clause, which contains the inference drawn from that supposition; as—

If I had money (hypothetical clause),

I should like to travel (conditioning clause).

The Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive may be used in both clauses, but the First and Second Conditional (+ich würde+, etc.—see the tables of verbs) can only be used in conditioning clauses.

The conditioning clause is often introduced by »+so+.«

EXAMPLES.

+Wenn ich Geld ~hätte~, ~ginge~ ich gern auf Reisen+ (or
+~würde~ ich gern auf Reisen gehen+).

If I had money, I should like to travel.

+Wenn es heute schönes Wetter ~gewesen wäre~, so ~würden wir
ausgegangen sein~.+

If the weather had been fine to-day, we should have gone out.

+Dieser Mann ~könnte~ glücklicher ~sein~, wenn er das Spiel
nicht zu sehr ~liebte~.+

This man might be happier, if he were not too fond of gambling.

+Er ~würde~ gesund ~sein~+ (or +er ~wäre~ gesund+), +wenn er
mäßiger ~lebte~+.

He would be healthy, if he were more temperate.

§ 37. The Conditional is sometimes used _elliptically_; as—

+Ja, ich würde gekommen sein!+

Yes, I should have come! (i.e. if I had been able to do so,
_understood_).

+Unter den Umständen hätte ich es gewiß gethan.+

I am sure, under the circumstances I should have done it (i.e.
if I had been placed in the same situation).

+~Wäre~ ich reich, ~würde~ ich Sie sofort bezahlen.+

Were I rich, I should pay you directly.

SYNOPSIS OF THE CHANGES WHICH THE GERMAN SPELLING HAS UNDERGONE THROUGH THE GOVERNMENT REGULATIONS OF 1880.

+1. Regeln und Wörterverzeichnis für die deutsche Rechtschreibung zum Gebrauch in den preußischen Schulen. Berlin, Weidmansche Buchhandlung. 2. Regeln und Wörterverzeichnis für die deutsche Rechtschreibung zum Gebrauch in den bayerischen Schulen. München, Expedition des Kgl. Zentral-Schulbücher-Verlags.+

A. +Vokale.+ (Vowels.)

_Write._

+=Ä=, =Ö=, =Ü=+

(instead of +Ae+, +Oe+, +Ue+) in: +die Äpfel+ (_apples_); +die
Öfen+ (_ovens_, _stoves_); +der Überrock+ (_overcoat_), etc. In
foreign words +=ä=+, +=ü=+ (for Greek and French ai and French
u) in: +der Pädagog+ (_pedagogue_); +der Kapitän+ (_captain_);
+die Lektüre+ (_reading_), etc.

+=ay=+

(instead of +ai+) in: +Bayern+ (_Bavaria_); +der Bayer+ (_the
Bavarian_); +bayerisch+, adj. (_Bavarian_), and derivatives.

+=ei=+

(instead of +ai+) in: +der Heide+ (_heathen_); +die Heide+
(_heath_); +das Getreide+ (_grain_); +der Weizen+ (_wheat_),
etc.—=But=: +die Bai+ (_bay_); +der Hai+ (_shark_); +der Hain+
(_grove_); +der Kaiser+ (_emperor_); +der Laib+ (_loaf_); +der
Laich+ (_spawn_ [of fish]); +das Laichen+ (_spawning_); +die
Laichzeit+ (_spawning-time_); +der Laie+ (_layman_); +der Mai+
(_May_); +die Maid+ (_maid_, _maiden_); +der Mais+ (_maize_);
+maischen+ (_to mash_ [in brewing]); +die Saite+ (_string_);
+der Waid+ (_dyer’s woad_); +der+ _or_ +die Waise+ (_orphan_
[boy or girl]), and derivatives.

=Nouns terminating in +-ee+= _and_ +=-ie=+—

take in the plural +=en=+, which inflection forms a separate
syllable, as: +die Armee´+ (_army_), _pl._ +die Armee´en+
(_armies_); +der+ _or_ +die See´+ (_lake or sea_), _pl._
+die See´en+ (_lakes or seas_); +die Melodie´+ (_melody_),
_pl._ +die Melodie´en+ (_melodies_); +die Theorie´+
(_theory_), _pl._ +die Theorie´en+ (_theories_), etc.
=But=: +das Komitee´+ (_committee_), _pl._ +die Komitee´s+
(_committees_); +das Knie´+ (_knee_), _pl._ +die Knie´e+.

+=eu=+

1. (instead of +äu+) in: +deuchten+ (_to appear_, _to seem_);
+mir deucht+ (_it seems to me_, _methinks_); +ihm deuchte+ (_he
thought_); +(durch)-bleuen+ (_to give [one] a hearty drubbing_,
_to beat [one] black and blue_); [=but=: +(durch)-bläuen+ (_to
make or dye blue_)]; +der Greuel+ (_horror_); +leugnen+ (_to
deny_); +verleumden+ (_to slander_), etc.

2. in the termination +=eur=+ (sounded as in French), in: +der
Commandeur+ (_commander_); +der Redacteur+ (_editor_), etc.

+=i=+

(instead of +y+) in: +der Gips+ (_plaster of Paris_); +die
Silbe+ (_syllable_); +der Sirup+ (_syrup_); +der Vampir+
(_vampire_), etc. [Comp. +=ay=+.]

+=ie=+

(instead of +i+) in the verbal termination +=ie´ren=+, as in:
+studie´ren+ (_to study_); +spazie´ren+ (_to go for a walk_);
+marschie´ren+ (_to march_); +probie´ren+ (_to try_, _to test_);
+hantie´ren+ (_to handle_, _to manage_), etc.—and in their
derivatives, as in: +die Hantie´rung+ (_management_, _business_,
_profession_), etc.; also in: +gieb+ (_give_), and derivatives.

+=ou=+

(_pronounced as in French_, instead of +u+) in words coming from
the French, as +die Fourage+ (_forage_); +der Fourier+ (_quarter
master_); +der Fournier+ (_veneer_), etc.

=Only one Vowel (instead of two)—=

in: +bar+ (_bare_, _destitute of_; [of money]: _in cash_);
+die Barschaft+ (_ready money_, _cash in hand_); +das Maß+
(_measure_); +das Schaf+ (_sheep_); +die Schar+ (_troop_,
_herd_); +der Star+ (_starling_; [in medicine]: _cataract_);
+die Wage+ (_scales_); +die Ware+ (_goods_); +der Herd+
(_hearth_); +die Herde+ (_herd_, _flock_); +das Kamel+
(_camel_); +das Los+ (_lot_, _fate_); +losen+ (_to cast lots_);
+die Losung+ (_the casting or drawing of lots_); +der Schoß+
(_lap_, _middle_; [of dress]: _skirt_, or _tail_); etc.

