Chapter XLVIII: Part 48

The lawless and savage mobs of Crusaders which followed in the
wake of the disorderly hosts of Peter the Hermit and Walter
the Penniless, A. D. 1096, expended their zeal, at the outset
of their march, in hunting and killing Jews. "Acting on the
notion that the infidels dwelling in Europe should be
exterminated before those in Asia should be attacked, [they]
murdered 12,000 Jews. In Treves, many of these unfortunate
men, driven to despair, laid violent hands on their children
and on themselves, and multitudes embraced Christianity, from
which they lapsed the moment the peril had passed. Two hundred
Jews fled from Cologne and took refuge in boats; they were
overtaken and slain. In Mayence, the archbishop, Rudhart, took
them under his protection, and gave them the great hall of his
castle for an asylum; the pilgrims, nevertheless, forced their
way in, and murdered 700 of them in the archbishop's presence.
At Spires the Jews valiantly defended themselves. At Worms
they all committed suicide. At Magdeburg the archbishop,
Ruprecht, amused himself by attacking them during the
celebration of the feast of tabernacles, and by seizing their
property."

_W. Menzel,
History of Germany,
chapter 145 (volume 1)._

The fervors of the Second Crusade [A. D. 1146] inclined, in
Germany, to the same direction, of Jew-hunting; but St.
Bernard, the apostle of the Crusade, was enlightened and
humane enough to suppress the outrage by his great influence.
{1927}
A monk named Radulf, self-appointed preacher of the Crusade in
Germany, stirred up the people of the cities of the Rhine
against the Jews, and numbers were massacred, notwithstanding
attempts of the emperor, Conrad, to protect them. But Bernard
went in person to the scene, and, by his personal authority,
drove the brutal monk into his convent.

_T. Keightley,
The Crusaders
chapter 3._

ALSO IN:
_H. Graetz,
History of the Jews,
volume 3, chapters 9 and 11._

_H. C. Adams,
History of the Jews,
chapter 15._

JEWS: A. D. 1099.
Conquest of Jerusalem by the Crusaders.

See JERUSALEM: A. D. 1099.

JEWS: 11-17th Centuries.
Alternating toleration and oppression in Poland.

"It cannot be denied that this frugal, careful race formed the
only class of traders in the land [16th-17th centuries]. That
branch of industry which the nobleman despised, owing to pride
or carelessness, and from which the peasant was excluded by
stupidity and ignorance, fell to the share of the Jews. Though
their presence may have been a misfortune for the nation in
after years, they were certainly at the same time a national
necessity. … Perpetually oppressed by capricious laws, the
race raised itself by perseverance and cunning. Ill-treated,
persecuted by fire and sword, still they returned, or others
took their place; robbed and plundered repeatedly, the wealth
of the land was yet theirs. … The first Jewish immigrants
were exiles from Germany and Bohemia. In 1096 they fled to
Poland, where at that time there was more religious tolerance
than in the rest of Europe. The cruelty and greed of the first
crusaders caused this exodus of the Jews. … Casimir the
Great [1333-1370], instigated by his love for Esther, the
beautiful Jewess of Opocno, gave the Jews such civil rights
and privileges as a Polish king could grant, which conduced to
the advantage of the land; but already in the time of Lewis of
Hungary, 1371, they were sentenced to exile. Notwithstanding
this, we find them scattered over the whole of Poland in 1386.
Christians were forbidden on pain of excommunication to have
any intercourse with Jews or to purchase from them. When they
settled in towns they were forced to live in particular
suburbs. … The incredible increase of the Jewish population,
supposed to be three times as rapid as that of the Polish
inhabitants, was very alarming, as the Jews managed to avoid
all public burdens and taxes. Sigismund Augustus [1548-1572]
resolved, in spite of their objections, to impose a poll tax
of one florin per head, and at the same time to discover by
this means their actual number. It was estimated at 200,000,
but only 16,000 florins were paid as tax. Their power was
increased by John Sobiesky, to whom they had prophesied that
he would ascend the throne. He favoured the Jews so much, that
the senate in 1682 implored him to regard the welfare of the
state, and not let the favours of the crown pass through their
hands. The laws forbidding the Jews on pain of death to trade
with the peasants, to keep inns, to sell brandy—laws which
were passed anew in every reign—show that they never ceased
to carry on these trades, so profitable for them, so ruinous
for the peasant."

_Count Von Moltke,
Poland:
chapter 6._

ALSO IN:
_H. Graetz,
History of the Jews,
volume 4, chapter 18._

JEWS: A. D. 1189.
Massacres in England.

At the time of the accession of Richard Cœur de Lion, king of
England, the crusading spirit had inflamed a specially bitter
hatred of the Jews. Some of the obnoxious people were
imprudent enough to press in among the spectators of King
Richard's coronation. They were driven back with blows; "a
riot ensued, and the Jews' quarter was plundered. A day
elapsed before the king's troops could restore order, and then
only three rioters were punished, for damage done to
Christians. Thus encouraged, or allowed, the frenzy of
persecution spread over the land. Generally it was the country
people who were setting out as pilgrims for Palestine, who
began the crusade at home, while the cities interposed to
preserve the king's peace. But the rumour that the unbelievers
were accustomed to crucify a Christian boy at Easter had
hardened men's hearts against them. The cause of murder and
rapine prevailed in Dunstable, Stamford, and Lincoln. At York,
the viscount allowed 500 Jews to take refuge in the castle.
Fearing, in spite of this, to be given up, they closed the
gates against the king's officers. They were now besieged by
the townsmen, under orders of the viscount, and the defence of
men untrained to arms and without artillery lay only in the
strength of the walls. They offered to ransom their lives, but
the crowd thirsted for blood. Then a rabbi rose up and
addressed his countrymen. 'Men of Israel, hear my words: it is
better for us to die for our law than to fall into the hands
of those who hate it; and our law prescribes this.' Then every
man slew his wife and children, and hurled the corpses over
the battlements. The survivors shut themselves up with their
treasures in the royal chamber, and set fire to it. The crowd
indemnified themselves by sacking the Jews' quarter, and
burning the schedules of their debts, which were kept for
safety in the cathedral."

_C. H. Pearson,
History of England during the Early and Middle Ages,
volume 1, chapter 32._

ALSO IN:
_H. C. Adams,
History of the Jews,
chapter 16._

JEWS: 12-15th Centuries.
Treatment in France.

