Chapter XVII: Part 17

"It was during the reign of this prince [Varahran V., king of
Persia, A. D. 420-440] that those terrible struggles commenced
between the Persians and their neighbours upon the north-east
which continued, from the early part of the fifth till the
middle of the sixth century, to endanger the very existence of
the empire. Various names are given to the people with whom
Persia waged her wars during this period. They are called
Turks, Huns, sometimes even Chinese; but these terms seem to
be used in a vague way, as 'Scythian' was by the ancients; and
the special ethnic designation of the people appears to be
quite a different name from any of them. It is a name the
Persian form of which is 'Haïthal,' or 'Haïtheleh,' the
Armenian 'Hephthagh,' and the Greek 'Ephthalites,' or
sometimes 'Nephthalites.' … All that we know of the
Ephthalites is, that they were established in force, during
the fifth and sixth centuries of our era, in the regions east
of the Caspian, especially in those beyond the Oxus river, and
that they were generally regarded as belonging to the Scythic
or Finno-Turkic population, which, at any rate from B. C. 200,
had become powerful in that region. They were called 'White
Huns' by some of the Greeks; but it is admitted that they were
quite distinct from the Huns who invaded Europe under Attila.
… They were a light-complexioned race, whereas the Huns were
decidedly swart; they were not ill-looking, whereas the Huns
were hideous; they were an agricultural people, while the Huns
were nomads; they had good laws, and were tolerably well
civilised, but the Huns were savages. It is probable that they
belonged to the Thibetic or Turkish stock."

_G. Rawlinson,
Seventh Great Oriental Monarchy,
chapter 14._

"We are able to distinguish the two great divisions of these
formidable exiles [the Huns], which directed their march
towards the Oxus and towards the Volga. The first of these
colonies established their dominion in the fruitful and
extensive plains of Sogdiana, on the eastern side of the
Caspian, where they preserved the name of Huns, with the
epithet of Euthalites [Ephthalites], or Nephthalites. Their
manners were softened, and even their features were insensibly
improved, by the mildness of the climate and their long
residence in a flourishing province; which might still retain
a faint impression of the arts of Greece. The White Huns, a
name which they derived from the change of their complexion,
soon abandoned the pastoral life of Scythia. Gorgo, which,
under the appellation of Carizine, has since enjoyed a
temporary splendour, was the residence of the king, who
exercised a legal authority over an obedient people. Their
luxury was maintained by the labour of the Sogdians."

_E. Gibbon.
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,
chapter 26._

The White Huns were subjugated by the Turks.

See TURKS: SIXTH CENTURY.

HUNTER, General David.
Command in Kansas.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1861 (JULY-NOVEMBER).

Emancipation Order.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862 (MAY).

Command in the Shenandoah.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D.1864 (MAY-JUNE: VIRGINIA).

HUNTSVILLE, Capture of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1862 (APRIL-MAY: ALABAMA).

HUPAS, OR HOOPAHS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: MODOCS.

----------HURON, Lake: Start--------

HURON, Lake:
Discovery.

See CANADA: A. D. 1611-1616; and 1634-1673.

HURON, Lake: A. D. 1679.
Navigated by La Salle.

See CANADA: A. D. 1669-1687.

----------HURON, Lake: End--------

HURONS, OR WYANDOTS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: HURONS,
and IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY.

HURST CASTLE, King Charles at.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1648 (NOVEMBER-DECEMBER).

HUS AND THE REFORMATION IN BOHEMIA.

See BOHEMIA: A. D. 1405-1415.

HUSCARLS.

See HOUSECARLS.

HUSSARS.

Matthias, son of John Hunyadi, was elected king of Hungary in
1458. "The defence of the country chiefly engaged the
attention of Matthias at the commencement of his reign.
Measures of defence were accordingly carried on with the
utmost speed, the most important of which was the
establishment of regular cavalry; to levy which one man was
enrolled out of every 20 families. This was the origin of the
'Hussar,' meaning in Hungarian the price or due of twenty."

_E. Szabad,
Hungary, Past and Present,
page 50._

HUSSEIN, Shah of Persia, A. D. 1694-1722.

{1691}

HUSTINGS. COURT OF HUSTING.

"The 'hygh and auncyent' Court of Husting of the City of
London is of Anglo-Saxon, or, to speak more accurately, of
Scandinavian origin, being a remarkable memorial of the sway
once exercised over England by the Danes and other Northmen.
The name of the Court is derived from [hus], 'a house,' and
[dhing], a thing, 'cause,' or 'council,' and signifies,
according to general acceptation, 'a court held in a house,'
in contradistinction to other 'things,' or courts, which in
Saxon times were usually held in the open air. … The term
'Husting' or, less correctly, 'Hustings' is commonly applied
at the present day to open-air assemblies or temporary courts,
usually held in some elevated position, for the purpose of
electing members of Parliament in counties and boroughs, its
strict etymological meaning, being lost sight of. … [The
Court of Husting] is the oldest court of record within the
City, and at one time constituted the sole court for settling
disputes between citizen and citizen."

_R. R. Sharpe,
Introduction to Calendar of Wills,
Court of Husting, London._

HUTCHINSON, Mrs. Anne, and the Antinomian troubles.

See MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1636-1638;
and RHODE ISLAND: A. D. 1638-1640.

HUTCHINSON, Governor Thomas,
and the outbreak of Revolution in Massachusetts.

See MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1761;
and UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1765,
NEWS OF THE STAMP ACT; 1772-1773; 1774 (MAY-JUNE).

HWICCAS.

A name borne by the West Saxons who first settled in
Gloucestershire and Worcestershire when that region was
conquered. They led a revolt against the West Saxon king
Ceawlin, in which they were joined by the Britons, or Welsh.
The battle of Wanborough, fought A. D. 591, drove Ceawlin from
the throne.

_J. R. Green,
The Making of England,
pages 129-208._

See ENGLAND: A. D. 547-633.

HYACINTHIA, Feast of the.

"The feast of the Hyacinthia was held annually at Amyclæ
[Lacedæmonia], on the longest day of the Spartan month
Hecatombeus, corresponding to our June and July. …
Hyacinthus, the beautiful youth slain accidentally by Apollo,
was the chief object of the worship. He took his name from the
flower, which was an emblem of death; and the original feast
seems to have been altogether a mournful ceremony,—a
lamentation over the destruction of the flowers of spring by
the summer heat, passing on to a more general lament over
death itself.'