B. +Konsonanten.+ (Consonants.)

+=d=+

(instead of +dt+) in: +der Tod+ (_death_); +todkrank+ (_sick
unto death_); +todmüde+ (_tired to death_); +die Todsünde+
(_deadly_ or _mortal sin_); +tödlich+ (_deadly_, _mortal_,
_fatal_), etc.—Comp. letter +=t=+ (instead of +dt+).

+=f=+

(instead of +ph+) in: +Adolf+ (_Adolphus_); +der Elefant+
(_elephant_); +der Fasan+ (_pheasant_); +Rudolf+ (_Ralph_);
+Westfalen+ (_Westphalia_), etc.—=But=: +der Epheu+ (_ivy_)
from the old German word +Ebheu+.

+=h=+

1. =+h+ remains as a sign of lengthening a syllable=:—

(_a_) =In syllables beginning with a t-sound and containing
a long vowel, but not a diphthong or a double vowel=,
as in: +die That+ (_deed_); +die Thräne+ (_tear_);
+der Thron+ (_throne_); +der Thor+ (_fool_); +das
Thor+ (_gate_); +thun+ (_to do_); +that+ (_did_);
+gethan+ (_done_), etc. [Comp. +=h=+, 2 (a).]

(_b_) before +=l=+, +=m=+, +=n=+, and +=r=+, as in:
+allmählich+ (_gradually_); +befehlen+ (_to command_);
+nehmen+ (_to take_); +wohnen+ (_to live_, _to
reside_); +lehren+ (_to teach_), etc. =Exceptions=:
+die Feme+ (_an old secret criminal court in
Westphalia_) and derivatives, as: +der Femrichter+
(_a judge of that court_), and derivatives.

(_c_) in: +die Fehde+ (_feud_, _quarrel_); +die Mahd+
(_mowing_), from +mähen+ (_to mow_); +der Draht+
(_wire_) from +drehen+ (_to turn_); +die Naht+
(_seam_), from +nähen+ (_to sew_), and other words
derived from verbs containing an aspirated +h+.

(_d_) =in a few proper names=, as in: +Bertha+, +Günther+,
+Martha+, +Mathilde+, +Theobald+, +Theodor+, etc.

(_e_) =in many nouns originally Greek=, as: +die
Kathedra´le+ (_cathedral_); +das Thema+ (_theme_);
+die Theologie´+; +die Theorie´+; +das Thermome´ter+;
+der Pa´nther+, etc.

2. +=h=+ =is not retained after= +=t=+:—

(_a_) =in syllables beginning with a t-sound and containing
a diphthong or a double vowel=, as in: +der Tau+
(_dew_); +das Tau+ (_rope_); +der Teer+ (_tar_);
+teeren+ (_to tar_); +der+ _or_ +das Teil+
(_part_, or _share_); +teuer+ (_dear_); +das Tier+
(_animal_); +verteidigen+ (_to defend_), etc., and
derivatives.—=Exception=: +der Thee+ (_tea_), and
derivatives.

(_b_) in the suffixes +=tum=+ and +=tüm=+ (formerly +thum+
and +thüm+), as in: +das Eigentum+ (_property_); +das
Königtum+ (_kingdom_); +das Ungetüm+ (_monster_), etc.

(_c_) =at the end of syllables, and at the beginning of
syllables before a short vowel=, as in:—+die Armut+
(_poverty_); +der Atem+ (_breath_); +atmen+ (_to
breathe_); +die Blüte+ (_blossom_); +die Flut+
(_flood_); +das Gerät+ (_tools_); +die Glut+ (_glow_);
+der Kot+ (_dirt_); +das Lot+ (_a weight of half an
ounce, now obsolete_); +der Met+ (_mead_); +die Miete+
(_rent_; _a corn or hay-stack_; _mite_); +der Mut+
(_courage_); +die Not+ (_need_); +nötigen+ (_to urge_;
_to invite_; _to compel_); +der+ _or_ +die Pate+
(_god-father or god-mother_); +der Rat+ (_advice_);
+raten+ (_to advise_; _to guess_); +das Rätsel+
(_riddle_); +rot+ (_red_); +die Röte+ (_redness_);
+die Rute+ (_rod_); +der Turm+ (_tower_); +der Wert+
(_value_); +wert+ (_worth_, _dear_); +der Wirt+
(_host_, _landlord_); +die Wut+ (_rage_), and
derivatives, as: +ratlos+ (_without advice or means_:
_helpless_); +wertvoll+ (_valuable_, _precious_); +das
Wirtshaus+ (_inn_), etc.

=Mark well=: +hurra!+ (_hurra!_).

1. (instead of +c+) =in many words originally Greek=, as in:
+die Akademie´+, (_academy_); +pra´ktisch+ (_practical_);
+die Arithmeti´k+ (_arithmetic_); +die Physi´k+ (_natural
philosophy_), etc.—=But=: +der Chara´kter+; +die Melancholie´+.

2. (instead of +c+ and +qu+) =in many words originally Latin
or French=, but which have become quite germanised, and are
now looked upon as altogether German words, as: +der Advoka´t+
(_lawyer_); +das Boske´tt+ (_thicket_) from the French: le
bosquet; +das Loka´l+ (_locality_); +das Pu´blikum+ (_public_);
+vaka´nt+ (_vacant_); +der Vulka´n+ (_volcano_), etc.—More
especially in words terminating in +=...kel=+, as in: +der
Arti´kel+; +die Parti´kel+; +die Flo´skel+ (_flourish_), pl.
+die Flo´skeln+ (_fine words, frequently made use of with a
deceptive purpose_).

3. (instead of +c+) in words with the prefixes +=Ko-=+,
+=Kol-=+, +=Kom-=+, +=Kon-=+, +=Kor-=+, and also in syllables
containing a +=k=+-sound followed by +=t=+ (+=...kt=+),
as in: +die Kopie´+ (_copy_); +die Kolonie´+ (_colony_);
+der Kommanda´nt+ (_commander_); +der Ko´nstabler+
(_constable_); +das Konze´rt+ (_concert_); +die Korresponde´nz+
(_correspondence_), etc.; +die Didakti´k+ (_didactics_); +das
Edi´kt+ (_edict_), etc.—=But=: +das Di´ctum+, because not
germanised, etc.—

=Mark well=: +der Kaffee´+ (_coffee_), =but=: +das Café+
(_a fine restaurant where mostly coffee is served_).

=NOTE.= In foreign words which have preserved a foreign
pronunciation, or certain foreign forms of spelling or
inflection, do not use +=k=+, but +=c=+, as in: +die Campagne+
(_campaign_); +der Commi´s+ (_clerk_); +das Flaco´n+
(_smelling-bottle_); +der Redakteu´r+ (_editor_); +die
Adjecti´va+ (_adjectives_), etc.

