Chapter XXIV: Part 24

"During the four months that followed the revolt at Delhi on
the 11th of May, all political interest was centred at the
ancient capital of the sovereigns of Hindustan. The public
mind was occasionally distracted by the current of events at
Cawnpore and Lukhnow, as well as at other stations which need
not be particularised; but so long as Delhi remained in the
hands of the rebels, the native princes were bewildered and
alarmed; and its prompt recapture was deemed of vital
importance to the prestige of the British government, and the
re-establishment of British sovereignty in Hindustan. The
Great Moghul had been little better than a mummy for more than
half a century, and Bahadur Shah was a mere tool and puppet in
the hands of rebel sepoys; but nevertheless the British
government had to deal with the astounding fact that the
rebels were fighting under his name and standard, just as
Afghans and Mahrattas had done in the days of Ahmad Shah
Durani and Mahadaji Sindia. To make matters worse, the roads
to Delhi were open from the south and east; and nearly every
outbreak in Hindustan was followed by a stampede of mutineers
to the old capital of the Moghuls. Meanwhile, in the absence
of railways, there were unfortunate delays in bringing up
troops and guns to stamp out the fires of rebellion at the
head centre. The highway from Calcutta to Delhi was blocked up
by mutiny and insurrection; and every European soldier sent up
from Calcutta was stopped for the relief of Benares,
Allahabad, Cawnpore, or Lukhnow. But the possession of the
Punjab at this crisis proved to be the salvation of the
empire. Sir John Lawrence, the Chief Commissioner, was called
upon to perform almost superhuman work:—to maintain order in
a newly conquered province; to suppress mutiny and
disaffection amongst the very sepoy regiments from Bengal who
were supposed to garrison the country; and to send
reinforcements of troops and guns, and supplies of all
descriptions, to the siege of Delhi. Fortunately the Sikhs had
been only a few short years under British administration; they
had not forgotten the miseries that prevailed under the native
government, and could appreciate the many blessings they
enjoyed under British rule. They were staunch to the British
government, and eager to be led against the rebels. In some
cases terrible punishment was meted out to mutinous Bengal
sepoys within the Punjab; but the imperial interests at stake
were sufficient to justify every severity, although all must
regret the painful necessity that called for such extreme
measures. … The defences of Delhi covered an area of three
square miles. The walls consisted of a series of bastions,
about sixteen feet high, connected by long curtains, with
occasional martello towers to aid the flanking fire. … There
were seven gates to the city, namely, Lahore gate, Ajmir gate,
Turkoman gate, Delhi gate, Mori gate, Kabul gate, and Kashmir
gate. The principal street was the Chandni Chouk, which ran in
a direct line from the Delhi gate to the palace of the
Moghuls. … For many weeks the British army on the Ridge was
unable to attempt siege operations. It was, in fact, the
besieged, rather than the besiegers; for, although the bridges
in the rear were blown up, the camp was exposed to continual
assaults from all the other sides. On the 23rd of June, the
hundredth anniversary of the battle of Plassy, the enemy made
a greater effort than ever to carry the British position. The
attack began on the right from the Subzi Mundi, its object
being to capture the Mound battery. Finding it impossible to
carry the battery, the rebels confined themselves to a hand to
hand conflict in the Subzi Mundi. The deadly struggle
continued for many hours; and as the rebels came up in
overwhelming numbers, it was fortunate that the two bridges in
the rear had been blown up the night before, or the assault
might have had a different termination. It was not until after
sunset that the enemy was compelled to retire with the loss of
a thousand men. Similar actions were frequent during the month
of August; but meanwhile reinforcements were coming up, and
the end was drawing nigh. In the middle of August, Brigadier
John Nicholson, one of the most distinguished officers of the
time, came up from the Punjab with a brigade and siege train.
On the 4th of September a heavy train of artillery was brought
in from Ferozepore.
{1744}
The British force on the Ridge now exceeded 8,000 men.
Hitherto the artillery had been too weak to attempt to breach
the City walls; but now fifty-four heavy guns were brought
into position and the siege began in earnest. From the 8th to
the 12th of September four batteries poured in a constant
storm of shot and shell; number one was directed against the
Kashmir bastion, number two against the right flank of the
Kashmir bastion, number three against the Water bastion, and
number four against the Kashmir and Water gates and bastions.
On the 13th of September the breaches were declared to be
practicable, and the following morning was fixed for the final
assault upon the doomed city. At three o'clock in the morning
of the 14th September, three assaulting columns were formed in
the trenches, whilst a fourth was kept in reserve. The first
column was led by Brigadier Nicholson; the second by Brigadier
Jones; the third by Colonel Campbell; and the fourth, or
reserve, by Brigadier Longfield. The powder bags were laid at
the Kashmir gate by Lieutenants Home and Salkeld. The
explosion followed, and the third column rushed in, and pushed
towards the Juma Musjid. Meanwhile the first column under
Nicholson escaladed the breaches near the Kashmir gate, and
pushed along the ramparts towards the Kabul gate, carrying the
several bastions in the way. Here it was met by the second
column under Brigadier Jones, who had escaladed the breach at
the Water bastion. The advancing columns were met by a
ceaseless fire from terraced houses, mosques, and other
buildings; and John Nicholson, the hero of the day, whilst
attempting to storm a narrow street near the Kabul gate, was
struck down by a shot and mortally wounded."