_G. Rawlinson,
History of Herodotus,
Note, book 9, section 7._

ALSO IN:
_E. Abbott,
History of Greece,
volume 1, page 222._

HYBLA.

"There was a Sikel goddess Hybla, whom the Greeks looked on as
the same with several goddesses of their own mythology, here
with one, there with another. Three towns in Sicily were
called after her, one in the southeastern part of the island,
now Ragusa, another on the coast north of Syracuse, near the
place where the Greek colony of Megara was afterwards planted.
This gave Its name to the Hyblaian hills not far off, famous
for their honey; but there is no hill strictly called Mount
Hybla. The third Hybla is inland, not far from Catania, and is
now called Paterno."

_E. A. Freeman,
Story of Sicily,
page 33._

HYDASPES, The.

The ancient name of the river Jelum, or Jhelum, in the Punjab,
on the banks of which the Indian king Porus made a vain
attempt to oppose the invasion of Alexander.

_C. Thirlwall,
History of Greece,
chapter 53._

HYDER ALI AND TIPPOO SAIB,
English Wars with.

See INDIA: A. D. 1767-1769; 1780-1783;
and 1785-1793.

HYDERABAD OR HAIDERABAD,
The Nizam of.

See INDIA: A. D. 1662-1748; and 1877.

HY-IVAR, The.

See NORMANS.
NORTHMEN: 8TH-9TH CENTURIES, and 10TH-13TH CENTURIES.

HYKSOS, The.

See EGYPT: THE HYKSOS.

HYLLEANS, The.

"The Hylleans are never mentioned in any historical narrative,
but always in mythical [Greek] legends; and they appear to
have been known to the geographers only from mythological
writers. Yet they are generally placed in the islands of
Melita and Black-Corcyra, to the south of Liburnia."

_C. O. Müller,
History and Antiquity of the Doric Race,
volume 1, introduction._

HYMETTUS.

One of the noted mountains of Attica, "celebrated for its
excellent honey, and the broad belt of flowers at its base,
which scented the air with their delicious perfume."

_M. and R. P. Willson,
Mosaics of Grecian History,
page 9._

HY-NIALS AND EUGENIANS.

"As surnames were not generally used, either in Ireland or
anywhere else, till after the 10th century, the great families
are distinguishable at first only by their tribe or clan
names. Thus, at the north we have the Hy-Nial race; in the
south the Eugenian race, so called, from Nial and Eoghan,
their mutual ancestors."

_T. D. McGee,
Popular History of Ireland,
book 1, chapter 2 (volume 1)._

HYPATIA.

See ALEXANDRIA: A.D. 413-415.

HYPERBOREANS, The.

A mythical people, supposed by the ancients to dwell beyond
the north wind, and therefore to enjoy a perfect climate in
the extreme north.

HYPHASIS, The.
The ancient name of the river Sutlej, in the Punjab.

HYRCANIA. HYRCANIAN SEA.

"The mountain-chain which skirts the Great Plateau [of Iran]
on the north, distinguished in these pages by the name of
Elburz, broadens out after it passes the south-eastern corner
of the Caspian Sea till it covers a space of nearly three
degrees (more than 200 miles). Instead of the single lofty
ridge which separates the Salt Desert from the low Caspian
region, we find between the 54th and 59th degrees of east
longitude three or four distinct ranges, all nearly parallel
to one another, having a general direction of east and west.
… Here in Persian times was settled a people called Hyrcani;
and from them the tract derived the name of Hyrcania
(Vehrkana), while the lake [Caspian Sea] on which it adjoined
came to be known as 'the Hyrcanian Sea.' The fertility of the
region, its broad plains, shady woods, and lofty mountains
were celebrated by the ancient writers."

_G. Rawlinson,
Five Great Monarchies: Persia,
chapter 1._

"In the inscriptions of the Achæmenids their land [Hyrcania]
is known as Valkana; the modern name is Jorjan. Here,
according to the Greeks, the mountains were covered with
forests of oaks, where swarms of wild bees had their hives; in
the valleys vines and fig-trees flourished, and the soil down
to the sea was so luxuriant that corn grew from the fallen
grains without any special sowing."

_M. Duncker,
History of Antiquity,
book 7, chapter 1._

See, also, PARTHIA.

{1692}

I.

IAPYGIANS, The.

See ITALY, ANCIENT;
also, ŒNOTRIANS.

IAZYGES, OR JAZYGES, The.

See LIMIGANTES.

IBERA, Battle at.

See PUNIC WAR, THE SECOND.

IBERIANS, The eastern.

"The Sapeires [of Herodotus] appear to be the Iberians of
later writers. The name is found under the various forms of
Saspeires, Sapeires, Sabeires, or Sabeiri, and Abeires, whence
the transition to Iberes is easy. They are always represented
as adjoining on the Colchians to the east and southeast, so
that they must evidently have inhabited the greater part of
the modern province of Georgia. … There is reason to believe
that the modern Georgians—still called 'Virk' by their
neighbours—are their descendants, and preserve, in the
original seat of the nation, a name and a nationality which
have defied the destroying touch of time for more than
twenty-four centuries."

_G. Rawlinson,
History of Herodotus,
book 7, appendix 1._

See, also, ALARODIANS.

If these Iberians of the east were connected in race or origin
of name with the Iberians of western Europe, the connection
does not seem to have been traced. Iberia was devastated and
subjugated by the Seljuk Turks in the 11th century.

See TURKS (SELJUKS): A. D. 1063-1073.

IBERIANS, The western.