=Doubtful Orthography.= We find: +Konze´rt+ _and_ +Conce´rt+,
n.; +Ka´rzer+ (_prison in schools and universities_) _and_
+Ca´rcer+, m.; +Komitee´+ _and_ +Comite´+, n.; +Kompanie´+
_and_ +Compagnie´+, f.; +conze´ntrisch+ (_concentric_) _and_
+conce´ntrisch+; +Konzessio´n+ _and_ +Concessio´n+, f.;
+Konzi´l+ (_council_) _and_ +Conci´l+, n.; +klassifizie´ren+
(_to classify_) _and_ +classificie´ren+; +Ku´rsus+ (_course
of study_) _and_ +Cu´rsus+, m.; +korre´kt+ _and_ +corre´ct+;
+Konjunktio´n+ _and_ +Conjunctio´n+, etc., etc.

From these examples it will be seen that the mode of spelling
is fluctuating between +=k=+ and +=c=+, and +=c=+ and +=z=+,
in many words which originally contained the letter =c=. =The
first way is to be preferred, and strongly recommended, in
all the words given above, and many others in common use that
contain a= +=k=+ =or a= +=z=+=-sound and are quite germanised
in spelling and inflection.= (Comp. C. 3.)

Use also +=k=+ instead of +=c=+ in words of Greek origin which
have preserved the +=k=+-sound, as:—+Anekdo´te+, +katho´lisch+,
+Komö´die+, +Diale´kt+, etc.—[Comp. B, letter +=k=+,
1.]—And write +=c=+ and +=cq=+, as before, in: +A´cce´nt+,
+A´ccusati´v+, +A´cquisitio´n+, etc.—

+=-nis=+

(instead of +niß+) as a suffix of nouns, as in: +das Ereignis+
(_event_); +das Begräbnis+ (_burial_); +das Verhältnis+
(_relation_); +das Vermä´chtnis+ (_bequest_), etc.—

=The prefix= +miß...+, however, remains unchanged, as in:
+das Mi´ßverständnis+ (_misunderstanding_), pl. +die
Mi´ßverständnisse+.

+=s=+

(instead of +ß+) in +deshalb+ (_therefore_); +deswegen+
(_therefore_, _for this reason_); +indes+ (_meanwhile_,
_whilst_; _however_); +unterdes+ (_meanwhile_, _whilst_);
+weshalb+ (_why_); +weswegen+ (_why_), etc.—

+=sſ=+

(instead of +ſſ+) in: +dasſelbe+ (_the same_); +desſelben+
(_of the same_); +diesſeits+ (_on this side_), etc.

+=st=+

(instead of +ſt+) in: +Dienstag+ (_Tuesday_); +Geburtstag+
(_birthday_); +Frühlingstag+ (_spring-day_), and other compound
nouns in which +s+ occurs as a sign of the Genitive and is
followed by a +t+.

+=ſſ=+

between two vowels, the first one of which is short, as in
+laſſen+ (_to let_, _to leave_); +die Taſſe+ (_cup_); +trotz
deſſen+ (_in spite of that_); +weſſen+ (_whose_), etc.—

+=ß=+

1. between two vowels, the first one of which is long, as in:
+bü´ßen+ (_to atone for_); +schießen+ (_to shoot_), etc.

2. before +t+, and at the end of words, as in: +er läßt+ (_he
leaves_); +ihr laßt+ (_you leave_); +gebüßt+ (_atoned for_);
+laß+ (_let_); +der Kuß+ (_kiss_), etc.—

+=t=+

(instead of +dt+) in: +der Tote+ (_a dead man_ or _person_);
+tot+ (_dead_); +töten+ (_to kill_); +der Totschlag+
(_manslaughter_); +der Totengräber+ (_gravedigger_),
etc.—Comp. letter +=d=+ (instead of +dt+.)

+=t=+

(instead of +d+) in: +das Brot+ (_bread_).

+=t=+

(and never +z+) in the accented and original Latin
combinations:—tia´, tie´, tio´, as in +martia´lisch+,
+Patie´nt+, m., +Natio´n+, f., +Traditio´n+, f., +Motio´n+,
etc.

=But write=: +Gra´zie+, +Ingredie´nzien+, etc., =e being
unaccented=.

+=z=+

1. (instead of +tz+) after a long vowel, as in: +die Bre´zel+
(_biscuit in the shape of a twisted ring_, _cracknel_); +du´zen+
(_to call a person thou_), etc.

2. (instead of +Cz+ and +Sc+) in: +der Zar+ (_czar_); +das
Zepter+ (_sceptre_), etc.

3. (instead of +ce+) =regularly at the end of foreign words
with German pronunciation= and terminating in French in =ce=,
and in Latin in =tia=, =tius=, =tium=, =cius=, =cium=, as in:
+das Benefi´z+, +die Justi´z+, +das Hospi´z+, +die Mili´z+,
+die Noti´z+; +die Differe´nz+, +die Sente´nz+, +die Vaka´nz+;
+die Fina´nzen+, +die Novi´ze+, +die Allia´nz, die Dista´nz+,
etc.—(=But= with foreign pronunciation: +Alliance+, +Distance+,
etc.)

4. also in words quite germanised, as: +der Bezi´rk+
(_district_, _circuit_); +die La´nze+ (_lance_); +die Polizei´+
(_police_); +der Polizi´st+ (_policeman_); +das Terzero´l+
(_pocket-pistol_); +das Terze´tt+ (_trio_), etc.—=But write=:
+Cä´sar+, +die Cäsu´r+ (_cesure_, _cesura_); +die Ce´der+, +die
Celebritä´t+, +die Censu´r+ (_censorship_), +censie´ren+ (_to
censure_, _to review_), +der Ce´ntime´ter+, +die Cerea´lien+
(_cereals_), +das Cöliba´t+, +der Ci´rkumfle´x+, +das Lyce´um+,
etc.

5. (instead of +c+) in verbs terminating in +=...ie´ren=+, as:
+fabrizie´ren+ (_to manufacture_); +musizie´ren+ (_to make
music_); +publizie´ren+ (_to publish_), etc.

=Note.= In many words which originally contained the letter
+=c=+, the mode of spelling is unsettled and fluctuating
between +=c=+ and +=z=+, as in: +Medizi´n+ _and_ +Medici´n+,
f.; +das Rezept+ _and_ +Recept+, n. (_prescription_, _recipe_);
+Prinzi´p+ _and_ +Princi´p+, n. (_principle_); +Proze´nt+ _and_
+Proce´nt+, n. (_per cent._); +Proze´ß+ _and_ +Proce´ß+, m.,
etc.—[=Read carefully= B, Note to letter +=k=+, also letter
+=t=+ of B, and General Observations on the Spelling of Foreign
Words, where additional examples are given.]