In France, during the Middle Ages, the extorting of money from
the Jews was one of the devices depended upon for replenishing
the royal treasury. "It is almost incredible to what a length
this was carried. Usury, forbidden by law and superstition to
Christians, was confined to this industrious and covetous
people. … The children of Israel grew rich in despite of
insult and oppression, and retaliated upon their Christian
debtors. If an historian of Philip Augustus may be believed,
they possessed almost one-half of Paris. Unquestionably they
must have had support both at court and in the halls of
justice. The policy of the kings of France was to employ them
as a sponge to suck their subjects' money, which they might
afterwards express with less odium than direct taxation would
incur. Philip Augustus released all Christians in his
dominions from their debts to the Jews, reserving a fifth part
to himself. He afterwards expelled the whole nation from
France. But they appear to have returned again—whether by
stealth, or, as is more probable, by purchasing permission.
St. Louis twice banished and twice recalled the Jews. A series
of alternate persecution and tolerance was borne by this
extraordinary people with an invincible perseverance, and a
talent of accumulating riches which kept pace with their
plunderers; till new schemes of finance supplying the turn,
they were finally expelled under Charles VI. and never
afterwards obtained any legal establishment in France."

_H. Hallam,
The Middle Ages,
chapter 2, part 2 (volume 1)._

ALSO IN:
_J. I. von Döllinger,
The Jews in Europe
(Studies in European History, chapter 9)._

{1928}

JEWS: 13-14th Centuries.
Hostility of the Papacy and the Church.
Doctrine of the Divine condemnation of the Jews to Slavery.
Claim of the Emperors to ownership of them.

"The declaration by Innocent III. [Pope, 1198-1216] that the
entire nation was destined by God on account of its sins to
perpetual slavery, was the Magna Charta continually appealed
to by those who coveted the possessions of the Jews and the
earnings of their industry; both princes and people acted upon
it. … The succeeding popes took their stand upon the maxims
and behests of Innocent III. If the Jews built themselves a
synagogue, it was to be pulled down; they might only repair
the old ones. No Jew might appear as a witness against a
Christian. The bishops were charged to enforce the wearing of
the distinctive badge, the hat or the yellow garment, by all
the means in their power. The wearing of the badge was
particularly cruel and oppressive, for in the frequent tumults
and risings in the towns the Jews, being thus recognisable at
a glance, fell all the more easily into the hands of the
excited mob; and if a Jew undertook a journey he inevitably
became a prey to the numerous bandits and adventurers, who
naturally considered him as an outlaw. … Where popes failed
to interfere, the councils of the various countries made
amends for the omission; they forbade, for instance, a
Christian letting or selling a house to a Jew, or buying wine
from him. Besides all this, the order was often renewed that
all copies of the Talmud and commentaries upon
it—consequently the greater part of the Jewish
literature—should be burnt. … The new theory as to the Jews
being in a state of slavery was now adopted and enlarged upon
by theologians and canonists. Thomas Aquinas, whose teaching
was received by the whole Roman Church as unassailable,
pronounced that since the race was condemned to perpetual
bondage princes could dispose of the possessions of the Jews
just as they would of their own. A long list of canonical
writers maintained, upon the same ground, the right of princes
and governors to seize upon the sons and daughters of Jews and
have them baptized by force. It was commonly taught, and the
ecclesiastical claim still exists, that a Jewish child once
baptized was not to be left to the father. Meanwhile princes
had eagerly seized upon the papal doctrine that the perpetual
slavery of the Jews was ordained by God, and on it the Emperor
Frederick II. founded the claim that all Jews belonged to him
as Emperor, following the contention prevalent at the time
that the right of lordship over them devolved upon him as the
successor of the old Roman Emperors. … King Albert went so
far as to claim from King Philip of France that the French
Jews should be handed over to him. … From the 14th century
this 'servitude to the state' was understood to mean complete
slavery. 'You yourselves, your bodies and your possessions,
belong,' says the Emperor Charles IV. in a document addressed
to the Jews, 'to us and to the empire; we may act, make and do
with you what we will and please.' The Jews were, in fact,
constantly handed about like merchandise from one to another;
the emperor, now in this place, now in that, declared their
claims for debts to be cancelled; and for this a heavy sum was
paid into his treasury, usually 30 per cent."

_J. I. Von Döllinger,
The Jews in Europe
(Studies in European History, chapter 9)._

JEWS: A. D. 1290.
Banished from England.

"At the same time [A. D. 1290], the King [Edward I.] banished
all the Jews from the kingdom. Upward of 16,000 are said to
have left England, nor did they reappear till Cromwell
connived at their return in 1654. It is not quite clear why
the King determined on this act of severity, especially as the
Jews were royal property and a very convenient source of
income. It is probable, however, that their way of doing
business was very repugnant to his ideas of justice, while
they were certainly great falsifiers of the coinage, which he
was very anxious to keep pure and true. Earlier in the reign
he had hanged between 200 and 300 of them for that crime, and
they are said to have demanded 60 per cent. for their loans,
taking advantage of the monopoly as money-lenders which the
ecclesiastical prohibition of usury had given them."

_J. F. Bright,
History of England, period 1,
page 179._

The expulsion was in compliance with a demand made by
Parliament. "We have no record of any special action or crime
on the part of the Jews which suggested the particular
parliamentary demand in 1290." It had been made four years
before, when, "in one night, all the Jews in England were
flung into prison, and would most likely have been expelled
there and then, had they not outbribed the King with £12,000."

_G. H. Leonard,
Expulsion of the Jews by Edward I.
(Royal History Society Transactions,
new series, volume 5, 1891)._

JEWS: A. D. 1321.
Persecution of Lepers and Jews.

"In the year 1321, a general rumour prevailed through Europe
that the unhappy beings afflicted with leprosy (a disease with
which the Crusaders had become infected in the East …) had
conspired to inoculate all their healthy fellow-creatures with
their own loathsome malady. … The King of Grenada and the
Jews were denounced as the prime movers of this nefarious plot
directed to the extermination of Christianity; and it was said
that the latter, unable to overcome the many impediments which
opposed their own agency, had bribed the lepers to become
their instruments. This 'enormous Creed,' in spite of its
manifold absurdities, found easy admission; and, if other
evidence were wanting for its support, torture was always at
hand to provide confessions. Philip V. [of France] was among
the firmest believers, and therefore among the most active
avengers of the imaginary crime; and he encouraged persecution
by numerous penal edicts. At Toulouse, 160 Jews were burned
alive at once on a single pile, without distinction of sex,
and, as it seems, without any forms of previous examination.
In Paris, greater gentleness was manifested; those only were
led to the stake from whom an avowal of guilt could be
extorted."