"The numerous skulls obtained from Basque cemeteries possess
exactly those characters which have been remarked … in the
Neolithic tombs and caves in Britain and on the Continent, and
may therefore be taken to imply that the Basque-speaking
peoples are to be looked upon as a fragment of the race which
occupied the British isles, and the area west of the Rhine and
north of the Alps, in the Neolithic age. … Nor can there be
any reasonable doubt as to this small, dark-haired people
being identical with the ancient Iberians of history, who have
left their name in the Iberian peninsula [Spain] as a mark of
their former dominion in the west. … In ancient times they
were spread through Spain as far to the south as the Pillars
of Hercules, and as far to the north-east as Germany and
Denmark. The Iberic population of the British Isles was
apparently preserved from contact with other races throughout
the whole of the Neolithic age. On the Continent, however, it
is not so; a new set of men, differing in physical
characteristics from them, make their appearance. … The new
invader is identified by Thurnam and Huxley with the Celtæ of
history. … These two races were in possession of Spain
during the very earliest times recorded in history, the
Iberians occupying the north-western region, and the Celts, or
Gauls, extending in a broad band south of the Pyrenees along
the Mediterranean shore. … In the north the Vascones then,
as now, held the Basque provinces of Spain. The distribution
of these two races in Gaul is similar to that which we have
noted in Spain. … When Cæsar conquered Gaul, the Iberian
Aquitani possessed the region bounded by the river Garonne,
the Cevennes, and the Pyrenees. … An ethnological connection
also between Aquitaine and Brittany (Armorica) may be inferred
from the remark of Pliny, 'Aquitania Armorica ante dicta.' …
Just as the Celts pushed back the Iberian population of Gaul
as far south as Aquitania, and swept round it into Spain, so
they crossed the channel and overran the greater portion of
Britain, until the Silures, identified by Tacitus with the
Iberians, were left only in those fastnesses which were
subsequently a refuge for the Welsh against the English
invaders."

_W. B. Dawkins,
Early Man in Britain,
chapter 9._

ALSO IN:
_I. Taylor,
Origin of the Aryans,
chapter 2, section 5._

See CELTS; LIGURIANS;
AQUITAINE: THE ANCIENT TRIBES;
AND PORTUGAL: EARLY HISTORY;
and, also, volume 1, APPENDIX A.

IBERION.

See ALBION.

IBRAHIM,
Caliph, A. D. 744.

Ibrahim, Turkish Sultan, 1640-1649.

ICARIA, Attica.

One of the demes or ancient townships of Attica, where
Icarius, in a Greek legend, was taught the art of wine-making
by Dionysus.

ICARIA, in the Ægean.

An island near Samos and anciently belonging to the Samians,
who used it chiefly for their pasture land.

----------ICELAND: Start--------

ICELAND:
Supposed identity with the Ultima Thule of the ancients.

See THULE.

ICELAND: A. D. 860-1100.
Discovery and Settlement by the Northmen.
A Norse Commonwealth.
Development of the Saga Literature.

See NORMANS.—NORTHMEN: A. D. 860-1100.

ICELAND: A. D. 1800-1874.
Political relations with Denmark.

See SCANDINAVIAN STATES (DENMARK-ICELAND): A. D. 1849-1874.

----------ICELAND: End--------

ICELANDIC "THING," The.

See THING.

ICENI, The.

See BRITAIN: CELTIC TRIBES; and A. D. 61.

ICONIUM, Sultans of.

See TURKS (THE SELJUKS): A. D. 1073-1092.

ICONOCLASTIC CONTROVERSY, The.

"Of the controversies that disquieted this age [the eighth
century], the greatest and the most pernicious related to the
worship of sacred images. Originating in Greece, it thence
spread over the East, and the West, producing great harm both
to the state and to the church. The first sparks of it
appeared under Phillippicus Bardanes, who was emperor of the
Greeks near the beginning of this century. With the consent of
the patriarch John, in the year 712, he removed from the
portico of the church of St. Sophia a picture representing the
sixth general council, which condemned the Monothelites, whom
the emperor was disposed to favour; and he sent his mandate to
Rome, requiring all such pictures to be removed out of the
churches. But Constantine, the Roman pontiff, not only
protested against the emperor's edict, but … , having
assembled a council at Rome, he caused the emperor himself to
be condemned as an apostate from the true religion. These
first commotions, however, terminated the next year, when the
emperor was hurled from the throne. Under Leo the Isaurian, a
very heroic emperor, another conflict ensued; which was far
more terrific, severe, and lasting. Leo, unable to bear with
the extravagant superstition of the Greeks in worshipping
religious images, which rendered them a reproach both to the
Jews and the Saracens; in order to extirpate the evil
entirely, issued an edict in the year 726, commanding all
images of saints, with the exception of that of Christ on the
cross, to be removed out of the churches, and the worship of
them to be wholly discontinued and abrogated.
{1693}
… A civil war broke out; first in the islands of the
Archipelago and a part of Asia, and afterwards in Italy. For
the people, either spontaneously, or being so instructed by
the priests and monks, to whom the images were productive of
gain, considered the emperor as an apostate from true
religion. … In Italy, the Roman pontiffs, Gregory II. and
Gregory III., were the principal authors of the revolt. …
The Romans and the other people of Italy who were subjects of
the Greek empire, violated their allegiance, and either
massacred or expelled the viceroys of Leo. Exasperated by
these causes, the emperor contemplated making war upon Italy,
and especially upon the pontiff: but circumstances prevented
him. Hence in the year 730, fired with resentment and
indignation, he vented his fury against images and their
worshippers, much more violently than before. For having
assembled a council of bishops, he deposed Germanus, bishop of
Constantinople, who favoured images, and substituted
Anastasius in his place; commanded that images should be
committed to the flames, and inflicted various punishments
upon the advocates of them. The consequence of this severity
was, that the Christian church was unhappily rent into two
parties; that of the Iconoduli or Iconolatrae, who adored and
worshipped images, and that of the Iconomachi or Iconoclastae,
who would not preserve but destroyed them; and these parties
furiously contended with mutual invectives, abuses, and
assassinations. The course commenced by Gregory II. was warmly
prosecuted by Gregory III., and although we cannot determine
at this distance of time the precise degree of fault in either
of these prelates, thus much is unquestionable, that the loss
of their Italian possessions in this contest by the Greeks, is
to be ascribed especially to the zeal of these two pontiffs in
behalf of images. Leo's son Constantine, surnamed Copronymus
by the furious tribe of Image-worshippers, after he came to
the throne, A. D. 741, trod in his father's steps; for he
laboured with equal vigour to extirpate the worship of images,
in opposition to the machinations of the Roman pontiff and the
monks. Yet he pursued the business with more moderation than
his father had done: and being, aware that the Greeks were
governed entirely by the authority of councils in religious
matters, he collected a council of eastern bishops at
Constantinople in the year 754, to examine and decide this
controversy. By the Greeks this is called the seventh general
council. The bishops pronounced sentence, as was customary,
according to the views of the emperor; and therefore condemned
images. … Leo IV., who succeeded to the throne on the death
of Constantine, A. D. 775, entertained the same views as his
father and grandfather. For when he saw, that the abettors of
images were not to be moved at all by mild and gentle
measures, he coerced them with penal statutes. But Leo IV.
being removed by poison, through the wickedness of his
perfidious wife Irene, in the year 780, images became
triumphant. For that guilty woman, who governed the empire
during the minority of her son Constantine, with a view to
establish her authority, after entering into a league with
Hadrian the Roman pontiff, assembled a council at Nice in
Bithynia in the year 786, which is known by the title of the
second. Nicene council. Here the laws of the emperors,
together with the decrees of the council of Constantinople,
were abrogated; the worship of images and of the cross was
established. … In these contests most of the Latins,—as the
Britons, the Germans, and the French, took middle ground
between the contending parties; for they decided, that images
were to be retained indeed, and to be placed in the churches,
but that no religious worship could be offered to them without
dishonouring the Supreme Being. In particular Charlemagne, at
the suggestion of the French bishops who were displeased with
the Nicene decrees, caused four Books concerning images to be
drawn up by some learned man, and sent them in the year 790 to
the Roman pontiff Hadrian, with a view to prevent his
approving the decrees of Nice. In this work, the arguments of
the Nicene bishops in defence of image-worship, are acutely
and vigorously combated. But Hadrian was not to be taught by
such a master, however illustrious, and therefore issued his
formal confutation of the book. Charlemagne next assembled, in
the year 794, a council of 300 bishops, at Frankfort on the
Maine, in order to re-examine this controversy. This council
approved the sentiments contained in the Books of Charlemagne,
and forbid the worship of images."