_J. T. Wheeler,
Short History of India,
part 3, chapter 25._

"The long autumn day was over, and we were in Delhi. But Delhi
was, by no means, ours. Sixty-six officers and 1,100 men—
nearly a third, that is, of the whole attacking force—had
fallen; while, as yet, not a sixth part of the town was in our
power. How many men, it might well be asked, would be left to
us by the time that we had conquered the remainder? We held
the line of ramparts which we had attacked and the portions of
the city immediately adjoining, but nothing more. The Lahore
Gate and the Magazine, the Jumma Musjid and the Palace, were
still untouched, and were keeping up a heavy fire on our
position. Worse than this, a large number of our troops had
fallen victims to the temptation which, more formidable than
themselves, our foes had left behind them, and were wallowing
in a state of bestial intoxication. The enemy, meanwhile, had
been able to maintain their position outside the town; and if
only, at this supreme hour, a heaven-sent General had appeared
amongst them, they might have attacked our camp, defended as
it was mainly by the sick, and the maimed, and the halt. …
Never, perhaps, in the history of the Mutiny were we in quite
so perilous a position as on the night which followed our
greatest military success. General Wilson, indeed, proposed,
as might have been expected from a man in his enfeebled
condition of mind and body, to withdraw the guns, to fall back
on the camp and wait for reinforcements there; a step which,
it is needless to point out, would have given us all the
deadly work to do over again, even if our force should prove
able to maintain itself on the Ridge till reinforcements came.
But the urgent remonstrances of Baird Smith and others, by
word of mouth; of Chamberlain, by letter; and, perhaps, also,
the echoes which may have reached him from the tempest-tossed
hero who lay chafing against his cruel destiny on his
death-bed, and exclaimed in a wild paroxysm of passion, when
he heard of the move which was in contemplation, 'Thank God, I
have strength enough left to shoot that man,' turned the
General once more from his purpose. On the following day, the
15th, vast quantities of the intoxicating drinks, which had
wrought such havoc amongst our men, were destroyed by General
Wilson's order, and the streets literally ran with rivers of
beer, and wine, and brandy. Meanwhile, the troops were
sleeping off their drunken debauch; and on the 16th active
operations were resumed. On that day the Magazine was taken,
and its vast stores of shot and shell, and of all the
'material' of war, fell once more into the hands of their
proper owners. By sapping gradually from house to house we
managed, for three days more, to avoid the street-fighting
which, once and again, has proved so demoralising to
Englishmen; and, slowly but surely, we pressed back the
defenders into that ever-narrowing part of the city of which,
fortunately for themselves, they still held the bolt-holes.
Many of them had already begun, like rats, to quit the sinking
vessel. And now the unarmed population of the city flocked in
one continuous stream out of the open gates, hoping to save
their lives, if nothing else, from our avenging swords. On the
19th, the palace of the Moguls, which had witnessed the last
expiring flicker of life in an effete dynasty, and the cruel
murder of English men, and women, and children, fell into our
hands; and by Sunday, the 20th, the whole of the city—in
large part already a city of the dead—was at our mercy. But
what of the King himself and the Princes of the royal house?
They had slunk off to the tomb of Humayoun, a huge building,
almost a city in itself, some miles from the modern Delhi, and
there, swayed this way and that, now by the bolder spirits of
his army who pressed him to put himself at their head and
fight it out to the death, as became the descendant of
Tamerlane and Baber, now by the entreaties of his young wife,
who was anxious chiefly for her own safety and that of her
son, the heir of the Moguls; and now, again, by the plausible
suggestions of a double-dyed traitor of his own house who was
in Hodson's pay, and who, approaching the head of his family
with a kiss of peace, was endeavoring to detain him where he
was till he could hand him over to his employer and receive
the price of blood, the poor old monarch dozed or fooled away
the few hours of his sovereignty which remained, the hours
which might still make or mar him, in paroxysms of imbecile
vacillation and despair. The traitor gained the day, and
Hodson, who could play the game of force as well as of fraud,
and was an equal adept at either, learning from his
craven-hearted tool that the King was prepared to surrender on
the promise of his life, went to Wilson and obtained leave, on
that condition, to bring him into Delhi. The errand, with such
a promise tacked on to it, was only half to Hodson's taste.
{1745}
'If I get into the Palace,' he had written in cool blood some
days before, 'the house of Timour will not be worth five
minutes' purchase, I ween.' … After two hours of bargaining
for his own life and that of his queen and favourite son, the
poor old Priam tottered forth and was taken back, in a
bullock-cart, a prisoner, to his own city and Palace, and was
there handed over to the civil authorities. But there were
other members of the royal family, as Hodson knew well from
his informants, also lurking in Humayoun's tomb. … With a
hundred of his famous horse Hodson started for Humayoun's
tomb, and, after three hours of negotiation, the three
princes, two of them the sons, the other the grandson of the
King, surrendered unconditionally into his hands. … Their
arms were taken from them, and, escorted by some of his
horsemen, they too were despatched in bullock-carts towards
Delhi. With the rest of his horse, Hodson stayed behind to
disarm the large and nerveless crowd, who, as sheep having no
shepherd, and unable, in their paralysed condition, to see
what the brute weight even of a flock of sheep might do by a
sudden rush, were overawed by his resolute bearing. This done,
he galloped after his prey and caught them up just before the
cavalcade reached the walls of Delhi. He ordered the princes
roughly to get out of the cart and strip,—for, even in his
thirst for their blood, he had, as it would seem, an eye to
the value of their outer clothes,—he ordered them into the
cart again, he seized a carbine from one of his troopers, and
then and there, with his own hand, shot them down deliberately
one after the other. It was a stupid, cold-blooded, three-fold
murder. … Had they been put upon their trial, disclosures of
great importance as to the origin of the Mutiny could hardly
fail to have been elicited. Their punishment would have been
proportioned to their offence, and would have been meted out
to them with all the patient majesty of offended law."