C. +Allgemeine Bemerkungen über die Schreibung der Fremdwörter.+

(=General Observations on the Spelling of Foreign Words.=)

1. =With foreign words= containing sounds and combinations of sounds =not originally German=, THE GENERAL PRINCIPLE regarding their orthography is =that, their foreign pronunciation being preserved, also the foreign garb of their orthography is retained.=

=So, for example, we use:—=

+=oi=+ (sounded as in French) in: +die Memoi´ren+ (_memoirs_);
+die Toile´tte+ (_toilet_).

+=g=+ and +=j=+ (sounded as in French) in: +die Baga´ge+
(_luggage_); +das Logi´s+ (_lodgings_); +der Genda´rm+ (_a
police-officer on horseback_); +das Genie´+ (_genius_;
_a man of great talent_); +der Ingenieu´r+ (_engineer_);
+das Journa´l+ (_journal_, _magazine_); +rangie´ren+ (_to
arrange_), etc.—=But with German pronunciation=: +der Genera´l+
(_general_); +genia´l+ (_highly gifted_); +die Genialitä´t+
(_geniality_, _originality_), etc.—

+=gn=+ (sounded as in French) in: +der Champa´gner+
(_champaign_); +die Lorgne´tte+ (_lorgnette_, _eye-glass_), etc.

+=ll=+ (sounded like English l followed by y) in: +das
Bataillo´n+ (_battalion_); +das Bi´llard+ (_billiards_); +das
Bille´t+ (_ticket_; _note_); +der Postillo´n+ (_postillion_),
etc.

+=n=+ (sounded as in French, but not quite so nasal) in: +die
Nua´nce+ (_gradation of colours_); +das Bassi´n+ (_reservoir_);
+der Refrai´n+ (_refrain_); +der Rayo´n+ (_ray of light_; [of a
fortification]: _radius_); +das Violonce´ll+ (_violoncello_),
etc.

2. =Many foreign words, on the other hand, composed of German sounds, which might be indicated by German letters, have as yet preserved their original orthography. So we find:—=

+=ai=+ (for the sound of +ä+) in: +die Chai´se+ (_chaise_),
from the French;

+=au=+ _and_ +=eau=+ (for the sound of +o+) in: +die Sau´ce+
(_sauce_); +das Bureau+ (_office_), from the French;

+=ch=+ (for the sound of +sch+) in: +die Chaussee´+
(_turnpike-road_), from the French;

+=ch=+ (for the Greek +k+-sound) in: +der+ _or_ +das Chor+
(_choir_ or _chorus_), from the Greek;

+=ph=+ (for the sound of +f+) in: +der Philoso´ph+
(_philosopher_), from the Greek;

+=th=+ (for the sound of +t+) in: +der Thron+ (_throne_), from
the Greek; and

+=v=+ (for the German +w+-sound) in: +viole´tt+ (_violet-blue_,
adj.), from the French.

3. =Again we find foreign words which, being in common use and composed of German sounds, have become entirely germanised, and wear a German garb=; as: +die Tru´ppe+ (_troop_, _company_), French: la troupe; +die Gru´ppe+ (_group_), French: la groupe; +der Disku´rs+ (_discourse_), French: le discours; +der Sekretä´r+ (_secretary_), French: le secrétaire.

=It follows from the three preceding paragraphs:—that it is impossible to reduce the spelling of foreign words to any fixed principles, and that there exists at present much uncertainty and inconsistency respecting the spelling of such words.= [Comp. B, Consonants, Note to letter +=k=+, also B, letter +=z=+, where additional examples are given.]

D. +Kleinschreibung und Zusammenziehung.+

(=Small Initials= [_instead of Capitals_] =and Contractions.=)

=USE SMALL INITIALS:—=

1. =With Nouns used as Prepositions, Conjunctions, Indefinite Numerals, and Adverbs=, as in: +angesichts+ (_in the face of_); +infolge+ (_in consequence of_); +behufs+ (_on behalf of_);—+falls+ (_in case of_);—+ein bißchen+ (_a bit_, _a little_); +ein paar+ (_a few_, _some_, _some few_);—+anfangs+ (_in the beginning_); +teils+ (_partly_); +einesteils+ (_on the one part or hand_); +andernteils+ (_on the other part or hand_); +meinerseits+ (_on my part_); +morgens+ (_in the morning_); +abends+ (_in the evening_); +vormittags+ (_in the fore-noon_) [=but=: +des Morgens+, +des Abends+, +heute Nachmittag+, etc., +Sonntags+, +Montags+, etc.]; +überhaupt+ (_in general_, _altogether_, _moreover_); +unterwegs+ (_on the way_); +heutzutage+ (_now-a-days_); +beizeiten+ (_in time_, _betimes_); +bisweilen+ (_at times_); +einmal+ (_once_); +zweimal+ (_twice_); +bergauf+ (_uphill_); +kopfüber+ (_head over heels_), etc.

2. =With Nouns used in Verbal-Combinations=, in which, by the by, they are strongly accented, and treated as separable particles, i.e. are separated from the verb and placed at the end of the clause when used in a principal sentence and in a simple tense. Such Verbal-Combinations are:—+re´cht haben+ (_to be right_); +u´nrecht haben+ (_to be wrong_); +lei´d thun+ (_to be sorry_); +we´h thun+ (_to hurt_);—+schu´ld haben+ _or_ +sein+ (_to be in fault_);—+fei´nd sein+ (_to be hostile_); +mir ist a´ngst+, +wo´hl+ (_I am afraid_, _well_); +mir ist no´t+ (_it is necessary to me_, _I require_); +mir ist we´he+ (_I am grieved_); +das ist scha´de+ (_that is a pity_); +ich bin wi´llens+ (_I have a mind_, _I intend_);—+sta´ttfinden+, +sta´tthaben+ (_to take place_); +wa´hrnehmen+ (_to perceive_); +tei´lnehmen+ (_to take part in_, _to sympathise with_); +ü´berhandnehmen+ (_to increase_); +hau´shalten+ (_to keep house_, _to manage_); +a´chtgeben+ (_to pay attention_); +prei´sgeben+ (_to abandon_, _to expose_); +bra´chliegen+ (_to lie fallow_); +zusta´tten kommen+ (_to be of use_, _to come in usefully_); +insta´nd setzen+ (_to repair_, _to restore_); +zusta´nde kommen+ (_to accomplish_); +imsti´ch lassen+ (_to leave in the lurch_), etc.—+Er hält haus+; +es ist mir zustatten gekommen+; +es hat überhandgenommen+; +es ist mir zuteil geworden+. =But=: +Er hat keinen Teil an mir+, etc.