_J. L. von Mosheim,
Institutes of Ecclesiastical History,
book 3, century 8, part 2, chapter 3 (volume 2)._

ALSO IN:
_P. Schaff,
History of the Christian Church,
volume 4, chapter 10, section 101._

_E. Gibbon,
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,
chapter 49._

_G. Finlay,
History of the Byzantine Empire,
book 1._

_H. F. Tozer,
The Church and the Eastern Empire,
chapter 6._

See, also,
PAPACY: A. D. 728-774.

ICONOCLASTS OF THE NETHERLANDS.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1566-1568.

ICTIS.

An island off the coast of Britain, to which tin is said to
have been brought from the main shore by natives to be sold to
Greek merchants. Whether it was the Isle of Thanet, at the
mouth of the Thames, or the Isle of Wight, or St. Michael's
Mount, is a disputed question.

IDA, Mount.

See TROJA.

----------IDAHO: Start--------

IDAHO:
The Aboriginal inhabitants.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: SHOSHONEAN FAMILY.

IDAHO: A. D. 1803.
Was it embraced in the Louisiana Purchase?
Grounds of American possession.

See LOUISIANA: A. D. 1798-1803.

IDAHO: A. D. 1863.
Organized as a Territory.

The Territory of Idaho was created by an act of
Congress passed March 3, 1863.

IDAHO: A. D. 1890.
Admission to the Union as a State.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1889-1890.

----------IDAHO: End--------

IDES.

See CALENDAR, JULIAN.

IDLE, Battle of the.

Fought A. D. 617, between the East English, or East Angles,
and the Northumbrians; the former victorious.

IDOMENE, Battle of.

One of the battles of the Peloponnesian War, in which the
Ambrakiots were surprised and almost totally destroyed by
Messenians and Akarnanians, under the Athenian general
Demosthenes, B. C. 426.

_G. Grote,
History of Greece,
part 2, chapter 51 (volume 6)._

IDSTEDT, Battle of (1850).

See SCANDINAVIAN STATES (DENMARK): A. D. 1848-1862.

IDUMEANS, The.

See EDOMITES.

IERNE.

See IRELAND: THE NAME.

{1694}

IGANIE, Battle of (1831).

See POLAND: A. D. 1830-1832.

IGUALA, The Plan of.

See MEXICO: A. D. 1820-1826.

IGUALADA, Battle of (1809).

See SPAIN: A. D. 1808-1809 (DECEMBER-MARCH).

IKENILD-STRETE.

See ROMAN ROADS IN BRITAIN.

ILA. ILARCH.

The Spartan boys were divided into companies, according to
their several ages; each company was called an Ila, and was
commanded by a young officer called an Ilarch.

_G. Schömann,
Antiquity of Greece: The State,
part 3, chapter 1._

ILERDA.

Modern Lerida, in Spain, the scene of Cæsar's famous campaign
against Afranius and Petreius, in the civil war.

See ROME: B. C. 49.

ILIAD, The.

See HOMER.

ILIUM.

See TROJA.

ILKHANS, The.

See PERSIA: A. D. 1258-1393.

ILLINOIA,
The proposed State of.

See NORTHWEST TERRITORY OF
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1784.

----------ILLINOIS: Start--------

ILLINOIS:
The aboriginal inhabitants.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ALLEGHANS,
ALGONQUIAN FAMILY, and ILLINOIS.

ILLINOIS: A. D. 1673.
Traversed by Marquette and Joliet.

See CANADA: A. D. 1634-1673.

ILLINOIS: A. D. 1679-1682.
LaSalle's fort and colony.

See CANADA: A. D. 1669-1687.

ILLINOIS: A. D. 1679-1735.
The French occupation.

See CANADA: A. D. 1700-1735.

ILLINOIS: A. D. 1700-1750.
The "Illinois country" under the French.

"For many years the term 'Illinois country' embraced all the
region east of the Upper Mississippi as far as Lake Michigan,
and from the Wisconsin on the north to the Ohio on the south.
The extent of the Illinois country under the French varied but
little from the extent of the present State of Illinois. At a
later date, its limits on the east were restricted by the
'Wabash country,' which was erected into a separate
government, under the commandant of 'Post St. Vincent,'on the
Wabash River. … The early French on the Illinois were
remarkable for their talent of ingratiating themselves with
the warlike tribes around them, and for their easy
amalgamation in manners and customs, and blood. … Their
settlements were usually in the form of small, compact,
patriarchal villages, like one great family assembled around
their old men and patriarchs."