_R. B. Smith,
Life of Lord Lawrence,
volume 2, chapter 5._

ALSO IN:
_Sir R. Temple,
Lord Lawrence,
chapter 7._

_Sir R. Temple,
Men and Events of my Time in India,
chapter 7._

_J. Cave-Brown,
The Punjab and Delhi in 1857._

_G. B. Malleson,
History of the Indian Mutiny,
book 10, chapter 1 (volume 2)._

_Major Hodson,
Twelve Years of a Soldier's Life in India,
part 2: The Delhi Campaign._

INDIA: A. D. 1857-1858 (July-June).
General Havelock's campaign.
Sir Colin Campbell's.
The Relief of Lucknow.
Substantial suppression of the Mutiny.

"Meanwhile the greatest anxiety prevailed with regard to our
countrymen and countrywomen at Lucknow and Cawnpore. The
Indian government made every effort to relieve them; but the
reinforcements which had been despatched from England and
China came in slowly, and the demands made for assistance far
exceeded the means at the disposal of the government. … The
task of relieving the city was entrusted to the heroic General
Havelock, who marched out with a mere handful of men, of whom
only 1,400 were British soldiers, to encounter a large army
and a whole country in rebellion. At Futtehpore, on the 12th
of July, he defeated a vastly superior force, posted in a very
strong position. After giving his men a day's rest, he
advanced again on the 14th, and routed the enemy in two
pitched battles. Next morning he renewed his advance, and with
a force of less than 900 men attacked 5,000 strongly
entrenched, and commanded by Nana Sahib. They were
outmanœuvred, out-flanked, beaten and dispersed. But for this
signal defeat they wreaked their vengeance on the unfortunate
women and children who still remained at Cawnpore. On the very
day on which the battle occurred, they were massacred under
circumstances of cruelty over which we must throw a veil. The
well of Cawnpore, in which their hacked and mutilated bodies
were flung, presented a spectacle from which soldiers who had
regarded unmoved the carnage of numerous battle-fields shrank
with horror. Of all the atrocities perpetrated during this
war, so fruitful in horrors, this was the most awful; and it
was followed by a terrible retribution. It steeled the hearts,
and lent a furious and fearless energy to the arms, of the
British soldiery. Wherever they came, they gave no quarter to
the mutineers; a few men often frantically attacked hundreds,
frantically but vainly defending themselves; and never ceased
till all had been bayoneted, or shot, or hewn in pieces. All
those who could be shown to have been accomplices in the
perpetration of the murders that had been committed were hung,
or blown from the cannon's mouth. Though the intrepid Havelock
was unable to save the women and children who had been
imprisoned in Cawnpore, he pressed forward to Lucknow. But the
force under his command was too small to enable him to drive
off the enemy. Meanwhile Sir J. Outram, who was now returning
from the Persian war, which had been brought to a successful
conclusion, was sent to Oude as chief commissioner, with full
civil and military power. This appointment was fully deserved;
but it had the effect, probably not thought of by those who
made it, of superseding Havelock just as he was about to
achieve the crowning success of his rapid and glorious career.
Outram, however, with a generosity which did him more real
honour than a thousand victories would have conferred, wrote
to Havelock to inform him that he intended to join him with
adequate reinforcements; adding: 'To you shall be left the
glory of relieving Lucknow, for which you have already
struggled so much. I shall accompany you only in my civil
capacity as commissioner, placing my military service at your
disposal, should you please, and serving under you as a
volunteer.' Thus Havelock, after gaining no fewer than twelve
battles against forces far superior in numbers to the little
band he originally led, was enabled at length, on the 25th of
August, to preserve the civilians, the women, and children of
Lucknow from the impending horrors of another massacre, which
would no doubt have been as fearful as that of Cawnpore. The
Highlanders were the first to enter, and were welcomed with
grateful enthusiasm by those whom they had saved from a fate
worse than death. However, the enemy, recovering from the
panic which the arrival of Havelock and his troops had caused,
renewed the siege. Sir Colin Campbell, who had assumed the
command of the Indian army, had determined to march to the
relief of Lucknow. He set out from Cawnpore on the 9th of
November, but was obliged to wait till the 14th for
reinforcements, which were on the way to join him, and which
raised the force under his command to 5,000—a force
numerically far inferior to that which it was to attack.
{1746}
On the 17th of November the relief of Lucknow was effected.
The music of the Highland regiments, playing 'The Campbells
are coming,' announced to their delighted countrymen inside
the city that the commander-in-chief himself was with the
relieving force. Little time, however, was allowed for
congratulations and rejoicings. The ladies, the civilians, and
the garrison were quietly withdrawn; the guns, which it was
thought not desirable to remove, were burst; and a retreat
effected, without affording the enemy the slightest suspicion
of what was going on until some hours after the town had been
evacuated by its defenders. The retreating force reached
Dilhasha on the 24th, without having sustained any serious
molestation. There the gallant Havelock sank under the trials
and hardships to which he had been exposed, and yielded up the
life which was instrumental in preserving so many others from
the most terrible of deaths. While Sir Colin Campbell was
engaged in effecting the relief of Lucknow, intelligence
reached Cawnpore that a large hostile army was making towards
it. General Windham, who commanded there, unacquainted with
the number or the position of the approaching force, marched
forth to meet it, in the hope that he should be able to rout
and cut up the advanced guard before the main body of the
enemy could come to its assistance. But in this expectation he
was disappointed. Instead of having to deal with the van, he
engaged with the whole rebel army, and his little force,
assailed on all sides, was obliged to retire. He at once
despatched a letter to the commander-in-chief, requesting him
to hasten to his assistance; but it was intercepted by the
enemy. Fortunately Sir Colin Campbell, though ignorant of the
critical position of his subordinate, came up just at the
moment when the danger was at its height. This was on the 28th
of November. He was, however, in no haste to attack the foe,
and was content for the present merely to hold them in check.
His first care was for the safety of the civilians, the women,
and the children, which was not secured till the 30th; and he
continued to protect them till the 5th of December, when they
were all safely lodged at Allahabad. The enemy, unaware of the
motive of his seeming inaction, imputed it to fear, and became
every day more confident and audacious. On the 6th he at
length turned fiercely on them, completely defeated them, and
seized their baggage; he then dispersed and drove away another
large force, under the command of Nana Sahib, which was
watching the engagement at a little distance. The army entered
the residence of Nana Sahib at Bithoor, and took possession of
much treasure, which had been concealed in a well. Nearly the
whole of the enemy's artillery was captured; and the army,
being overtaken as they were in the act of crossing into Oude,
great numbers of them were destroyed. Of course, for the
moment Lucknow, being no longer garrisoned, had fallen into
the hands of the insurgents; but they were not long permitted
to retain it. Strong reinforcements arrived, and the Indian
government was enabled to send a force against Lucknow
sufficient to overwhelm all resistance; and on the 15th of
December this important city was in the undisputed possession
of the British troops. This final recovery of the capital of
Oude decided the reconquest of that country. A struggle was,
indeed, maintained for some time longer; innumerable battles
were fought; and the final subjugation of the country was
effected in the month of June, 1858."