_E. Smedley,
History of France,
part 1, chapter 8._

{1929}

"The lord of Parthenay writes word to the king that 'a great
leper,' arrested on his territory, has confessed that a rich
Jew had given him money, and supplied him with drugs. These
drugs were compounded of human blood, of urine, and of the
blood of Christ (the consecrated wafer), and the whole, after
having been dried and pounded, was put into a bag with a
weight and thrown into the springs or wells. Several lepers
had already been provisionally burnt in Gascony, and the king,
alarmed at the new movement which was originating, hastily
returned from Poitou to France, and issued an ordinance for
the general arrest of the lepers. Not a doubt was entertained
by anyone of this horrible compact between the lepers and the
Jews. 'We ourselves,' says a chronicler of the day, 'have seen
with our own eyes one of these bags, in Poitou, in a burgh of
our own vassalage.' … The king ordered all found guilty to
be burnt, with the exception of those female lepers who
happened to be pregnant. The other lepers were to be confined
to their lazarettos. As to the Jews, they were burnt
indiscriminately, especially in the South."

_J. Michelet,
History of France,
book 5, chapter 5 (volume 1)._

JEWS: A. D. 1348-1349.
Accused of causing the Black Plague.

On the appearance in Europe, A. D. 1348, of the pestilence
known as the Black Death, "there was a suspicion that the
disease was due to human agencies, and, as usual, the Jews
were asserted to have contrived the machinations by which the
calamity was created. They were charged with poisoning the
wells, and through France, Switzerland, and Germany, thousands
of these unhappy people were destroyed on evidence derived
from confessions obtained under torture. As far as he could,
the Emperor Charles IV. protected them. They escaped
persecution too in the dominions of Albrecht of Austria. It is
said that the great number of the Jewish population in Poland
is due to the fact that Casimir the Great was induced by the
entreaties of one Esther, a favourite Jewish mistress of that
monarch, to harbour and shelter them in his kingdom. It should
be mentioned that Clement VI. forbad the persecution of the
Jews at Avignon."

_J. E. T. Rogers,
History of Agriculture and Prices,
volume 1, chapter 15._

ALSO IN:
_H. Graetz,
History of the Jews,
volume 4, chapter 4._

JEWS: A. D. 1391.
Massacre and expulsion from Spain.

See above: 8TH-15TH CENTURIES;
also, INQUISITION: A. D. 1203-1525.

JEWS: A. D. 1492.
Expulsion of Jews from Spain.

See INQUISITION: A. D. 1203-1525.

JEWS: 17th Century.
Toleration in Holland.
Attractiveness of that country to wealthy Israelites.

See NETHERLANDS A. D. 1621-1633.

JEWS: A. D. 1655.
Toleration in England by Cromwell.

"Wednesday, Dec. 12, 1655. This day, 'in a withdrawing room at
Whitehall,' presided over by his Highness [the Lord Protector,
Oliver Cromwell], who is much interested in the matter, was
held 'a Conference concerning the Jews';—of which the modern
reader too may have heard something. Conference, one of Four
Conferences, publicly held, which filled all England with
rumour in those old December days; but must now contract
themselves into a point for us. Highest official Persons, with
Lord Chief Barons, Lord Chief Justices, and chosen Clergy have
met here to advise, by reason, Law-learning,
Scripture-prophecy, and every source of light for the human
mind, concerning the proposal of admitting Jews, with certain
privileges as of alien-citizens, to reside in England. They
were banished near Four-hundred years ago: shall they now be
allowed to reside and trade again? The Proposer is Manasseh
Ben Israel,' a learned Portuguese Jew of Amsterdam; who, being
stirred up of late years by the great things doing in England,
has petitioned one and the other, Long Parliament and Little
Parliament, for this object; but could never, till his
Highness came into power, get the matter brought to a hearing.
And so they debate and solemnly consider; and his Highness
spake;—and says one witness, 'I never heard a man speak so
well.' His Highness was eager for the scheme, if so might be.
But the Scripture-prophecies, Law-learnings, and lights of the
human mind seemed to point another way: zealous Manasseh went
home again; the Jews could not settle here except by private
sufferance of his Highness."

_T. Carlyle,
Oliver Cromwell's Letters and Speeches,
part 9, letter 207._

"Cromwell … was able to overcome neither the arguments of
the theologians, nor the jealousies of the merchants, nor the
prejudices of the indifferent; and seeing that the conference
was not likely to end as he desired, he put an end to its
deliberations. Then, without granting the Jews the public
establishment which they had solicited, he authorized a
certain number of them to take up their residence in London,
where they built a synagogue, purchased the land for a
burial-ground, and quietly commenced the formation of a sort
of corporation, devoted to the Protector, on whose tolerance
their safety entirely depended."

_F. P. Guizot,
History of Oliver Cromwell,
book 6 (volume 2)._

JEWS: A. D. 1662-1753.
Condition in England.
Defeated attempt to legalize their naturalization.

"The Jews … were not formally authorised to establish
themselves in England till after the Restoration. The first
synagogue in London was erected in 1662. … There does not
appear … to have been any legal obstacle to the sovereign
and Parliament naturalising a Jew till a law, enacted under
James I., and directed against the Catholics, made the
sacramental test an essential preliminary to naturalisation.
Two subsequent enactments exempted from this necessity all
foreigners who were engaged in the hemp and flax manufacture,
and all Jews and Protestant foreigners who had lived for seven
continuous years in the American plantations. In the reign of
James II. the Jews were relieved from the payment of the alien
duty, but it is a significant fact that it was reimposed after
the Revolution at the petition of the London merchants. In the
reign of Anne some of them are said to have privately
negotiated with Godolphin for permission to purchase the town
of Brentford, and to settle there with full privileges of
trade; but the minister, fearing to arouse the spirit of
religious intolerance and of commercial jealousy, refused the
application. The great development of industrial enterprise
which followed the long and prosperous administration of
Walpole naturally attracted Jews, who were then as now
preeminent in commercial matters, and many of them appear at
this time to have settled in England,"—among others, the
family of Disraeli. In 1753, the Pelhams attempted to legalise
the naturalisation of Jews; "not to naturalise all resident
Jews, but simply to enable Parliament to pass special Bills to
naturalise those who applied to it, although they had not
lived in the colonies or been engaged in the hemp or flax
manufacture. …
{1930}
The opponents of the ministry raised the cry that the Bill was
an unchristian one, and England was thrown into paroxysms of
excitement scarcely less intense than those which followed the
impeachment of Sacheverell. There is no page in the history of
the 18th century that shows more decisively how low was the
intellectual and political condition of English public
opinion. According to its opponents, the Jewish Naturalisation
Bill sold the birthright of Englishmen for nothing, it was a
distinct abandonment of Christianity, it would draw upon
England all the curses which Providence had attached to the
Jews. The commercial classes complained that it would fill
England with usurers. … The clergy all over England
denounced it." After fierce opposition, the bill was finally
passed; "but as the tide of popular indignation rose higher
and higher, the ministers in the next year brought forward and
carried its repeal."