_J. W. Monette,
History of the Discovery and Settlement of the Valley of
the Mississippi,
volume 1, pages 181-183._

See, also, LOUISIANA: A. D. 1719-1750.

ILLINOIS: A. D. 1751.
Settlements and population.

"Up to this time, the 'Illinois country,' east of the Upper
Mississippi, contained six distinct settlements, with their
respective villages. These were:

1. Cahokia, near the mouth of Cahokia Creek, and nearly five
miles below the present site of St. Louis;

2. St. Philip, forty-five miles below the last, and four miles
above Fort Chartres, on the cast side of the Mississippi;

3. Fort Chartres, on the east bank of the Mississippi, twelve
miles above Kaskaskia;

4. Kaskaskia, situated upon the Kaskaskia River, five miles
above its mouth, upon a peninsula, and within two miles of the
Mississippi River;

5. Prairie du Rocher, near Fort Chartres;

6. St. Geneviève, on the west side of the Mississippi, and
about one mile from its bank, upon Gabarre Creek.

These are among the oldest towns in what was long known as the
Illinois country. Kaskaskia, in its best days, under the
French regime, was quite a large town, containing 2,000 or
3,000 inhabitants. But after it passed from the crown of
France, its population for many years did not exceed 1,500
souls. Under the British dominion the population decreased to
460 souls, in 1773."

_J. W. Monette,
History of the Discovery and Settlement
of the Mississippi Valley,
volume 1, pages 167-168._

"The population of the French and Indian villages in the
district of the Illinois, at the period of which we write, is
largely a matter of conjecture and computation. Father Louis
Vivier, a Jesuit missionary, in a letter dated June 8, 1750,
and written from the vicinity of Fort Chartres, says: 'We have
here whites, negroes, and Indians, to say nothing of the
cross-breeds. There are five French villages, and three
villages of the natives within a space of twenty-five
leagues, situate between the Mississippi and another river
called (Kaskaskia). In the French villages are, perhaps,
eleven hundred whites, three hundred blacks, and sixty red
slaves or savages. The three Illinois towns do not contain
more than eight hundred souls, all told.' This estimate does
not include the scattered French settlers or traders north of
Peoria, nor on the Wabash. It is stated that the Illinois
nation, then dwelling for the most part along the river of
that name, occupied eleven different villages, with four or
five fires at each village, and each fire warming a dozen
families, except at the principal village, where there were
three hundred lodges. These data would give us something near
eight thousand as the total number of the Illinois of all
tribes."

_J. Wallace,
History of Illinois and Louisiana under the French Rule,
chapter 16._

ILLINOIS: A. D. 1763.
Cession to Great Britain.

See SEVEN YEARS WAR.

ILLINOIS: A. D. 1763.
The king's proclamation excluding settlers.

See NORTHWEST TERRITORY OF
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1763.

ILLINOIS: A. D. 1765.
Possession taken by the English.

"The French officers had, since the peace, been ready loyally
to surrender the country to the English. But the Illinois, the
Missouri, and the Osage tribes would not consent. At a council
held in the spring of 1765, at Fort Chartres, the chief of the
Kaskaskias, turning to the English officer, said: 'Go hence,
and tell your chief that the Illinois and all our brethren
will make war on you if you come upon our lands.' … But when
Fraser, who arrived from Pittsburg, brought proofs that their
elder brothers, the Senecas, the Delawares and the Shawnees,
had made peace with the English, the Kaskaskias said: 'We
follow as they shall lead.' 'I waged this war,' said Pontiac,
'because, for two years together, the Delawares and Shawnees
begged me to take up arms against the English. So I became
their ally, and was of their mind;' and, plighting his word
for peace, he kept it with integrity. A just curiosity may ask
how many persons of foreign lineage had gathered in the valley
of the Illinois since its discovery by the missionaries.
Fraser was told that there were of white men, able to bear
arms, 700; of white women, 500; of their children, 850; of
negroes of both sexes, 900. The banks of the Wabash, we learn
from another source, were occupied by about 110 French
families, most of which were at Vincennes.
{1695}
Fraser sought to overawe the French traders with the menace of
an English army that was to come among them; but they pointed
to the Mississippi, beyond which they would be safe from
English jurisdiction [France having ceded to Spain her
territory on the western side of the river]. … With Croghan,
an Indian agent, who followed from Fort Pitt, the Illinois
nations agreed that the English should take possession of all
the posts which the French formerly held; and Captain
Stirling, with 100 men of the 42d regiment, was detached down
the Ohio, to relieve the French garrison. At Fort Chartres,
St. Ange, who had served for fifty years in the wilderness,
gave them a friendly reception; and on the morning of the 10th
of October he surrendered to them the left bank of the
Mississippi. Some of the French crossed the river, so that at
St. Genevieve there were at least five-and-twenty families,
while St. Louis, whose origin dates from the 15th of February
1764, and whose skilfully chosen site attracted the admiration
of the British commander, already counted about twice that
number, and ranked as the leading settlement on the western
side of the Mississippi. In the English portion of the distant
territory, the government then instituted was the absolute
rule of the British army, with a local judge to decide all
disputes among the inhabitants according to the customs of the
country, yet subject to an appeal to the military chief."

_G. Bancroft,
History of the United States
(Author's last revision),
volume 3, pages 151-152._

ILLINOIS: A. D. 1765-1774.
Early years of English rule.