3. =With Pronouns and Numerals, as=:—+jemand+, +niemand+, +jeder+, +keiner+, +einer+, +der eine+, +der andere+, +man+;—+etliche+ (_some_), +einige+, +einzelne+, +manche+, +viele+, +alle+, +alles+, +etwas+, +nichts+, +beide+;—+die+ (+alle+) +andern+, +das+ (+alles+) +andre+, +die+ (+alle+) +übrigen+, +das+ (+alles+) +übrige+, +das meiste+, +der+ (+das+) +nämliche+, +der erste+, +der letzte+, +der zweite+, +der nächste+, +der erste beste+, +ein jeglicher+, etc.

=But=:—=Use Capital Initials= (as before):—

(_a_) =with Ordinal Numerals and Adjectives preceded by the
definite article and used in apposition to a proper noun=, as:
+Friedrich der Zweite+; +Karl der Große+, etc.

(_b_) =With Pronouns and Adjectives in titles=, as:—+Se.
Majestät der König+; +das Kaiserliche Zollamt+ (_the Imperial
Custom-House_); +der Wirkliche Geheimrat von Humboldt+ (_the
Privy Councillor von Humboldt_).

(_c_) =With Pronouns used in addressing persons, more
especially in letters=, as:—+Sie genießen mein volles
Vertrauen+; +wir glauben Ihnen alles+; +das Haus Ihrer
Eltern war mir stets geöffnet+; +ich will Dir bald mehr
davon erzählen+; +stets bleibe ich Dein Dich liebender Sohn
Heinrich+, etc.

4. =In Adjectival and Adverbial Clauses=, as:—+groß und klein+ (_grown up people and children_); +arm und reich+ (_poor and rich people_); +alt und jung+, +durch dick und dünn+;—+am besten+, +fürs erste+, +bei weitem+ (_by far_); +aufs deutlichste+, +im allgemeinen+, +im ganzen+, +im folgenden+, +im wesentlichen+ (_essentially_, _in all essential points_); +von neuem+, +vor kurzem+, +im voraus+ (_beforehand_); +von vorne+, +ohne weiteres+, +um ein beträchtliches+, etc.—=and also in idiomatic phrases=, such as:—+Er zieht den kürzern dabei+ (_he is the loser by it_); +ich will Ihnen Ihre Unarten zugute halten+ (_I will bear with your rudeness_; _I will excuse your incivilities_); +der Junge hat Sie zum besten+ (_the boy amuses himself at your expense_); +ich will es Ihnen zuliebe thun+ (_I will do it to please you_), etc.

E. +Zerlegung der Wörter in Silben.+

(=Division of Words into Syllables.=)

1. When part of a German word has to be separated from the rest in order to be carried on to the next line, the division into Syllables is made as we would naturally deliver them whilst pronouncing the word very slowly and distinctly. The compound letters: +=ch=+, +=ck=+, +=dt=+, +=pf=+, +=ph=+, +=sch=+, +=sp=+, +=st=+, +=ß=+, +=th=+, and +=tz=+, =should, as a rule, not be separated=. [For exceptions see § 2 of this chapter.] Examples:—+ru-hen+, +die-ser+, +Son-ne+, +Mut-ter+, +Mit-tag+, +den-noch+, +Flüs-se+, +Wet-ter-glas+, +fünf-te+, +An-ker+, +Wech-sel+, +Hoff-nung+, +Hoff-nun-gen+, +Fin-ger+, +Lang-sam-keit+,—+Brü-che+, +ha-cken+, +Stä-dte+, +klo-pfen+, +Or-tho-gra-phie+, +lö-schen+, +aus-spre-chen+, +lä-stig+, +schie-ßen+, +Lo-thar+, +kra-tzen+, +He-xe+.

2. The syllables forming the constituent parts of Compound Words should not be broken up, and the principal rule, as expressed above, cannot always be applied to them. Examples: +hin-ein+, +hier-auf+, +her-ein+, +dar-um+, +war-um+, +vor-aus+, +voll-en-den+, +In-ter-es-se+, +Mi-kro-skop+, +At-mo-sphä-re+, +Schiff-fahrt+, +Schwimmm-mei-ster+, +ge-müt-lich+, +Dis-pens+, +dis-pu-tie-ren+, +Dis-po-si-ti-on+, +be-ob-ach-ten+, +auf-er-ste-hen+, +Ge-burts-tag+, +Früh-lings-tag+. But write ‘+Schiffahrt+’ and ‘+Schwimmeister+’ when no separation takes place.

F. +Der Apostroph.+ (The Apostrophe.)

1. The Apostrophe is more especially used for indicating the suppression of certain letters in poetry and in the language of every-day life, as in English. Examples: +Ich lieb’ dich+; +Steh’ auf!+ +Wie geht’s?+ +So ist’s recht+; +Geld hab’ ich nicht+.

2. Contractions of prepositions and articles are used =without the Apostrophe=, as: +am+, +beim+, +unterm+, +ans+, +ins+, +zum+.

3. =The Apostrophe is abolished before the inflections indicating the Genitive relation of proper names=, as: +Ciceros Briefe+; +Schillers Gedichte+; +Homers Ilias+; +Fritzens Geburtstag+; +Hamburgs Handel+; +Sophiens Mutter+; +die Einwohner Breslaus+.

4. =Family names, however, terminating in= +=s=+ or +=z=+, =the genitive of which cannot be formed by adding= +=s=+, require an Apostrophe to be placed after them for indicating the Genitive relation, as: +Demosthenes’ Reden+; +Voß’ Luise+.

INDEX

TO THE GRAMMATICAL RULES AND IDIOMATIC RENDERINGS.

A.

=a= or =an= preceded by ‘not’, how to render, S. 126, N. 12.
The numeral ‘a’ not translated before hundred or thousand, S. 132,
N. 10.

=a great deal=, how to render, S. 65, N. 3 and S. 77, N. 3.
=an hour=, how to render, S. 235, N. 10.
=a month=, how to render, S. 167, N. 24.

=about=, to be, rendered by +im Begriff sein+ or +wollen+, S. 6, N. 4.

=Abstract nouns=, their formation from Infinitives of verbs, S. 11,
N. 7.

=Adjectives.= Used as nouns, S. 34, N. 1.
National adjectives require a small initial, S. 101, N. 1.
Adjectives and all parts qualifying nouns must be placed before
them, S. 128, N. 11.
The formation of their superlative used predicatively, S. 120, N.
14.

=Adverbs.= Their position in Imperative clauses, S. 68, N. 2.
Must not precede the verb or copula when the subject stands before
them, S. 102, N. 30.
Formation of the relative superlative of Adverbs, S. 183, N. 24.

=all= in connection with a possess. adj. pron. and a noun in the
sing. number, how to render, S. 157, N. 20.
_All of us_ (_them_, _you_), S. 74, N. 3, how to render.

=Apposition=, the, its agreement, S. 53, N. 9.