_W. E. H. Lecky,
History of England, 18th Century,
chapter 2 (volume 1)._

JEWS: A. D. 1727-1880.
Persecutions and restrictions in Russia.
The Pale.

"The refugees from the Ukraine who had settled in Little
Russia were expelled in 1727. No Jews from without were
allowed to enter Russia upon any pretext. The few physicians
and other professional men of the excluded race who did manage
to remain in Russia were in continual jeopardy of insult and
expulsion. Over and over again Russian statesmen who were
anxious to develop the resources and trade possibilities of
their backward and barbarous land, hinted at the advisability
of bringing in some Jews. The Imperial will was resolutely
opposed. … When the broad-minded Catherine II ascended the
throne these efforts were renewed, but she too resisted them,
and says in her Memoirs, 'their admission into Russia might
have occasioned much injury to our small tradesmen.' She was
too deeply bitten with the Voltairean philosophy of her time
to have, or even assume, any religious fervour in the matter,
but though in 1786 she issued a high-sounding edict
'respecting the protection of the rights of Jews of Russia,'
the persecution on economic and social grounds continued
unabated. By this time it will be seen the laws did, however,
recognise the existence of Jews in Russia. The explanation is
that the first partition of Poland and the annexation of the
great Turkish territory lying between the Dnieper and the
Dniester had brought into the empire such a vast Hebraic
population that any thought of expulsion was hopeless. … The
rape of Poland and the looting of Turkey had brought two
millions of Jews under the sceptre of the Czar. The fact could
not be blinked. They were there—inside the Holy Empire, whose
boast for centuries had been that no circumcised dog could
find rest for his foot on its sanctified territory. To an
autocracy based so wholly on an orthodox religion as is that
of the Czars, this seemed a most trying and perplexing
problem. The solution they hit upon was to set aside one part
of the empire as a sort of lazar house, which should serve to
keep the rest of it from pollution. Hence we get the Pale.
Almost every decade since 1786, the date of Catherine's ukase,
has witnessed some alteration made in the dimensions and
boundaries of this Pale. Now it has been expanded, now sharply
contracted. … To trace these changes would be to
unnecessarily burden ourselves with details. It is enough to
keep in mind that the creation of the Pale was Russia's
solution of the Jewish problem in 1786, and is still the only
one it can think of. Side by side with this naïve notion that
Holy Russia could be kept an inviolate Christian land in the
eyes of Heaven by juggling the map, there grew up the more
worldly conception of turning the Jew to account as a kind of
milch cow. … In 1819 Jewish brandy distillers were allowed
to go into the interior and settle 'until,' as the ukase said,
'Russian master distillers shall have perfected themselves in
the art of distilling.' They availed themselves of this
permission in great numbers, and at the end of seven years
were all summarily driven out again, a new ukase explaining
that 'the number of Christian distillers was now sufficient.'
… The past century's history of the Jews in Russia is made
up of conflicts between these two impulses in the childlike
Slavonic brain—the one to drive the heretic Jew into the Pale
as into a kennel with kicks and stripes, the other guardedly
to entice him out and manage to extract some service or profit
from him. … In 1825 Nicholas ascended the throne. Within a
year he had earned from the Jews that sinister title of 'The
Second Haman,' by which Israel still recalls him. … With the
death of Nicholas [1855] and the advent of Alexander II a new
era dawned. Dr. Mackenzie Wallace has drawn a spirited and
comprehensive picture of the literal stampede all Russia made
to reform everything. … Almost the first thing the young
Czar did was to revive a commission to inquire into the
condition of the Jews, which Nicholas had decreed in 1840 and
then allowed to lapse. This commission sent out a list of
inquiries to all the Provincial Governors. These gentlemen
returned voluminous reports, all, without exception,
favourable to the Jews. … Upon the strength of these reports
were issued the ukases of 1859, 1861, and 1865, … by which
Jews of the first mercantile guild and Jewish artisans were
allowed to reside all over the Empire. It is just as well to
remember that even these beneficent concessions, which seem by
contrast with what had gone before to mark such a vast forward
step in Russo-Jewish history, were confessedly dictated by
utilitarian considerations. The shackles were stricken only
from the two categories of Jews whose freedom would bring
profit to Russia. … Still, the quarter century following
Alexander II's accession in 1855 fairly deserves its
appellation of the 'golden age' when what preceded it is
recalled."

_H. Frederic,
The New Exodus,
chapters 4-5._

See, also, JEWS: 19TH CENTURY.

JEWS: A. D. 1740.
Rise of the modern Chasidim.

See CHASIDIM.

JEWS: A. D. 1791.
The French Revolutionary emancipation.

"It is to the French Revolution that the Jews owe their
improved position in the modern world. That prolific parent of
good and evil has at least deserved well of them. It was the
first to do justice, full and unequivocal, to those whom every
other great political movement passed over as too
insignificant or too contemptible to be taken into account.
Mirabeau and the Abbé Grégoire, the one in his desire to
secularise the State, the other in his policy of
Christianising the Revolution, as our historian Graetz puts
it, both urged on a movement which, in an incredibly short
space of time, succeeded in effecting the complete
emancipation of all the Jews under the rule of the Republic.
On the 17th September, 1791, the National Assembly decreed the
abolition of every exceptional enactment previously in force
against them, and thus made them by law what they had
previously been in heart, citizens of their country.
{1931}
He who started as the child, afterwards to become the master,
of the Revolution, proclaimed the same great principles of
religious equality wherever his victorious eagles penetrated.
Since that dawn of a better time, the light has spread more
and more, though even now [1890] it is only here and there
that it has shone forth unto the perfect day."

_S. Singer,
Jews in their Relation to Other Races
(National Life and Thought, chapter 20)._

JEWS: A. D. 1846-1858.
Removal of disabilities in England.

"In 1846 the Act of Parliament was formally repealed which
compelled Jews living in England to wear a distinctive dress.
The law had, however, been in abeyance for nearly two
centuries. About this time also the Jews were admitted to the
privileges of the naturalization laws; and in 1858 the House
of Commons by resolution altered the form of oath tendered to
all its members. As it had stood up to this time, Jews were
prevented from voting in the divisions, although a Jew could
take his seat in the House when sent there by a constituency."