"Just before and during the first years of the English
domination, there was a large exodus of the French inhabitants
from Illinois. Such, in fact, was their dislike of British
rule that fully one-third of the population, embracing the
wealthier and more influential families, removed with their
slaves and other personal effects, beyond the Mississippi, or
down that river to Natchez and New Orleans. Some of them
settled at Ste. Genevieve, while others, after the example set
by St. Ange, took up their abode in the village of St. Louis,
which had now become a depot for the fur company of Louisiana.
… At the close of the year 1765, the whole number of
inhabitants of foreign birth or lineage, in Illinois,
excluding the negro slaves, and including those living at Post
Vincent on the Wabash, did not much exceed two thousand
persons; and, during the entire period of British possession,
the influx of alien population hardly more than kept pace with
the outflow. Scarcely any Englishmen, other than the officers
and troops composing the small garrisons, a few enterprising
traders and some favored land speculators, were then to be
seen in the Illinois, and no Americans came hither, for the
purpose of settlement, until after the conquest of the country
by Colonel Clark. All the settlements still remained
essentially French, with whom there was no taste for
innovation or change. But the blunt and sturdy Anglo-American
had at last gained a firm foot-hold on the banks of the great
Father of Rivers, and a new type of civilization, instinct
with energy, enterprise and progress, was about to be
introduced into the broad and fertile Valley of the
Mississippi. … Captain Thomas Stirling began the military
government of the country on October 10, 1765, with fair and
liberal concessions, calculated to secure the good-will and
loyalty of the French-Canadians, and to stay their further
exodus; but his administration was not of long duration. On
the 4th of the ensuing December, he was succeeded by Major
Robert Farmer, who had arrived from Mobile with a detachment
of the 34th British infantry. In the following year, after
exercising an arbitrary authority over these isolated and
feeble settlements, Major Farmer was displaced by Colonel
Edward Cole, who had commanded a regiment under Wolfe, at
Quebec. Colonel Cole remained in command at Fort Chartres
about eighteen months; but the position was not congenial to
him. … He was accordingly relieved at his own request, early
in the year 1768. His successor was Colonel John Reed, who
proved a bad exchange for the poor colonists. He soon became
so notorious for his military oppressions of the people that
he was removed, and gave place to Lieutenant-Colonel John
Wilkins, of the 18th, or royal regiment of Ireland, who had
formerly commanded at Fort Niagara. Colonel Wilkins arrived
from Philadelphia and assumed the command September 5, 1768.
He brought out with him seven companies of his regiment for
garrison duty. … One of the most noticeable features of
Colonel Wilkins' administration was the liberality with which
he parceled out large tracts of the domain over which he ruled
to his favorites in Illinois, Philadelphia, and elsewhere,
without other consideration than requiring them to re-convey
to him a certain interest in the same. Lieutenant Colonel
Wilkins' government of the Illinois country eventually became
unpopular, and specific charges were preferred against him,
including a misappropriation of the public funds. He asked for
an official investigation, claiming that he was able to
justify his public conduct. But he was deposed from office in
September, 1771, and sailed for Europe in July of the
following year. Captain Hugh Lord, of the 18th regiment,
became Wilkins' successor at Fort Chartres, and continued in
command until the year 1775. … On the 2d of June, 1774,
Parliament passed an act enlarging and extending the province
of Quebec to the Mississippi River so as to include the
territory of the Northwest. … Who was the immediate
successor of Captain Lord in command of the Illinois is not
positively determined."

_J. Wallace,
History of Illinois and Louisiana Under the French Rule,
chapter 20._

ILLINOIS: A. D. 1774.
Embraced in the Province of Quebec.

See CANADA: A. D. 1763-1774.

ILLINOIS: A. D. 1778-1779.
Conquest from the British by the Virginian General Clark and
annexation to the Kentucky District of Virginia.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1778-1779,
CLARK'S CONQUEST.

ILLINOIS: A. D. 1784.
Included in the proposed states of Assenisipia, Illinoia, and
Polypotamia.

See NORTHWEST TERRITORY OF THE
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1784.

ILLINOIS: A. D. 1785-1786.
Partially covered by the western land claims of Massachusetts
and Connecticut, ceded to the United States.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1781-1786.

ILLINOIS: A. D. 1787.
The Ordinance for the government of the Northwest Territory.
Perpetual exclusion of Slavery.

See NORTHWEST TERRITORY OF THE
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1787.

ILLINOIS: A. D. 1809.
Detached from Indiana and organized as a distinct Territory.

See INDIANA: A. D. 1800-1818.

{1696}

ILLINOIS: A. D. 1818.
Admission into the Union as a State.

See INDIANA: A. D. 1800-1818;
and WISCONSIN: A. D. 1805-1848.

ILLINOIS: A. D. 1832.
The Black Hawk War.

"In 1830 a treaty was made with the tribes of Sacs and Foxes,
by which their lands in Illinois were ceded to the United
States. They were nevertheless unwilling to leave their
country. … Black Hawk, a chief of the Sacs, then about 60
years of age, refused submission, and the next year returned
with a small force. He was driven back by the troops at Rock
Island, but in March, 1832, he reappeared, at the head of
about 1,000 warriors,—Sacs, Foxes, and Winnebagos,—and
penetrated into the Rock river valley, declaring that he came
only to plant corn. But either he would not or could not
restrain his followers, and the devastation of Indian warfare
soon spread among the frontier settlements. … The force at
Rock Island was sent out to stay these ravages, and Generals
Scott and Atkinson ordered from Buffalo with a reënforcement,
which on the way was greatly diminished by cholera and
desertions. The Governor of Illinois called for volunteers,
and an effective force of about 2,400 men was soon marched
against the enemy. Black Hawk's band fled before it. General
Whiteside, who was in command, burned the Prophet's Town, on
Rock River, and pursued the Indians up that stream. … The
Indians were overtaken and badly defeated on Wisconsin River;
and the survivors, still retreating northward, were again
overtaken near Bad Axe River, on the left bank of the
Mississippi. … Many of the Indians were shot in the water
while trying to swim the stream; others were killed on a
little island where they sought refuge. Only about 50
prisoners were taken, and most of these were squaws and
children. The dispersion was complete, and the war was soon
closed by the surrender or capture of Black Hawk, Keokuk, and
other chiefs."

_W. C. Bryant and S. H. Gay,
Popular History of the United States,
volume 4, chapter 12._

ALSO IN:
_T. Ford,
History of Illinois,
chapters 4-5._

_J. B. Patterson, editor,
History of Black Hawk, dictated by himself.
Wisconsin Historical Society Collections,
volume 10._

ILLINOIS: A. D. 1840-1846.
The settlement and the expulsion of the Mormons.

See MORMONISM: A. D. 1830-1846; and 1846-1848.

----------ILLINOIS: End--------

ILLUMINATI, The.

See ROSICRUCIANS.

ILLYRIA, Slavonic settlement of.

See BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES:
7TH CENTURY (SERVIA, CROATIA, ETC.).

ILLYRIAN PROVINCES OF NAPOLEON.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1809 (JULY-SEPTEMBER).

ILLYRIANS, The.

"Northward of the tribes called Epirotic lay those more
numerous and widely extended tribes who bore the general name
of Illyrians, bounded on the west by the Adriatic, on the east
by the mountain-range of Skardus, the northern continuation of
Pindus, and thus covering what is now called Middle and Upper
Albania, together with the more northerly mountains of
Montenegro, Herzegovina, and Bosnia. Their limits to the north
and north-east cannot be assigned. … Appian and others
consider the Liburnians and Istrians as Illyrian, and
Herodotus even includes under that name the Eneti or Veneti at
the extremity of the Adriatic Gulf. … The Illyrians
generally were poor, rapacious, fierce and formidable in
battle. They shared with the remote Thracian tribes the custom
of tattooing their bodies and of offering human sacrifices:
moreover, they were always ready to sell their military
service for hire, like the modern Albanian Schkipetars, in
whom probably their blood yet flows, though with considerable
admixture from subsequent immigrations. Of the Illyrian
kingdom on the Adriatic coast, with Skodra (Scutari) for its
capital city, which became formidable by its reckless piracies
in the third century B. C., we hear nothing in the flourishing
period of Grecian history."

_G. Grote,
History of Greece,
part 2, chapter 25 (volume 3)._

ALSO IN:
_T. Mommsen,
History of Rome,
book 8, chapter 6._

ILLYRICUM OF THE ROMANS.

"The provinces of the Danube soon acquired the general
appellation of Illyricum, or the Illyrian frontier, and were
esteemed the most warlike of the empire; but they deserve to
be more particularly considered under the names of Rhætia,
Noricum, Pannonia, Dalmatia, Dacia, Mœsia, Thrace, Macedonia,
and Greece. … Dalmatia, to which the name of Illyricum more
properly belonged, was a long but narrow tract, between the
Save and the Adriatic. … The inland parts have assumed the
Sclavonian names of Croatia and Bosnia."

_E. Gibbon,
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,
chapter 1._

See, also, ROME: A. D. 394-305.

IMAGE-BREAKING IN THE NETHERLANDS.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1566-1568.

IMAMS. THE IMAMATE.

"When an assembly of Moslems meet together for prayer, an Imam
is chosen, who leads the prayer, and the congregation regulate
their motions by his, prostrating themselves when he does so,
and rising when he rises. In like manner, the khalif is set up
on high as the Imam, or leader of the Faithful, in all the
business of life. He must be a scrupulous observer of the law
himself, and diligent in enforcing it upon others. The
election of an Imam is imperative. … The qualities requisite
in an Imam are four: knowledge, integrity, mental and physical
soundness. … Among strict Moslems, it is a doctrine that
Islam has been administered by only four veritable Imams—the
'rightly-guided khalifs': Abou Bekr, Omar, Othman, and Ali.
But the Muhammadan world, in general, was not so exacting.
They recognized the Commander of the Faithful in the prince
who ruled with the title of khalif in Damascus or Baghdad, in
Cordova or Kairo. The one condition absolutely essential was
that the sovereign thus reigning should be a
member of the tribe of Kuraish [or Koreish]."

_R. D. Osborn,
Islam under the Khalifs of Baghdad,
part 3, chapter 1._

See, also, ISLAM.

IMMACULATE CONCEPTION OF THE VIRGIN MARY,
Promulgation of the Dogma of the.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1854.

IMMÆ, Battle of (A. D. 217).

See ROME: A. D. 192-284.

IMMORTALS, The.

A select corps of cavalry in the army of the Persians, under
the Sassanian kings, bore this name. It numbered 10,000.

----------IMPEACHMENT: Start--------

IMPEACHMENT:
Acquisition of the right by the English House of Commons.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1413-1422.

{1697}

IMPEACHMENT:
Revival of the right.

In the English Parliament of 1620-21 (reign of James I.), "on
the motion of the Ex-Chief Justice, Sir Edward Coke, a
committee of inquiry into grievances had been early appointed.
The first abuse to which their attention was directed was that
of monopolies, and this led to the revival of the ancient
right of parliamentary impeachment—the solemn accusation of
an individual by the Commons at the bar of the Lords—which
had lain dormant since the impeachment of the Duke of Suffolk
in 1449. Under the Tudors impeachments had fallen into disuse,
partly through the subservience of the Commons, and partly
through the preference of those sovereigns for bills of
attainder, or of pains and penalties. Moreover, the power
wielded by the Crown through the Star Chamber enabled it to
inflict punishment for many state offences without resorting
to the assistance of Parliament. With the revival of the
spirit of liberty in the reign of James I., the practice of
impeachment revived also, and was energetically used by the
Commons in the interest alike of public justice and of popular
power."

_T. P. Taswell-Langmead,
English Constitutional History,
chapter 13._

----------IMPEACHMENT: End--------

IMPEACHMENTS:
Warren Hastings.

See INDIA: A. D. 1785-1795.

President Johnson.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1868 (MARCH-MAY)

Strafford.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1640-1641.

----------IMPERATOR: Start--------

IMPERATOR.

"There can be no doubt that the title Imperator properly
signifies one invested with Imperium, and it may very probably
have been assumed in ancient times by every general on whom
Imperium had been bestowed by a Lex Curiata. It is, however,
equally certain, that in those periods of the republic with
the history and usages of which we are most familiar, the
title Imperator was not assumed as a matter of course by those
who had received Imperium, but was, on the contrary, a much
valued and eagerly coveted distinction. Properly speaking, it
seems to have been in the gift of the soldiers, who hailed
their victorious leader by this appellation on the field of
battle; but occasionally, especially towards the end of the
commonwealth, it was conferred by a vote of the Senate. …
But the designation Imperator was employed under the empire in
a manner and with a force altogether distinct from that which
we have been considering. On this point we have the distinct
testimony of Dion Cassius (xliii. 44, comp. liii. 17), who
tells us that, in B. C. 46, the Senate bestowed upon Julius
Cæsar the title of Imperator, not in the sense in which it had
hitherto been applied, as a term of military distinction, but
as the peculiar and befitting appellation of supreme power,
and in this signification it was transmitted to his
successors, without, however, suppressing the original import
of the word. … Imperator, when used to denote supreme power,
comprehending in fact the force of the titles Dictator and
Rex, is usually, although not invariably, placed before the
name of the individual to whom it is applied."