=Articles=, the, and other determinative words repeated, S. 10, N. 9.
Their position in connection with adjectives and adverbs, S. 28, N.
9.
THE DEFINITE ARTICLE. Before nouns representing a whole class, and
before abstract nouns, S. 3, N. 2.
Before nouns of persons preceded by an adjective or a common name,
S. 10, N. 2.
Used to mark the Gen., Dat., and Acc. of proper names, S. 25, N. 5.
Used in stating the price of goods, S. 33, N. 7.
Used before objects individualised or singled out, S. 40, N. 9.
Used instead of Possess. Adj. Pronouns, S. 43, N. 9, _A_ and _B_.
THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE. Not expressed before nouns denoting
professions, etc., S. 14, N. 2.
How to render when preceded by ‘not’, S. 126, N. 12.

=as=, conj., = _since_, how to render, S. 41, N. 6.
= _according to_, how to render, S. 74, N. 6.

=ask= (to), how to render, S. 132, N. 23.

=at= = _at the house of_, how to render, S. 153, N. 15.
_at home_, how to render, S. 63, N. 8.
_at the rate of_, how to render, S. 235, N. 9.

=Attributive construction=, S. 7, N. 3; S. 48, N. 6.

+=auf=+, prep., = _in_, before names of Islands, S. 46, N. 6.

=Auxiliary verbs of tense=, often omitted in subordinate clauses, S.
52, N. 8.

B.

=be=, to, rendered by +müssen+, S. 62, N. 4.

=beginning with=, rendered by +von ... an+, S. 102, N. 4.

+=bleiben=+, conjugated with +sein+, S. 98, N. 5.

=but=, rendered by +sondern+ after a negative, S. 6, N. 10.

=by=, prep., = _through_, durch, S. 59, N. 13.
In connection with the Passive Voice, rendered by +von+, S. 106,
N. 23.

=both ... and=, +sowohl ... als auch+, S. 59, N. 11.

C.

=Capital Initial=, when required for pronouns, S. 69, N. 2.

=care=, to take care of, S. 91, N. 7.

=cause= (to) how to render, S. 73, N. 1.

=Collective nouns= in the Singular require the verb to agree with
them in the Singular, S. 107, N. 13.

=Colon=, the, its use, S. 36, N. 3.

=Comma=, the, not used to enclose adverbial clauses, etc., S. 15, N.
3.

=command=, to, how to render, S. 73, N. 1.

=Compound expressions=, their importance, S. 33, N. 4.

=Compound forms= with auxiliary and Present Participle or ‘to do’ and
Infinitive, how to render into German, S. 32, N. 11.

=Compound Nouns.= Their importance, S. 33, N. 4;
their formation, S. 36, N. 7, _A_ and _B_, and S. 76, N. 22, _A_,
_B_, _C_ and _D_;
their Gender, S. 36, N. 7, _C_;
compound nouns which have the last component in common are
connected with hyphens, S. 71, N. 2.

=Conditional Mood=, the, its use, App. §§ 36 and 37.

=Conjunctive Mood=, the, its use, App. §§ 26-35.

=Construction.= Principal and Coordinate Clauses, App. §§ 1-12.
Inverted Construction, App. §§ 13-15.
Subordinate Clauses, App. §§ 16-24.

=Construction.= Inverted after quotations, S. 32, N. 5.
Attributive construction, S. 7, N. 3, _A_; S. 48, N. 6.
Position of adverbs in Imperative Clauses, S. 68, N. 2.

=Copula=, the, not to be omitted, S. 27, N. 7.
The Copula must follow the subject when the latter begins the
principal clause, S. 5, N. 2.

=copy=, noun, how to render, S. 132, N. 17.

D.

+=da=+, adv. in combination with a prep. governing the Dat. or Acc.,
S. 4, N. 5, _B_.
+=Da=+, conj., denotes logical cause, used for rendering ‘as’ and
‘since’, S. 30, N. 4.
+=Da=+, adv., in connection with a prep., required in the principal
clause when verbs and adjectives governing a prep. are followed
by a subordinate clause, S. 87, N. 6.

=Definite Article=, the. When to be repeated, S. 10, N. 9.
Its position in connection with adjectives and adverbs, S. 28, N. 9.
Before nouns representing a whole class, and before abstract nouns,
S. 3, N. 2.
Before names of persons preceded by an adj. or a common name, S.
10, N. 2.
Used to mark the Gen., Dat., and Acc. of proper names, S. 25, N. 5.
Used in stating the price of goods, S. 33, N. 7.
Used before objects individualised or singled out, S. 40, N. 9.
Used instead of Posses. Adj. Pronouns, S. 43, N. 9, _A_ and _B_.

=Demonstrative Pronoun=, followed by a relat. pron., how to render,
S. 8, N. 1.

=+der+ and +die+= must be used as relat. pronouns in reference to a
personal pron. of the 1st and 2nd pers. sing. and pl., and also
in reference to the pers. pron. of the 3rd person pl. (+Sie+),
S. 78, N. 7.

=do=, used in sentences of entreaty, rendered by +doch+, S. 92, N. 9.

+=doch=+, adv., = ‘do’ in sentences of entreaty, S. 92, N. 9.

E.

+=er=+, suffix, used to form names of male persons from names of
countries and places, S. 157, N. 4.

+=ernennen=+, requires the prep. +zu+, S. 27, N. 4.

+=erwählen=+, requires the prep. +zu+, S. 27, N. 4.

+=es.=+ Used as grammatical Object in principal clauses, S. 51, N. 13.
Used as grammatical Subject, S. 104, N. 19.

F.

=fact=, the, how to render, S. 115, N. 2.

=fond= (to be — of), how to render, S. 20, N. 2.

=for=, rendered by +seit+ in sentences expressing the duration of an
action up to the time of speaking, S. 145, N. 17.

=for years=, S. 166, N. 10.

=from=, referring to time and place, how to render, S. 102, N. 4.

=full of=, how to render, S. 74, N. 14.

G.

+=gehen=+, always construed with +sein+, S. 29, N. 3.

+=Gemahlin=+, wife, consort, S. 101, N. 5.

+=Genitive=+, the, of a proper noun stands generally before the
governing noun, S. 14, N. 3.

=gentleman=, how to render, S. 88, N. 2.

+=gern(e)=+, adv., denotes liking, S. 20, N. 2.

=Gerund=, the. How to render, S. 1, N. 3; S. 34, N. 10.
Preceded by a possess. adj. and a prep., how to render, S. 161, N.
21.

+=giebt=+ (+es+) = the matter is, S. 63, N. 9;
= there is, there are, S. 82, N. 7.

=go=, to, how to render when = to travel, etc., S. 233, N. 4.

=going= (to be — to), how to render, S. 67, N. 2.

H.

+=Hafer=+, not used in the pl., S. 22, N. 1.

=have=, to, rendered by +müssen+, S. 62, N. 4.

=head= = +Haupt+ in elevated diction, S. 127, N. 8.

=home= and _at home_, how to render, S. 63, N. 8.