_W. N. Molesworth,
History of England, 1830-1874,
volume 3, chapter 2._

ALSO IN:
_A. Forbes,
Havelock,
chapters 5-7._

_General Sir O. T. Burne,
Clyde and Strathnairn._

_General Shadwell,
Life of Colin Campbell, Lord Clyde,
volume 1, chapter 11,
and volume 2, chapters 1-18._

_T. Lowe,
Central India during 1857-8._

INDIA: A. D. 1858.
The Governor-General's Proclamation,
Termination of the rule of the East India Company.
The government transferred to the Crown.

"By a singular circumstance, when the mutiny was suppressed in
1858, the Governor-General, who in the previous year had been
condemned for leniency which was thought ill-timed, was
destined to receive censure for harshness which was declared
unnecessary. On the eve of the fall of Lucknow, he drew up a
proclamation confiscating the lands of all the great
landowners in Oudh. Exceptions were, indeed, made to this
sweeping decree. Landowners who could prove their loyalty were
promised exemption from it, just as rebels who unconditionally
surrendered, and whose hands were not stained with British
blood, were offered pardon. There is no doubt that Canning, in
drawing up this proclamation, relied on the exceptions which
it contained, while there is equally no doubt that the critics
who objected to it overlooked its parentheses. But its issue
was made the basis of an attack which well-nigh proved fatal
to the Governor-General's administration. The chances of party
warfare had replaced Palmerston with Derby; and the
Conservative minister had entrusted the Board of Control to
the brilliant but erratic statesman who, fifteen years before,
had astonished India with pageant and proclamation. …
Ellenborough thought proper to condemn Canning's proclamation
in a severe despatch, and to allow his censure to be made
public. For a short time it seemed impossible that the
Governor-General who had received such a despatch could
continue his government. But the lapse of a few days showed
that the minister who had framed the despatch, and not the
Viceroy who had received it, was to suffer from the
transaction. The public, recollecting the justice of Canning's
rule, the mercy of his administration, almost unanimously
considered that he should not have been hastily condemned for
a document which, it was gradually evident, had only been
imperfectly understood; and Ellenborough, to save his
colleagues, volunteered to play the part of Jonah, and retired
from the ministry. His retirement closes, in one sense, the
history of the Indian Mutiny. But the transactions of the
Mutiny had, almost for the first time, taught the public to
consider the anomalies of Indian government. In the course of
a hundred years a Company had been suffered to acquire an
empire nearly ten times as large and as populous as Great
Britain. It was true that the rule of the Company was in many
respects nominal. The President of the Board of Control was
the true head of the Indian Government, and spoke and acted
through the Secret Committee of the Court of Directors. But
this very circumstance only accentuated the anomaly. If the
President of the Board of Control was in fact Indian minister,
it was far simpler to make him Indian minister by name, and to
do away with the clumsy expedient which alone enabled him to
exercise his authority.
{1747}
Hence it was generally decided that the rule of the Company
should cease, and that India should thenceforward become one
of the possessions of the crown. … A great danger thus led
to the removal of a great anomaly, and the vast Indian empire
which Englishmen had won was thenceforward taken into a
nation's keeping."