_E. Porritt,
The Englishman at Home,
chapter 9._

JEWS: 19th Century.
The Anti-Semite movement.
Later persecution of the Jews in Russia.

"Among the strange and unforeseen developments that have
characterized the fourth quarter of the nineteenth century,
few are likely to be regarded by the future historian with a
deeper or more melancholy interest than the anti-Semite
movement, which has swept with such a portentous rapidity over
a great part of Europe. It has produced in Russia by far the
most serious religious persecution of the century. It has
raged fiercely in Roumania, the other great centre of the
Oriental Jews. In enlightened Germany it has become a
considerable parliamentary force. In Austria it counts among
its adherents men of the highest social station. Even France,
which from the days of the Revolution has been specially
distinguished for its liberality to the Jews, has not escaped
the contagion. … It is this movement which has been the
occasion of the very valuable work of M. Anatole
Leroy-Beaulieu on 'Israel among the Nations.' The author, who
is universally recognized as one of the greatest of living
political writers, has special qualifications for his task.
With an exceedingly wide knowledge of the literature relating
to his subject he combines much personal knowledge of the Jews
in Palestine and in many other countries, and especially in
those countries where the persecution has most furiously
raged. That persecution, he justly says, unites in different
degrees three of the most powerful elements that can move
mankind—the spirit of religious intolerance; the spirit of
exclusive nationality; and the jealousy which springs from
trade or mercantile competition. Of these elements M.
Leroy-Beaulieu considers the first to be on the whole the
weakest. In that hideous Russian persecution which 'the New
Exodus' of Frederic has made familiar to the English reader,
the religious element certainly occupies a very leading place.
Pobedonosteff, who shares with his master the chief guilt and
infamy of this atrocious crime, belongs to the same type as
the Torquemadas of the past, and the spirit that animates him
has entered largely into the anti-Semite movement in other
lands. … Another element to which M. Leroy-Beaulieu attaches
considerable importance is the Kultur Kampf in Germany. When
the German Government was engaged in its fierce struggle with
the Catholics, these endeavored to effect a diversion and to
avenge themselves on papers, which were largely in the hands
of Jews, by raising a new cry. They declared that a Kultur
Kampf was indeed needed, but that it should be directed
against the alien people who were undermining the moral
foundations of Christian societies; who were the implacable
enemies of the Christian creed and of Christian ideals. The
cry was soon taken up by a large body of Evangelical
Protestants. … Still more powerful, in the opinion of our
author, has been the spirit of intense and exclusive
nationality which has in the present generation arisen in so
many countries and which seeks to expel all alien or
heterogeneous elements, and to mould the whole national being
into a single definite type. The movement has been still
further strengthened by the greater keenness of trade
competition. In the midst of many idle, drunken and ignorant
populations the shrewd, thrifty and sober Jew stands
conspicuous as the most successful trader. His rare power of
judging, influencing and managing men, his fertility of
resource, his indomitable perseverance and industry
continually force him into the foremost rank and he is
prominent in occupations which excite much animosity. The
tax-gatherer, the agent, the middleman, and the money-lender
are very commonly of Jewish race and great Jewish capitalists
largely control the money markets of Europe at a time when
capital is the special object of socialistic attacks."

_W. E. H. Lecky,
Israel among the Nations
(The Forum, December, 1893)._

"Until 1881 the lives and property of Jews had been respected.
Their liberties were restricted, not obsolete. In that year
all was changed. The Pale of Settlement, especially in the
South, became a centre of riot. Crimes were charged against,
and violence was offered to, those who had no means of
retaliation; and whose only defence was passive endurance. The
restlessness of the country, the low moral tone of the most
ignorant and unreasonable peasantry in the world, commercial
jealousy, and official intrigues were responsible for the
outbreak. The Jews had thriven; that was a crime. As the
Government had refused them the privileges of citizenship,
they had no right to rise above their neighbours. A rescript,
for which General Ignatieff was responsible, took cognisance,
not of the sufferings of the Jews, but of the condition of the
Christians. Commissioners … were appointed, in all towns
inhabited by Jews, to inquire
(1) into the manner of mal-practices by which the presence of
Jews became injurious to the Christian population;
(2) into the best methods of preventing Jews from evading old
restrictions;
(3) what new laws were required to stop the pernicious conduct
of Jews in business.
The inquiry resulted in the May Laws of 1882. These laws,
which were so severe that hesitation was felt in applying them
throughout the Pale, were supposed to be of only temporary
application. They were known as laws for the time, and only
came into full operation in 1890. … The May Laws define the
Jews' duties to the State. These consist of military service,
and pecuniary contributions.
{1932}
In common with all Russians, Jews are subject to the Law of
Conscription. Unlike Christians, they may not provide a
substitute. They may not follow any trade, or profession,
until they have produced evidence of registration in the
recruiting district. While subject to military service, Jews
cannot rise higher than the rank of non-commissioned officer.
… The journal of statistics gives the proportion of Jews to
the population as 3.95 per cent., whereas the percentage on
the conscription rolls is 5.80. Thus the Hebrew is ground
between the upper and nether millstone. … In December 1890
Russians were forbidden to sell, lease, or mortgage real
estate to Jews throughout the Empire, a measure hitherto
applied only to Poland. Where Jews have acquired such property
they will be compelled to dispose thereof. The Jewish
artisans, apothecaries' assistants, dentists, and midwives,
with all apprentices, are to be expelled from all places
outside the Pale. Exceptions to this are obtainable only by
special permission from the Minister of the Interior. Even
then the children of such must be removed to the Pale as soon
as they come of age, or marry an unprivileged Jew. This Pale
of Settlement, which stretches along the frontier, from the
Baltic to the Black Sea, is a hell of seething wretchedness.
Here five millions of Jews are compelled to live, and die, in
a Ghetto of filth and misery, mocked with a feast of Tantalus.
Beyond are lands where corn rots for lack of ingatherers; yet
they are cabined and confined. Inability to bribe a corrupt
mass of administrators has led to the expulsion of poor Jews
from villages within the Pale, into crowded towns, such as
Tchernizo, where the population has consequently risen from
5,000 to 20,000. … In September [1890] the Jews were
expelled from Trans-caspian territory; in October, Jews, not
having the right to live in St. Petersburg, were ordered to be
transferred, with their families, to their proper places of
abode; in January the Jews were ordered to be expelled from
the Terke region of the Caucasus; in February the Jews in
Novgorod were expelled. It has been declared expedient to
expel them from the Cossack Stanitzas of the Caucasus. Three
years ago the Jews were forbidden to live on Crown lands.
Eighty-seven families were recently ordered to leave Saraka
districts; because they had settled there after the passing of
the Ignatieff laws. Artisans are henceforth to be confined to
limits of residence within the Pale. It is the same with
millers; therefore mills are idle, and the price of corn has
declined. In Courland and Livonia, descendants of Jewish
families, which were established when those provinces were
incorporated into Russia, may remain; but no others may
settle. … Jews who have lived eight years in a village may
be interned therein, and may not move, even walking distance,
without leave. Jews leaving one village for another lose their
rights, and must go to the Ghetto of the nearest town. This is
practically a sentence of death. Executions are going on, not
upon scaffolds, but in dusky Ghettos, where the victims of
oppression pine without hope in the world."