=Hyphens= required to show the connection between compound nouns that
have the last part in common, S. 71, N. 2.

I.

=I=, should, if possible, not begin the sentence, S. 115, N. 1.

=If=, rendered by +wenn+, S. 64, N. 12.

+=Ihr=+, formerly used in addressing persons of the lower ranks of
society, S. 137, N. 2.

=in=, prep., how to render before names of islands, S. 46, N. 6.

=Indefinite Article=, the. When to be repeated, S. 10, N. 9.
Its position in connection with adjectives and adverbs, S. 28, N. 9.
Not expressed before nouns denoting professions, etc., S. 14, N. 2.
How to render when preceded by ‘not’, S. 126, N. 12.

+=indem=+, conj., used for rendering the Participle in _-ing_ in
adverbial clauses of manner, S. 111, N. 6.

=Indicative Mood=, the, its use, App. §§ 25 and 35.

=Infinitive=, the. With an Accusative, how to render, S. 57, N. 14.
When used without the preposition +zu+, S. 78, N. 14.
Forms abstract nouns, S. 11, N. 7.

=Inverted Construction.= When to be used, App. §§ 13-15.
Used after quotations, S. 32, N. 5.

=Imperfect=, the, its use, S. 101, N. 22.

=it=, dependent on a prep., how to render, S. 4, N. 5, _B_.

J.

+=Jesus Christus=+, its declension, S. 141, N. 9.

K.

+=kein=+, the general translation for ‘not a’, S. 126, N. 12.

L.

+=lassen=+, to order, to command, to cause, S. 73, N. 1.

+=lehren=+, to teach, requires two accusatives, S. 42, N. 4, and S.
43, N. 10.

=like=, to, how to render, S. 20, N. 2.

=live=, to, how to render, S. 116, N. 17.

M.

+=machen=+, requires the prep. +zu+, S. 27, N. 4, and S. 102, N. 13.

=man= = human being, how to render, S. 134, N. 9.

+=man=+, pron. With the Active Voice instead of Eng. Passive Voice,
S. 4, N. 4.
+Man+, indef. pron., used to render the Eng. ‘you’ used in a
general sense, S. 92, N. 5, also S. 134, N. 4.

+=Mark=+, +die+, its inflection, S. 58, N. 3.

=matter=, the — is, +es giebt+, S. 63, N. 9.

+=mögen=+, auxil. v. of mood, S. 20, N. 2.

+=müssen=+ = _to be_ and _to have_, followed by the infinitive of
another verb, S. 62, N. 4.

N.

+=nach=+, prep. = to, S. 72, N. 4.

=Names of male persons= and inhabitants of countries and places made
by the suffix +er+, S. 157, N. 4.
Proper Names, their declension, S. 65, N. 1.

=National adjectives=, require a small initial, S. 101, N. 1.

=not a= = no, S. 126, N. 12.

=Nouns.= Compound Nouns, their importance, S. 33, N. 5.
Formation of Compound Nouns, S. 36, N. 7, and S. 76, N. 22.
Nouns must be preceded by the parts qualifying them, S. 128, N. 11.
Abstract Nouns made from the Infinitives of verbs, S. 11, N. 7.
Collective Nouns in the Sing. require the verb to agree with them
in the Sing., S. 107, N. 13.

=Number.= Use the Sing. number in connection with a Collective Noun
in the Sing., S. 107, N. 13.

O.

=Object=, the grammatical, in a principal clause, followed by a
subordinate clause, or a supine, S. 51, N. 13.

=on.= _On the contrary_, how to render, S. 66, N. 16.
_To be on the point of_, rendered by +wollen+, S. 67, N. 2.

=one=, not translated after an adj. or a pron., S. 67, N. 2.

=one=, numeral, not translated before _hundred_ and _thousand_, S.
132, N. 10.

=one day=, how to render, S. 19, N. 2.

=only=, adv., how to render, S. 109, N. 5.

=order=, to, how to render, S. 73, N. 1.

=ought=, how to render, S. 64, N. 5.

P.

=Participles=, the. Participles used attributively must be inflected,
S. 7, N. 3, _B_.
THE PAST (OR PERFECT) PARTICIPLE. As a rule precedes the qualified
noun, S. 7, N. 3, _A_.
Rendered by a relat. clause, S. 7, N. 3, _B_.
Rendered by the attributive construction, S. 7, N. 3, and S. 48, N.
6.
Used elliptically to denote state or condition, S. 102, N. 3.
THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE. The English—qualifying a preceding noun,
turned into a relat. clause, S. 16, N. 4.
How to render when it denotes a logical cause, S. 30, N. 4.
Rendered by the attributive construction, S. 48, N. 6.
Used adverbially to denote manner or state, S. 53, N. 12.
How to render when used in adverbial clauses of time, S. 55, N. 1.
The — in _-ing_ in adverbial clauses of manner, rendered by the
conj. +indem+ and a finite verb, S. 111, N. 6.

=Passive Voice=, the. Its formation in German, S. 2, N. 1.
How to recognise, S. 2, N. 1.
Rendered into German by a reflective verb, or the pron. +man+ with
the active voice, S. 4, N. 4.

=people=, how to render, S. 134, N. 4.

=Perfect=, the. Its use, S. 48, N. 2.
The Eng. Perfect rendered by the Present in German, S. 145, N. 17.

=Person=, the, for whose benefit an action is done, must, as a rule,
be indicated in German, S. 130, N. 12.

=Personal Pronoun=, the. In the Dat. case, used to indicate the
Possessor, S. 43, N. 9, _B_.
Used to indicate the person for whose benefit an action is
performed, S. 58, N. 8.
Personal and possessive pronouns require a capital initial in
letters, S. 69, N. 2.

+=Pfund=+, +das+, one £, Engl., never takes the mark of the plural,
S. 58, N. 3.

=Possessive Adjective Pronoun=, the. When repeated in German, S. 10,
N. 9.
How to render into German, S. 43, N. 9, _A_ and _B_.

=pound=, how to render, S. 58, N. 3.

=Predicate=, the, Copula or Verb, must follow the Subject when it
begins the clause, S. 5, N. 2.
The formation of the Superlatives of adjectives used predicatively,
S. 120, N. 14.

=Present Tense=, the German, used to express duration up to the time
of speaking, where the Engl. use the Perfect, S. 145, N. 17.

=Principal clauses.= Their construction, App. §§ 1-12.

=progress=, noun, how to render, S. 132, N. 1.

=Proper names=, when not inflected, S. 65, N. 1.

R.

=rate.= _At the rate of_, how to render, S. 235, N. 9.

=Relative Clauses=, rendered by the attributive construction, S. 48,
N. 6.

=Relative Pronoun=, the. Follows, as a rule, its antecedent, S. 13,
N. 5.
Must not be omitted in German, S. 16, N. 10.
+Der+ and +die+ must be used in reference to a preceding personal
pronoun, S. 78, N. 7.