_S. Walpole,
History of England from 1815,
chapter 27 (volume 5)._

The act "for the better government of India," which was passed
in the autumn of 1858, "provided that all the territories
previously under the government of the East India Company were
to be vested in her Majesty, and all the Company's powers to
be exercised in her name. One of her Majesty's principal
Secretaries of State was to have all the power previously
exercised by the Company, or by the Board of Control. The
Secretary was to be assisted by a Council of India, to consist
of fifteen members, of whom seven were to be elected by the
Court of Directors from their own body, and eight nominated by
the Crown. The vacancies among the nominated were to be filled
up by the Crown; those among the elected by the remaining
members of the Council for a certain time, but afterward by
the Secretary of State for India. The competitive principle
for the Civil Service was extended in its application, and
made thoroughly practical. The military and naval forces of
the Company were to be deemed the forces of her Majesty. A
clause was introduced declaring that, except for the purpose
of preventing or repelling actual invasion of India, the
Indian revenues should not, without the consent of both Houses
of Parliament, be applicable to defray the expenses of any
military operation carried on beyond the external frontiers of
her Majesty's Indian possessions. Another clause enacted that
whenever an order was sent to India directing the commencement
of hostilities by her Majesty's forces there, the fact should
be communicated to Parliament within three months, if
Parliament were then sitting, or, if not, within one month
after its next meeting. These clauses were heard of more than
once in later days. The Viceroy and Governor-General was to be
supreme in India, but was to be assisted by a Council. India
now has nine provinces, each under its own civil government,
and independent of the others, but all subordinate to the
authority of the Viceroy. In accordance with this Act the
government of the Company, the famed 'John Company,' formally
ceased on September 1st, 1858; and the Queen was proclaimed
throughout India in the following November, with Lord Canning
for her first Viceroy."

_J. McCarthy,
History of Our Own Times,
chapter 36 (volume 3)._

ALSO IN:
_Sir H. S. Cunningham,
Earl Canning,
chapters 7-9._

_Duke of Argyll,
India Under Dalhousie and Canning._

INDIA: A. D. 1861.
Institution of the Order of the Star of India.

See STAR OF INDIA.

INDIA: A. D. 1862-1876.
Vice-regal administrations of
Lords Lawrence, Mayo and Northbrook.

Lord Canning was succeeded as Viceroy by Lord Elgin, in 1862;
but Elgin only lived until November, 1863, and his successor
was Sir John Lawrence, the savior of the Punjab. "Sir John
Lawrence's Viceroyalty was an uneventful time. Great natural
calamities by famine and cyclone fell upon the country, which
called forth the philanthropic energies of Government and
people. Commerce passed through an unexampled crisis, taxing
skill and foresight. But the political atmosphere was calm.
With the exception of little frontier wars, wasteful of
resources that were sorely needed, there was nothing to divert
the Government from the prosecution of schemes for the
improvement of the physical and moral condition of the
people." Sir John Lawrence held the Viceroyalty until January,
1869, when he was succeeded by Lord Mayo and returned to
England. He was raised, in that year, to the peerage, under
the title of Baron Lawrence of Punjab and Grateley. He died
ten years later.

_Sir C. Aitchison,
Lord Lawrence,
chapters 7-12._

Lord Lawrence's immediate successor, Lord Mayo, was
assassinated, while Viceroy, in 1872, by a convict—a
Highlander—at the convict settlement on the Andaman Islands,
for no reason of personal hatred, but only because he
represented the governing authority which had condemned the
man. Lord Mayo was succeeded by Lord Northbrook, who held the
office from 1872 to 1876.

_Sir W. W. Hunter,
The Earl of Mayo._

INDIA: A. D. 1876.
Lord Lytton, Viceroy.

The successor of Lord Northbrook in the Vice-regal
office was Lord Lytton, appointed in 1876.

INDIA: A. D. 1877.
The Native States and their quasi feudatory relation to the
British Crown.
Queen Victoria's assumption of the title of Empress of India.

"In some sense the Indians were accustomed to consider the
Company, as they now consider the Queen, to be the heir of the
Great Mughal, and therefore universal suzerain by right of
succession. But it is easy to exaggerate the force of this
claim, which is itself a mere restatement of the fact of
conquest. Politically, India is divided into two parts,
commonly known as British territory and the native states. The
first portion alone is ruled directly by English officials,
and its inhabitants alone are subjects of the Queen. The
native states are sometimes called feudatory—a convenient
term to express their vague relation to the British crown. To
define that relation precisely would be impossible. It has
arisen at different times and by different methods; it varies
from semi-independence to complete subjection. Some chiefs are
the representatives of those whom we found on our first
arrival in the country; others owe their existence to our
creation. Some are parties to treaties entered into as between
equal powers; others have consented to receive patents from
their suzerain recording their limited rights; with others,
again, there are no written engagements at all. Some have
fought with us and come out of the struggle without dishonour.
Some pay tribute; others pay none. Their extent and power vary
as greatly as their political status. The Nizam of Haidarabad
governs a kingdom of 80,000 square miles and 10,000,000
inhabitants. Some of the petty chieftains of Kathiawar
exercise authority over only a few acres. It is, however,
necessary to draw a line sharply circumscribing the native
states, as a class, from British territory. Every native chief
possesses a certain measure of local authority, which is not
derivative but inherent. English control, when and as
exercised, is not so much of an administrative as of a
diplomatic nature. In Anglo-Indian terminology this shade of
meaning is expressed by the word 'political.' … As a general
proposition, and excepting the quite insignificant states, it
may be stated that the government is carried on not only in
the name but also by the initiative of the native chief.
{1748}
At all the large capitals, and at certain centres round which
minor states are grouped, a British officer is stationed under
the style of Resident or Agent. Through him all diplomatic
affairs are conducted. He is at once an ambassador and a
controller. His duty is to represent the majesty of the
suzerain power, to keep a watchful eye upon abuses, and to
encourage reforms."