_C. N. Barham,
Persecution of the Jews in Russia
(Westminster Review, volume 136, 1891), pages 139-144._

ALSO IN:
_Persecution of the Jews in Russia:
issued by the Russo-Jewish Committee;_

_D. F. Schloss,
Persecution of the Jews in Roumania._

----------JEWS: End----------

JEYPORE, OR JEYPOOR.

See RAJPOOTS.

JEZIREH, Al.

See MESOPOTAMIA.

JEZREEL, Battle of.

See MEGIDDO.

JINGIZ-KHAN, The conquests of.

See MONGOLS: A. D. 1153-1227;
and INDIA: A. D. 977-1290.

JINGOES.

See TURKS: A. D. 1878 EXCITEMENT IN ENGLAND.

JIVARA, OR JIVARO, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ANDESIANS.

JOACHIM I.,
Elector of Brandenburg, A. D. 1499-1535.

Joachim II., Elector of Brandenburg, 1535-1571.

Joachim Frederick, Elector of Brandenburg, 1598-1608.

JOAN OF ARC, The mission of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1429-1431.

JOANNA,
Queen of Castile, A. D. 1504-1555.

Joanna I., Queen of Naples, 1343-1381.

Joanna II., Queen of Naples, 1414-1435.

JOGLARS.

See TROUBADOURS.

JOHN
(of Brienne), Latin Emperor at Constantinople
(Romania), A. D. 1228-1237.

John (of Luxemburg), King of Bohemia, A. D. 1310-1346.

John, King of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1481-1513.

John, King of England, 1199-1216.

John (Don) of Austria: His victories over the Turks.

See TURKS: A. D. 1566-1571,
and 1572-1573.

In the Netherlands.
See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1575-1577, and 1577-1581.

John, Elector of Brandenburg, 1486-1499.

John (called The Fearless), Duke of Burgundy, 1404-1418.

John I., King of Aragon, 1387-1395.

John I., King of Castile and Leon, 1379-1390.

John I., nominal King of France
(an infant who lived seven days), 1316.

John I., King of Navarre, 1441-1479;

John II., of Aragon, 1458-1479;

John I., of Sicily, 1458-1479.

John I., King of Portugal, 1383-1433.

John I., King of Sicily, 1458-1479.

John II. (Comnenus),
Emperor in the East (Byzantine or Greek), 1118-1143.

John II., King of Castile and Leon, 1407-1454.

John II. (called The Good), King of France, 1350-1364.

John II., King of Portugal, 1481-1495.

John III. (Vataces), Greek Emperor of Nicæa, 1222-1255.

John III., King of Portugal, 1521-1557.

John III., King of Sweden, 1568-1592.

John IV., Pope, 640-642.

John IV. (Lascaris), Greek Emperor of Nicæa, 1259-1260.

John IV., King of Portugal, 1640-1656.

John V., Pope, 685-686.

John V. (Cantacuzene),
Greek Emperor of Constantinople, 1342-1355.

John V., King of Portugal, 1706-1750.

John VI., Pope, 701-705.

John VI. (Palæologus),
Greek Emperor of Constantinople, 1355-1391.

John VI., King of Portugal, 1816-1826.

John VII., Pope, 705-707.

John VII.
(Palæologus), Greek Emperor of Constantinople, 1425-1448.

John VIII., Pope, 872-882.

John IX., Pope, 898-900.

John X., Pope, 914-928.

John XI., Pope, 931-936.

John XII., Pope, 956-964.

John XIII., Pope, 965-972.

John XIV., Pope, 983-984.

John XV., Pope, 985-996.

John XVI., Antipope, 997-998.

John XVII., Pope, 1003, June to December.

John XVIII., Pope, 1003-1009.

John XIX., Pope, 1024-1033.

John XXI. (so styled, though 20th of the name),
Pope, 1276-1277.

John XXII., Pope, 1316-1334.

John XXIII., Pope, 1410-1410.

John Albert, King of Poland, 1493-1501.

John d'Albret and Catherine,
King and Queen of Navarre, 1503-1512.

John Balliol, King of Scotland, 1292-1296.

John Casimir, King of Poland, 1648-1668.

John Chrysostom and the Empress Eudoxia.

See ROME: A. D. 400-518.

John George, Elector of Brandenburg, 1571-1598.

John Sigismund, Elector of Brandenburg, 1608-1619.

John Sobieski, King of Poland, 1674-1697.

John Swerkerson, King of Sweden, 1216-1222.

John Zimisces, Emperor in the East
(Byzantine, or Greek), 969-976.

{1933}

JOHN COMPANY, The.

A name applied to the English East India Company.

See INDIA: A. D. 1858.

JOHNNIES.

See BOYS IN BLUE.

JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY.

See EDUCATION, MODERN: AMERICA: A. D. 1867.

JOHNSON, Andrew:
Military Governor of Tennessee.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862 (MARCH-JUNE).

Election to the Vice Presidency.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1864 (MAY-NOVEMBER).

Succession to the Presidency.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1865 (APRIL 15TH).

Reconstruction Policy.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1865 (MAY-JULY),
to 1866-1867 (OCTOBER-MARCH).

Impeachment of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1868 (MARCH-MAY).

JOHNSON, Sir William, and the Six Nations.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1765-1768.

JOHNSON-CLARENDON CONVENTION.

See ALABAMA CLAIMS: A. D. 1862-1869.

JOHNSTON, General Albert Sidney.
Command of Confederate forces in the west.
Battle of Shiloh.
Death.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862
(JANUARY-FEBRUARY: KENTUCKY-TENNESSEE),
and (FEBRUARY-APRIL: TENNESSEE).