_W. Ramsay,
Manual of Roman Antiquity,
chapter 5._

See, also,
ROME: B. C. 45-44.

IMPERATOR:
Final Signification of the Roman title.

"When the Roman princes had lost sight of the senate and of
their ancient capital, they easily forgot the origin and
nature of their legal power. The civil offices of consul, of
proconsul, of censor, and of tribune, by the union of which it
had been formed, betrayed to the people its republican
extraction. Those modest titles were laid aside; and if they
still distinguished their high station by the appellation of
Emperor, or Imperator, that word was understood in a new and
more dignified sense, and no longer denoted the general of the
Roman armies, but the sovereign of the Roman world. The name
of Emperor, which was at first of a military nature, was
associated with another of a more servile kind. The epithet of
Dominus, or Lord, in its primitive signification, was
expressive, not of the authority of a prince over his
subjects, or of a commander over his soldiers, but of the
despotic power of a master over his domestic slaves. Viewing
it in that odious light, it had been rejected with abhorrence
by the first Cæsars. Their resistance insensibly became more
feeble, and the name less odious; till at length the style of
'our Lord and Emperor' was not only bestowed by flattery, but
was regularly admitted into the laws and public monuments."

_E. Gibbon,
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,
chapter 13._

See ROME: B. C. 31-A. D. 14.

----------IMPERATOR: End--------

IMPERIAL CHAMBER, The.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1493-1519.

IMPERIAL CITIES OF GERMANY.

See CITIES, IMPERIAL AND FREE, OF GERMANY;
and (as affected by the Treaties of Westphalia)
GERMANY: A. D. 1648.

IMPERIAL FEDERATION.

See FEDERAL GOVERNMENT: BRITANNIC FEDERATION.

IMPERIAL INDICTIONS.

See INDICTIONS.

IMPERIUM, The.

"The supreme authority of the magistrates [in the Roman
Republic], the 'imperium,' embraced not only the military but
also the judicial power over the citizens. By virtue of the
imperium a magistrate issued commands to the army, and by
virtue of the imperium he sat in judgment over his
fellow-citizens."

_W. Ihne,
History of Rome,
book 6, chapter 5 (volume 4)._

IMPEY, Sir Elijah, Macaulay's injustice to.

See INDIA: A. D. 1773-1785.

IMPORTANTS, The.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1642-1643.

IMPRESSMENT OF AMERICAN SEAMEN BY BRITISH NAVAL OFFICERS.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1804-1809; and 1812.

INCAS, OR YNCAS, The.

See PERU: THE EMPIRE OF THE INCAS.

INCUNABULA.

See PRINTING: A. D. 1430-1456.

INDEPENDENCE, MO.,
Confederate capture of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1862 (JULY-SEPTEMBER: MISSOURI-ARKANSAS).

INDEPENDENCE DAY.

The anniversary of the American Declaration of Independence,
adopted July 4, 1776.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1776 (JULY).

INDEPENDENCE HALL.
The Liberty Bell.

The hall in the old State House of Pennsylvania, at
Philadelphia, within which the Declaration of American
Independence was adopted and promulgated by the Continental
Congress, on the 4th of July, 1776. The venerable State House,
which was erected between 1729 and 1734, is carefully
preserved, and the "Hall of Independence is kept closed,
except when curious visitors seek entrance, or some special
occasion opens its doors to the public.
{1698}
Nothing now remains of the old furniture of the hall except
two antique mahogany chairs, covered with red leather, one of
which was used by Hancock as president, and the other by
Charles Thomson as secretary of Congress, when the Declaration
of Independence was adopted. … I ascended to the steeple,
where hangs, in silent grandeur, the Liberty Bell. It is four
feet in diameter at the lip, and three inches thick at the
heaviest part. Its tone is destroyed by a crack, which extends
from the lip to the crown, passing directly through the names
of the persons who cast it. An attempt was made to restore
the tone by sawing the crack wider, but without success. …
The history of this bell is interesting. In 1752, a bell for
the State House was imported from England. On the first
trial-ringing, after its arrival, it was cracked. It was
recast by Pass and Stow, of Philadelphia, in 1753, under the
direction of Isaac Norris, Esq., the then speaker of the
Colonial Assembly. And that is the bell, 'the greatest in
English America,' which now hangs in the old State House
steeple and claims our reverence. Upon fillets around its
crown, cast there twenty-three years before the Continental
Congress met in the State House, are the words of Holy Writ:
'Proclaim liberty throughout all the land unto all the
inhabitants thereof.' How prophetic! Beneath that very bell
the representatives of the thirteen colonies 'proclaimed
liberty.' Ay, and when the debates were ended, and the result
was announced, on the 4th of July, 1776, the iron tongue of
that very bell first 'proclaimed liberty throughout all the
land, unto all the inhabitants thereof,' by ringing out the
joyful annunciation for more than two hours."

_B. J. Lossing,
Field-book of the Revolution,
volume 2, chapter 3._

ALSO IN:
_J. T. Scharf and T. Westcott,
History of Philadelphia,
volume I, chapters 15 and 17._

INDEPENDENT REPUBLICANS.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1884.

----------INDEPENDENTS: Start--------

INDEPENDENTS, OR SEPARATISTS:
Their origin and opinions.

"The Puritans continued members of the church, only pursuing
courses of their own in administering the ordinances, and it
was not till about the middle of the reign of Elizabeth that
the disposition was manifested among them to break away from
the church altogether, and to form communities of their own.
And then it was but a few of them who took this course: the
more sober part remained in the church. The communities of
persons who separated themselves were formed chiefly in
London: there were very few in the distant counties, and those
had no long continuance. It was not till the time of the Civil
Wars that such bodies of Separatists, as they were called, or
Congregationalists, or Independents, became numerous. At first
they were often called Brownist churches, from Robert Brown, a
divine of the time, who was for a while a zealous maintainer
of the duty of separation."

_J. Hunter,
The Founders of New Plymouth,
pages 12-13._