_J. S. Cotton,
Colonies and Dependencies,
part 1, chapter 3._

"The supremacy of the British Government over all the Native
States in India was declared in 1877, in a more emphatic form
than it had received before, by the assumption by the Queen of
the title of Kaisar-i-Hind, Empress of India. No such
gathering of chiefs and princes has taken place in historical
times as that seen at Delhi in January, 1877, when the rulers
of all the principal States of India formally acknowledged
their dependence on the British Crown. The political effect of
the assertion of the supremacy of the paramount power, thus
formally made for the first time in India, has been marked and
extremely important."

_Sir J. Strachey,
India,
lecture 11._

ALSO IN:
_G. B. Malleson,
Historical Sketch of the Native States of India._

INDIA: A. D. 1878-1881.
The second Afghan War.

See AFGHANISTAN: A. D. 1869-1881.

INDIA: A. D. 1880-1893.
Recent Viceroys.

On the defeat of the Conservative Beaconsfield Ministry in
England, in 1880, Lord Lytton resigned the Viceroyalty and was
succeeded by the Marquis of Ripon, who gave place in turn to
the Marquis of Dufferin in 1884. In 1888, the Marquis of
Lansdowne succeeded Lord Dufferin, and was himself succeeded
in 1893 by Sir Henry Norman.

INDIA: A. D. 1893.
Suspension of the free coinage of silver.

In June, 1893, the Indian Government, with the approval of the
British Cabinet, stopped the free coinage of silver, with a
view to the introduction of a gold standard. The Government,
it was announced, while stopping the coinage of the declining
metal for private persons, would continue on its own account
to coin rupees in exchange for gold at a ratio then fixed at
sixteen pence sterling per rupee. "The closing of the mints of
British India to the coinage of silver coins of
full-debt-paying power is the most momentous event in the
monetary history of the present century. It is the final and
disastrous blow to the use of silver as a measure of value and
as money of full-debt-paying power, and the relegation of it
to the position of a subsidiary, or token metal. It is the
culmination of the evolution from a silver to a gold standard
which has been progressing with startling rapidity in recent
years. … The remarkable series of events which have
characterized, or made manifest, this evolution from a silver
to a gold standard are nearly all condensed in the brief
period of twenty years, and are probably without a parallel in
ancient or modern monetary history. … With the single
exception of England, all Europe forty years ago had the
silver standard, not only legally but actually—silver coins
constituting the great bulk of the money of actual
transactions. To-day, not a mint in Europe is open to the
coinage of full-debt-paying silver coins, and the gateways of
the Orient have been closed against it. Twenty years ago one
ounce of gold exchanged in the markets of the world for
fifteen and one-half ounces of silver; to-day, one ounce of
gold will buy nearly thirty ounces of silver. … There is a
general impression that silver has been the money of India
from remote generations. This is a fallacy. It has not been a
great many years since India adopted the silver standard. The
ancient money of the Hindoos was gold, which in 1818 was
supplemented by silver, but gold coins remained legal tender
until 1835, when silver was made the sole standard of value
and legal tender money in British India, and gold was
demonetized. … During the last fifty odd years, India has
absorbed vast quantities of silver."

_E. O. Leech,
The Doom of Silver
(The Forum, August, 1893)._

----------INDIA: End--------

INDIAN EMPIRE, The Order of the.

An Order instituted by Queen Victoria in 1878.

----------INDIAN TERRITORY: Start--------

INDIAN TERRITORY: 1803.
Embraced in the Louisiana Purchase.

See LOUISIANA: A. D. 1798-1803.

INDIAN TERRITORY: A. D. 1824.
Set off from Arkansas Territory.

See ARKANSAS: A. D. 1819-1836.

----------INDIAN TERRITORY: End--------

INDIANA.
The Aboriginal Inhabitants.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY,
ALLEGHANS, and DELAWARES.

INDIANA: A. D. 1700-1735.
Occupation by the French.

See CANADA: A. D. 1700-1735.

INDIANA: A. D. 1763.
Cession to Great Britain.

See SEVEN YEARS WAR: THE TREATIES.

INDIANA: A. D. 1763.
The King's proclamation excluding settlers.

See NORTHWEST TERRITORY: A. D. 1763.

INDIANA: A. D. 1765.
Possession taken by the English.

See ILLINOIS: A. D. 1765.

INDIANA: A. D. 1774.
Embraced in the Province of Quebec.

See CANADA: A. D. 1763-1774.

INDIANA: A. D. 1778-1779.
Conquest from the British by the Virginian General Clark, and
annexation to the Kentucky district of Virginia.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1778-1779, CLARK'S CONQUEST.