JOHNSTON, General Joseph E.
At the first Battle of Bull Run.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1861 (JULY: VIRGINIA).

Command in northern Virginia.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1861-1862 (DECEMBER-APRIL: VIRGINIA).

Command on the Peninsula.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1862 (MARCH-MAY: VIRGINIA),
to (MAY: VIRGINIA).

Command in the west.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1863 (APRIL-JULY: ON THE MISSISSIPPI).

Command in Georgia.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1863-1864
(DECEMBER-APRIL: TENNESSEE-MISSISSIPPI).

The Atlanta campaign.
Relieved of command.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1864
(MAY: GEORGIA), and (MAY-SEPTEMBER: GEORGIA).

Command in the Carolinas.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1865
(FEBRUARY-MARCH: THE CAROLINAS).

Surrender.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1865 (APRIL 26TH).

JOHNSTOWN FLOOD, The.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1889-1890.

JOINT HIGH COMMISSION.

See ALABAMA CLAIMS: A. D. 1869-1871.

JOLIET'S EXPLORATIONS.

See CANADA: A. D. 1634-1673.

JOMSBORG.

Jomsborg, a stronghold at the mouth of the Oder, became, in
the later part of the 10th and early part of the 11th
centuries, a noted fastness of the piratical heathen Danes,
who found there "a secure refuge from the new religion and the
civilization it brought with it," which their country was then
submitting to. They founded at Jomsborg "a state to which no
man might belong save on proof of courage, where no woman
might enter within the walls, and where all booty was in
common."

_J. R. Green,
The Conquest of England,
pages 366-367._

"The impregnable castle of a certain body corporate, or
'Sea-Robbery Association (limited),' which, for some
generations, held the Baltic in terror, and plundered far
beyond the Belt—in the ocean itself, in Flanders and the
opulent trading havens there,—above all, in opulent anarchic
England, which, for forty years from about this time, was the
pirates' Goshen; and yielded, regularly every summer, slaves,
danegelt, and miscellaneous plunder, like no other country
Jomsburg or the viking-world had ever known."

_T. Carlyle,
Early Kings of Norway,
chapter 5._

The pirate-nest at Jomsborg was broken up, about the middle of
the tenth century, by Magnus the Good, of Norway.

JONES, John Paul, Naval exploits of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1775-1776;
and 1779 (SEPTEMBER).

JONESBORO', Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1864 (MAY-SEPTEMBER: GEORGIA).

JONGLEURS.

See TROUBADOURS.

JOPPA.

See JAFFA.

JOSEPH,
King of Portugal, A. D. 1750-1777.

Joseph I.,
King of Hungary, 1687-1711;
King of Bohemia and Germanic Emperor, 1705-1711.

Joseph II., King of Hungary and Bohemia,
and Germanic Emperor, 1765-1790.

Joseph Bonaparte,
King of Naples, 1806-1808;
King of Spain, 1808-1812.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1805-1806 (DECEMBER-SEPTEMBER);
and SPAIN: A. D. 1808 (MAY-SEPTEMBER), to 1812-1814.

JOSEPHINE, Empress, Napoleon's divorce from.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1810-1812.

JOTAPATA, Siege of.

The Jewish city of Jotapata, defended by the historian
Josephus, was besieged by Vespasian for forty-seven days, A.
D. 67, and taken.

_Josephus,
Jewish War,
book 3, chapter 7-8._

JOUBERT, Campaigns of.

See FRANCE: A. D.1796-1797(OCTOBER-APRIL);
1798-1799; 1799 (APRIL-SEPTEMBER).

JOURDAN, Campaigns of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1793(JULY-DECEMBER);
1794 (MARCH-JULY); 1795 (JUNE-DECEMBER);
1796 (APRIL-OCTOBER); 1798-1799 (AUGUST-APRIL).

JOUST.

See TOURNEY.

JOVIAN, Roman Emperor, A. D. 363-364.

JOVIANS AND HERCULIANS.

See PRÆTORIAN GUARDS: A. D. 312.

JOYOUS ENTRY OF BRABANT, The.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D.1559-1562.

JUAN.

See JOHN.

JUAREZ, The Mexican government of.

See MEXICO: A. D. 1848-1861, to 1867-1888.

JUBILEE, Papal institution of the.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1294-1348.

JUDAH, Kingdom of.

See JEWS: THE KINGDOMS OF ISRAEL, AND JUDAH, and after.

JUDAS MACCABÆUS.

See JEWS: B. C. 166-40.

JUDGES OF ISRAEL.

See JEWS: ISRAEL UNDER THE JUDGES.

JUDGMENT OF GOD.

See ORDEAL; also, WAGER OF BATTLE.

{1934}

JUDICIAL COMBAT.

See WAGER OF BATTLE.

JUGANTES, The.

See BRITAIN: CELTIC TRIBES.

JUGERUM.

"A Roman jugerum [of land] was somewhat less than two-thirds
of a statute acre."

_W. Ihne,
History of Rome,
book 2, chapter 7, footnote (volume 1)._

JUGURTHINE WAR, The.

See NUMIDIA: B. C. 118-104.

JULIAN (called The Apostate),
Roman Emperor, A. D. 361-363.
Restorer of Paganism.

See ROME: A. D. 361-363.

JULIAN CALENDAR. JULIAN ERA.

See CALENDAR, JULIAN.

JULIAN FAMILY, The.

"The Julian Family is that of the dictator Cæsar; his name was
transmitted, by adoption, out of the direct line, but always
within the circle of his kindred, to the five first heads of
the Roman empire; Augustus reigned from the year 30 B. C. to
the year 14 of our era; Tiberius, from 14 to 37 A. D.;
Caligula, from 37 to 41; Claudius, from 41 to 54; Nero, from
54 to 68."

_J. C. L. Sismondi,
Fall of the Roman Empire,
chapter 2._

JULIAN LAW, The.

See ROME: B. C. 90-88.

JULIAN LAWS, The.

"Cæsar [during his year of consulship, B. C. 59, before he
went to Gaul] carried, with the help of the people, the body
of admirable laws which are known to jurists as the 'Leges
Juliæ,' and mark an epoch in Roman history. … There was a
law declaring the inviolability of the persons of magistrates
during their term of authority, reflecting back on the murder
of Saturninus, and touching by implication the killing of
Lentulus and his companions. There was a law for the
punishment of adultery, most disinterestedly singular if the
popular accounts of Cæsar's habits had any grain of truth in
them. There were laws for the protection of the subject from
violence, public or private; and laws disabling persons who
had laid hands illegally on Roman citizens from holding office
in the Commonwealth. There was a law, intended at last to be
effective, to deal with judges who allowed themselves to be
bribed. There were laws against defrauders of the revenue;
laws against debasing the coin; laws against sacrilege; laws
against corrupt State contracts; laws against bribery at
elections. Finally, there was a law, carefully framed, 'De
repetundis.' to exact retribution from pro-consuls or
pro-prætors of the type of Verres, who had plundered the
provinces."