S.

=Scholar=, how to render, S. 128, N. 1.

+=sein=+, auxiliary, its use, S. 29, N. 3.

+=seit=+, as a transl. of the Eng. prep. _for_ in sentences which
express a duration of an action up to the time of speaking, S.
145, N. 17.

+=so=+, conj. When required in the beginning of principal clauses, S.
27, N. 8.

=so=, in connection with a transitive verb, rendered by +es+, +das+,
+dies+, S. 132, N. 13.

+=sollen=+, expresses assertion, S. 54, N. 13;
= ought, S. 64, N. 5.

+=St.=+, abbreviation of Sanct., its derivation, S. 103, N. 33.

=Subject=, the. Must be followed by the Copula or the Verb when it
begins the principal clause, S. 5, N. 2.
Its position in subordinate clauses, S. 66, N. 15.
Not to be omitted, S. 27, N. 7.
The grammatical subject in the form of the pron. +es+, S. 104, N.
19.

=Subjunctive Mood=, the. Its use, App. §§ 26-35.

=Subordinate Clauses.= Their construction, App. §§ 16-24.

=Superlative=, the, of an adjective used predicatively is generally
preceded by +am+, S. 120, N. 14.
How to form the relat. Superlative of adverbs, S. 183, N. 24.

=Supine=, the. Explanation and use, S. 1, N. 2.
Formation of the Supine Present, S. 1, N. 2.
Used for rendering the Eng. Gerund preceded by a preposition, S. 1,
N. 3.
Expresses purpose, S. 19, N. 7.
Used for rendering the Eng. Gerund governed by a noun or a verb, S.
34, N. 10.
Used in connection with the verb +lehren+, S. 43, N. 10.

=Suppose=, I, in interrogative sentences, rendered by +wohl+, S. 92,
N. 3.

T.

=Take=, to. How to render, S. 3, N. 8.
+To take care of+, how to render, S. 91, N. 7.

=teach=, to, how to render, S. 42, N. 4, and S. 43, N. 10.

=that=, =them=, =those=, dependent on a prep., how to render, S. 4,
N. 5, _B_.

=that and those=, followed by a relat. pron., cannot be rendered by
the adv. +da+ in connection with a preceding preposition, S. 8,
N. 1.

=that= = in order that, how to render, S. 183, N. 6.

=there is and There are=, rendered by +es giebt+, S. 82, N. 7.

=they=, used in an indefinite sense, rendered by +man+, S. 134, N. 4.

=think=, to, how to render, S. 64, N. 11.

=to= = in order to, how to render, S. 19, N. 7.

=to=, prep., how to render, S. 72, N. 4.

=trust=, to, anything to a person, S. 91, N. 6.

U.

=Use=, to, v. tr. and intr., how to render, S. 129, N. 6.

V.

=Verb=, the. Agreement of verbs with collective nouns, S. 69, N. 17.
Auxiliary of tense often omitted in subordinate clauses, S. 52, N.
8.
The verb or copula must follow the subject, when the latter begins
the Principal Clause, S. 5, N. 2.

=Verbal=, the, in _-ing_, how to render, S. 1, N. 3; S. 34, N. 10.

=very=, rendered by the Superl. of the adv. +hoch+, S. 161, N. 2.

W.

=want=, to, rendered by +wollen+, S. 63, N. 10.

+=was.=+ When required as a relat. pron., S. 3, N. 7.
Used in reference to a preceding whole clause, as a transl. of
‘which’, S. 33, N. 8.

=we=, in an indefinite sense, rendered by +man+, S. 134, N. 4.

+=werden=+, conjugated with +sein+, S. 98, N. 5.

=what sort of=, how to render, S. 63, N. 2.

=when.= Rendered by +als+, S. 4, N. 2.
Rendered by +wenn+, S. 18, N. 6.
Rendered by +wo+, S. 131, N. 4.

=where=, rendered by +wo+, S. 131, N. 4.

=which=, rendered by +was+, S. 33, N. 8.

=wife=, how to render, S. 101, N. 5.

=wish=, to, rendered by +wollen+, S. 63, N. 10.

+=wo=+, relat. conj., its use, S. 131, N. 4.

+=wohl=+ = I suppose, S. 92, N. 3.

+=wollen.=+ Expresses _wish_ and _want_, S. 63, N. 10.
— = to be going, to be on the point, S. 67, N. 2.
— = to be about, S. 6, N. 4.

=wonder=, to, how to render, S. 90, N. 11.

+=Wort=+, +das+, double pl., S. 7, N. 2.

=worth remembering=, how to render, S. 157, N. 22.

Y.

=you.= Used in a general sense, rendered by +man+, S. 92, N. 5.
When rendered by +Ihr+, S. 137, N. 2.

Z.

+=zu=+, prep. Required with verbs denoting choosing, appointing,
etc., S. 27, N. 4, and S. 102, N. 13.

THE END.

Clarendon Press Series

LANGE’S GERMAN COURSE

CONSISTS OF THE FOLLOWING WORKS:—

THIRD EDITION, with the German spelling revised to meet the requirements of the German Government Regulations of 1880.

THE GERMANS AT HOME; A Practical Introduction to German Conversation, with an _Appendix_, containing _the Essentials of German Grammar_, and a synopsis of the changes the German spelling has undergone through the Government Regulations of 1880.

[Price _2s. 6d._

SECOND EDITION, CAREFULLY REVISED.

THE GERMAN MANUAL; _A German Grammar_, _A Reading-book_, and _A Handbook of Conversation in German_.

[Price _7s. 6d._

‘The German Manual’ is intended to follow ‘The Germans At Home.’ It contains, besides a complete Grammar, a series of interesting anecdotes, stories, fables, letters, and conversations arranged in progressive order, and finishes with a German Play, and Franz Hoffman’s well written and highly interesting story of ‘BEETHOVEN,’ especially adapted for this work. It offers great advantages for self-instruction, and will be very useful to persons who, having a certain knowledge of German, desire to obtain fluency in speaking and writing the language.

A GRAMMAR OF THE GERMAN LANGUAGE, in two Parts. Part I, Accidence; Part II, Syntax. With an _Appendix_, comprehending:—

I. The Declension of German Nouns.
II. Essentials of Construction.
III. Essentials of Word-building.
IV. The Use and signification of the Auxiliary Verbs of Mood.
V. On Punctuation.

[Price _3s. 6d._

The ‘Grammar’ forms the first part of the ‘German Manual’ and, in this separate form, is intended for the use of students who wish to make themselves acquainted with German Grammar chiefly for the purpose of being able to read German books. It is divided into paragraphs, and will commend itself as a text-book to the notice of teachers who, in pursuing the study of German Literature with their pupils, require a Grammar in a concise form for reference and study.