INDIANA: A. D. 1784.
Included in the proposed states of Assenisipia, Metropotamia,
Illinoia and Polypotamia.

See NORTHWEST TERRITORY: A. D. 1784.

INDIANA: A. D. 1786.
Partially covered by the western land claims of Connecticut,
ceded to the United States.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1781-1786.

INDIANA: A. D. 1787.
The Ordinance for the government of the Northwest Territory.
Perpetual exclusion of Slavery.

See NORTHWEST TERRITORY: A. D. 1787.

INDIANA: A. D. 1790-1795.
Indian War.
Disastrous expeditions of Harmar and St. Clair, and Wayne's
decisive victory.

See NORTHWEST TERRITORY: A. D. 1790-1795.

INDIANA: A. D. 1800.
The Territory of Indiana organized.

See NORTHWEST TERRITORY: A. D. 1788-1802.

{1749}

INDIANA: A. D. 1800-1818.
Successive partitions of the Territory.
Michigan and Illinois detached.
The remaining Indiana admitted as a State.

"Indiana Territory as originally organized [in 1800] …
included the county of Knox, upon the Wabash, from which has
sprung the State of Indiana; the county of St. Clair, on the
Upper Mississippi, or Illinois River, from which has sprung
the State of Illinois; and the county of Wayne, upon the
Detroit River, from which has sprung the State of Michigan.
… At this time, the inhabitants contained in all of them did
not amount to more than 5,640 souls, while the aggregate
number of the Indian tribes within the extreme limits of the
territory was more than 100,000. … By successive treaties,
the Indian title was extinguished gradually to all the country
lying upon the waters of the White River, and upon all the
lower tributaries of the Wabash, upon the Little Wabash, the
Kaskaskia, and east of the Mississippi, below the mouth of the
Illinois. Thus, before the close of the year 1805, nearly all
the southern half of the present State of Indiana, and one
third of the State of Illinois, was open to the advance of the
enterprising pioneer. … In 1807, the Federal government, in
like manner, purchased from the Indians extensive regions west
of Detroit River, and within the present State of Michigan,
far beyond the limits of the white settlements in that
quarter. Meantime, the settlements formerly comprised in Wayne
county, having increased in inhabitants and importance, had
been erected into a separate territorial government, known and
designated as the 'Territory of Michigan.' On the 1st of July,
1805, the territory entered upon the first grade of
territorial government, under the provisions of the ordinance
of 1787; and William Hull, formerly a lieutenant in the
Revolutionary army, was made the first governor. … Detroit
… was made the seat of the territorial government. … By
the close of the year 1808, the Indiana Territory east of the
Wabash had received such an increase in numbers that it was
desirable to assume the second grade of territorial
government. Having a population of 5,000 free white males,
Congress, with a view to a future state government, by an act
approved February 3d, 1809, restricted its limits, and
authorized a territorial Legislature. … The Indiana
Territory, from this time, was bounded on the west by a line
extending up the middle of the Wabash, from its mouth to
Vincennes, and thence by a meridian due north to the southern
extremity of Lake Michigan. On the north, it was bounded by
the southern line of the Michigan Territory. That portion west
of the Wabash was erected into a separate territorial
government of the first grade, known and designated as the
'Illinois Territory.' The inhabitants of the Indiana Territory
soon began to augment more rapidly. … In 1810 the people had
increased in numbers to 24,500, and in the newly-erected
Territory of Illinois there was an aggregate of 12,300
persons." In 1816 "it was ascertained that the Indiana
Territory possessed a population which entitled it to an
independent state government. Congress authorized the election
of a convention to form a state Constitution," and "the new
'State of Indiana' was formally admitted into the Union on the
19th of April, 1816." Two years later, on the 3d of December,
1818, the Territory of Illinois was similarly transformed and
became one of the states of the Union.

_J. W. Monette,
The Discovery and Settlement of the Mississippi Valley,
book 5, chapter 16 (volume 2)._

ALSO IN:
_J. B. Dillon,
History of Indiana,
chapters 31-47._

_A. Davidson and B. Stuvé,
History of Illinois,
chapters 20-26._

_T. M. Cooley,
Michigan,
chapter 8._

INDIANA: A. D. 1811.
General Harrison's campaign against Tecumseh and his League.
The Battle of Tippecanoe.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1811.

INDIANA: A. D. 1863.
John Morgan's Rebel Raid.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1863 (JULY: KENTUCKY).

----------INDIANS: Start--------

INDIANS:
American: The Name.

"As Columbus supposed himself to have landed on an island at
the extremity of India, he called the natives by the general
appellation of Indians, which was universally adopted before
the true nature of his discovery was known, and has since been
extended to all the aboriginals of the New World."