_J. A. Froude,
Cæsar,
chapter 13._

JULIAN LINE, The.

See ROME: A. D. 68-96.

JULIANUS.

See JULIAN.

Julianus, Didius, Roman Emperor, A. D. 193.

JÜLICH-CLEVE CONTEST, The.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1608-1618;
and FRANCE: A. D. 1659-1661.

JULIOMAGUS.
Modern Angers.

See VENETI OF WESTERN GAUL.

JULIUS II.,
Pope, A. D. 1503-1513.

Julius III., Pope, 1550-1555.

Julius Nepos, Roman Emperor (Western), 474-475.

JULY FIRST.
Dominion Day.

See CANADA: A. D. 1867.

JULY FOURTH, Independence Day.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1776 (JULY).

JULY MONARCHY, The.

The reign of Louis Philippe, which was brought about by the
revolution of July, 1830 (see FRANCE: A.D. 1815-1830, and
1830-1840), is commonly known in France as the July Monarchy.

JUNIN, Battle of (1824).

See PERU: A. D. 1820-1826.

JUNIUS LETTERS, The.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1769-1772.

JUNONIA.

See CARTHAGE: B. C. 44.

JUNTA.

A Spanish word signifying council, assembly, association.

JUNTA, The Apostolic.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1814-1827.

JURISFIRMA, The process of.

See CORTES, THE EARLY SPANISH.

JUROIPACH, Fortress of.

A fortress in the pass of Derbend, between the last spurs of
the Caucasus and the Caspian, which the Persians and the
Romans undertook at one time to maintain jointly. "This
fortress, known as Juroipach or Biraparach, commanded the
usual passage by which the hordes of the north were accustomed
to issue from their vast arid steppes upon the rich and
populous regions of the south for the purpose of plundering
raids, if not of actual conquests. Their incursions threatened
almost equally Roman and Persian territory, and it was felt
that the two nations were alike interested in preventing them."

_G. Rawlinson,
Seventh Great Oriental Monarchy,
chapter 19._

JURY, Trial by.

"The fabric of our judicial legislation commences with the
Assize of Clarendon.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1162-1170.

… In the provisions of this assize for the repression of
crime we find the origin of trial by jury, so often attributed
to earlier times. Twelve lawful men of each hundred, with four
from each township, were sworn to present those who were known
or reputed as criminals within their district for trial by
ordeal. The jurors were thus not merely witnesses, but sworn
to act as judges also in determining the value of the charge;
and it is this double character of Henry's [Henry II.] jurors
that has descended to our 'grand jury.' … Two later steps
brought the jury to its modern condition. Under Edward I.
witnesses acquainted with the particular fact in question were
added in each case to the general jury, and by the separation
of these two classes of jurors at a later time the last became
simply 'witnesses,' without any judicial power, while the
first ceased to be witnesses at all, and became our modern
jurors, who are only judges of the testimony given."

_J. R. Green,
Short History of English People,
chapter 2, section 8._

See LAW.

ALSO IN:
_W. Stubbs,
Constitutional History of England,
chapter 13, section 164._

_W. Forsyth,
History of Trial by Jury._

JUSTICIAR.

The chief minister of the Norman kings of England. At first
the Justiciar was the lieutenant or viceroy of the king during
the absence of the latter from the kingdom; afterward a
permanent minister of justice and finance.

_W. Stubbs,
Constitutional History of England,
volume 1, page 346._

JUSTIN I.,
Roman Emperor (Eastern), A. D. 518-527.

Justin II., Roman Emperor (Eastern), 565-578.

JUSTINIAN I.,
Roman Emperor (Eastern), A. D. 527-565.

Justinian II. (called Rhinotmetus),
Roman Emperor (Eastern), A. D. 685-695, and 704-711.

JUSTINIAN, The Institutes, Pandects and Novels of.

See CORPUS JURIS CIVILIS.

{1935}

JUSTIZA, OR JUSTICIARY, of Aragon.

See CORTES, THE EARLY SPANISH.

JÜTERBOGK, OR DENNEWITZ, Battle of.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1813 (SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER).

JUTES, The.

See ANGLES AND JUTES;
also, ENGLAND: A. D. 449-473.

JUTHUNGI, The.

See ALEMANNI, FIRST APPEARANCE OF THE.

JUVAVIUM.

See SALZBURG.

JUVENAL IA, The.

This was a festival instituted by Nero, to commemorate his
attainment of the age of manhood. "His beard was clipped, and
the first tender down of his cheek and chin enclosed in a
golden casket and dedicated to Jupiter in the Capitol. This
ceremony was followed by music and acting," in which the
emperor, himself, performed.

_C. Merivale,
History of the Romans,
chapter 53._

JUVERNA.

See IRELAND: THE NAME.

KAABA, OR CAABA, at Mecca, The.

See CAABA.

KABALA, OR CABALA, The.

See CABALA.

KABALA, Battle of.

See SICILY: B. C. 383.

KABELJAUWS.

See NETHERLANDS (HOLLAND): A. D. 1345-1354;
also, 1482-1493.

KABYLES, The.

See LIBYANS; also, AMORITES.

KADESH.

A strong fortress of the ancient Hittites on the Orontes. The
name signifies "the holy city."

KADESH-BARNEA.

An important locality in Biblical history. "It looms up as the
objective point of the Israelites in their movement from Sinai
to the Promised Land. It is the place of their testing, of
their failure, of their judging, and of their dispersion. It
is their rallying centre for the forty-years of their
wandering, and the place of their re-assembling for their
final move into the land of their longings."

_H. C. Trumbull,
Kadesh-Barnea,
part 1._

Mr. Trumbull identifies the site with the oasis of Ayn Qadees,
in the Wilderness of Zin.

KADIASKERS.

See SUBLIME PORTE.

KADISIYEH, Battle of.

See CADESIA.

KADMEIA, The.

See GREECE: B. C. 383.

KADMEIANS, OR CADMEIANS.

See BŒOTIA.

KADMONITES, The.

See SARACENS.

KAFIRS. KAFIR WARS.