_W. Irving,
Life and Voyages of Columbus,
book 4, chapter 1 (volume 1)._

"The Spanish writers from the outset, beginning with Columbus
in his letters, call the natives of America, Indians, and
their English translators do the same. So, too, Richard Eden,
the earliest English writer on American travel, applies the
name to the natives of Peru and Mexico. It is used in the same
way, both in translations and original accounts, during the
rest of the century, but it is always limited to those races
with whom the Spaniards were in contact. In its wider and
later application the word does not seem to have established
itself in English till the next century. The earliest instance
I can find, where it is applied to the natives of North
America generally in any original work, is by Hakluyt. In 1587
he translated Laudonnière's 'History of the French Colony in
Florida,' and dedicated his translation to Sir Walter Raleigh.
In this dedication he once uses the term Indian for the
natives of North America. Heriot and the other writers who
describe the various attempts at settlement in Virginia during
the sixteenth century, invariably call the natives 'savages.'
Perhaps the earliest instance where an English writer uses the
name Indian specially to describe the occupants of the land
afterwards colonized by the English is in the account of
Archer's voyage to Virginia in 1602. This account, written by
James Rosier, is published in Purchas (volume iv. b. viii.).
From that time onward the use of the term in the wider sense
becomes more common. We may reasonably infer that the use of
it was an indication of the growing knowledge of the fact that
the lands conquered by the Spaniards and those explored by the
English formed one continent."

_J. A. Doyle,
The English in America: Virginia, &c.,
appendix A._

INDIANS: The tribes and families.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES.

----------INDIANS: End--------

INDICTIONS, The.

The indiction "was a cycle of 15 years, used only by the
Romans, for appointing the times of certain public taxes; as
appears from the title in the Code, 'De tributo indicto.' It
was established by Constantine, A. D. 312, in the room of the
heathen Olympiads; and was used in the acts of the General
Councils, Emperors, and Popes."

_W. Hales,
New Analysis of Chronology,
volume 1, book 1._

"The indictions consisted of a revolution of 15 years, which
are separately reckoned as indiction 1, indiction 2, &c., up
to 15; when they recommence with indiction 1. … Doubt exists
as to the commencement of the indictions; some writers
assigning the first indiction to the year 312; the greater
number to the year 313; others to 314; whilst some place it
in the year 315.
{1750}
In 'L'Art de vérifier les Dates,' the year 313 is fixed upon
as that of the first indiction. There are four descriptions of
indictions. The first is that of Constantinople, which was
instituted by Constantine in A. D. 312, and began on the 1st
of September. The second, and more common in England and
France, was the Imperial or Cæsarean indiction, which began on
the 24th of September. The third kind of indiction is called
the Roman or Pontifical, from its being generally used in
papal bulls, at least from the ninth to the fourteenth
century; it commences on the 25th of December or 1st of
January, accordingly as either of these days was considered
the first of the year. The fourth kind of indiction, which is
to be found in the register of the parliaments of Paris, began
in the month of October. … After the 12th century, the
indiction was rarely mentioned in public instruments. … But
in France, in private charters, and in ecclesiastical
documents, the usage continued until the end of the 15th
century."

_Sir H. Nicolas,
Chronology of History,
pages 6-7._

_ALSO IN:
E. Gibbon,
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,
chapter 17._

INDO-EUROPEAN. INDO-GERMANIC.

See ARYAN.

INDULGENCE: Declarations of: by Charles II.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1672-1673.

INDULGENCE: By James II.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1687-1688.

INDULGENCES: The Doctrine.
Tetzel's sale.
Luther's attack.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1516-1517; and 1517.

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION.

See EDUCATION, MODERN: REFORMS, &c.: A. D. 1865-1886.

INE, Laws of (or Dooms of).

See DOOMS OF INE.

INEXPIABLE WAR, The.

See CARTHAGE: B. C. 241-238.

INFALLIBILITY, Promulgation of the Dogma of Papal.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1869-1870.

INGÆVONES, The.

See GERMANY: AS KNOWN TO TACITUS.

INGAGO, Battle of (1881).

See SOUTH AFRICA: A. D. 1806-1881.

INGE I.,
King of Norway, A. D. 1157-1161.

Inge I. (called the Good), King of Sweden, 1090-1112.

Inge II., King of Norway, 1205-1207.

Inge II., King of Sweden, 1118-1129.

INGENUI. LIBERTINI.

"Free men [among the Romans] might be either persons born free
(ingenui) and who had never been in slavery to a Roman, or
persons who had once been slaves but had been emancipated
(libertini)."

_W. Ramsay,
Manual of Roman Antiquity,
chapter 3._

INI, King of West Saxons, A. D. 688-726.

INIS-FAIL. INIS-EALGA.

See IRELAND: THE NAME.

INITIATIVE, The Swiss.

See REFERENDUM.

INKERMANN, Battle of.

See RUSSIA: A. D. 1854 (OCTOBER-NOVEMBER).

INNOCENT II., Pope, A. D. 1130-1143.
Innocent III., Pope, 1198-1216.

Innocent IV., Pope, 1243-1254.

Innocent V., Pope, 1276, January to June.

Innocent VI., Pope, 1352-1362.

Innocent VII., Pope, 1404-1406.

Innocent VIII., Pope, 1484-1492.

Innocent IX., Pope, 1591, October to December.

Innocent X., Pope, 1644-1655.

Innocent XI., Pope, 1676-1689.

Innocent XII., Pope, 1691-1700.

Innocent XIII., Pope, 1721-1724.

INNUITS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ESKIMAUAN FAMILY.

----------INQUISITION: Start----------

INQUISITION, The: A. D. 1203-1525.
Origin of the Holy Office.
St. Dominic and the Dominicans.
The Episcopal Inquisition.
The Apostolical or Papal Inquisition.
The Spanish Inquisition and its terrible rule.
Estimate of victims.
Expulsion of Jews and Moors.