Chapter II: áhmedábád Kings (1)

A.D. 1403-1573.

The rule of the Áhmedábád kings extends over 170 years and includes the names of fifteen sovereigns. The period may conveniently be divided into two parts. The first, lasting for a little more than a century and a quarter, when, under strong rulers, Gujarát rose to consequence among the kingdoms of Western India; the second, from A.D. 1536 to A.D. 1573, an evil time when the sovereigns were minors and the wealth and supremacy of Gujarát were wasted by the rivalry of its nobles.

The date on which Zafar Khán openly threw off his allegiance to Dehli is doubtful. Farishtah says he had the Friday prayer or khutbah repeated in his name after his successful campaign against Jháláváda and Delváda in A.D. 1396. According to the Mirat-i-Sikandari he maintained a nominal allegiance till A.D. 1403 when he formally invested his son Tátár Khán with the sovereignty of Gujarát, under the title of Násir-ud-dín Muhammad Sháh.

[Muhammad I. 1403-1404.] On ascending the throne in A.D. 1403, Muhammad Sháh made Asáwal his capital, and, after humbling the chief of Nándod or Nádot in Rájpipla, marched against Dehli by way of Pátan. On his way to Pátan the king sickened and died. His body was brought back to Pátan, and the expedition against Dehli came to nothing. It seems probable that this is a courtly version of the tale; the fact being that in A.D. 1403 Tátár Khán imprisoned his father at Asáwal, and assumed the title of Muhammad Sháh, and that Tátár Khán's death was caused by poison administered in the interest, if not at the suggestion, of his father Zafar Khán. [738]

[Zafar Khán reigns as Muzaffar, 1407-1419.] After the death of Muhammad Sháh, Zafar Khán asked his own younger brother Shams Khán Dandáni to carry on the government, but he refused. Zafar Khán accordingly sent Shams Khán Dandáni to Nágor in place of Jalál Khán Khokhar, and in A.D. 1407-8, at Bírpur, at the request of the nobles and chief men of the country, himself formally mounted the throne and assumed the title of Muzaffar Sháh. At this time Álp Khán, son of Diláwar Khán of Málwa, was rumoured to have poisoned his father and ascended the throne with the title of Sultán Hushang Ghori. On hearing this Muzaffar Sháh marched against Hushang and besieged him in Dhár. [739] On reducing Dhár Muzaffar handed Hushang to the charge of his brother Shams Khán, on whom he conferred the title of Nasrat Khán. Hushang remained a year in confinement, and Músa Khán one of his relations usurped his authority. On hearing this, Hushang begged to be released, and Muzaffar Sháh not only agreed to his prayer, but sent his grandson Áhmed Khán with an army to reinstate him. This expedition was successful; the fortress of Mándu was taken and the usurper Músa Khán was put to flight. Áhmed Khán returned to Gujarát in A.D. 1409-10. Meanwhile Muzaffar advancing towards Dehli to aid Sultán Mahmúd (A.D. 1393-1413), prevented an intended attack on that city by Sultán Ibráhím of Jaunpur. On his return to Gujarát Muzaffar led, or more probably despatched, an unsuccessful expedition against Kambhkot. [740] In the following year (A.D. 1410-11), to quell a rising among the Kolis near Asával, Muzaffar placed his grandson Áhmed Khán in command of an army. Áhmed Khán camped outside of Pátan. He convened an assembly of learned men and asked them whether a son was not bound to exact retribution from his father's murderer. The assembly stated in writing that a son was bound to exact retribution. Armed with this decision, Áhmed suddenly entered the city, overpowered his grandfather, and forced him to drink poison. The old Khán said: 'Why so hasty, my boy. A little patience and power would have come to you of itself.' He advised Áhmed to kill the evil counsellors of murder and to drink no wine. Remorse so embittered Áhmed's after-life that he was never known to laugh.

[Ahmed I. 1411-1441.] On his grandfather's death, Áhmed succeeded with the title of Násir-ud-dunya Wad-dín Abúl fateh Áhmed Sháh. Shortly after Áhmed Sháh's accession, his cousin Moid-ud-dín Fírúz Khán, governor of Baroda, allying himself with Hisám or Nizám-ul-Mulk Bhandári and other nobles, collected an army at Nadiád in Kaira, and, laying claim to the crown, defeated the king's followers. Jívandás, one of the insurgents, proposed to march upon Pátan, but as the others refused a dispute arose in which Jívandás was slain, and the rest sought and obtained Áhmed Sháh's forgiveness. Moid-ud-dín Fírúz Khán went to Cambay and was there joined by Masti Khán, son of Muzaffar Sháh, who was governor of Surat: on the king's advance they fled from Cambay to Broach, to which fort Áhmed Sháh laid siege. As soon as the king arrived, Moid-ud-dín's army went over to the king, and Masti Khán also submitted. After a few days Áhmed Sháh sent for and forgave Moid-ud-dín, and returned to Asáwal victorious and triumphant.

[Builds Áhmedábád, 1413.] In the following year (A.D. 1413-14) [741] Áhmed Sháh defeated Ása Bhíl, chief of Asáwal, and, finding the site of that town suitable for his capital, he changed its name to Áhmedábád, and busied himself in enlarging and fortifying the city. [742] During this year Moid-ud-dín Fírúz Khán and Masti Khán again revolted, and, joining the Ídar Rája, took shelter in that fortress. [Defeats the Ídar Chief, 1414.] A force under Fateh Khán was despatched against the rebels, and finally Fírúz Khán and the Ídar Rája were forced to flee by way of Kherálu a town in the district of Kadi. Moid-ud-dín now persuaded Rukn Khán governor of Modása, fifty miles north of Áhmedábád, to join. They united their forces with those of Badri-ûlá, Masti Khán, and Ranmal Rája of Ídar and encamped at Rangpura an Ídar village about five miles from Modása and began to strengthen Modása and dig a ditch round it. The Sultán camped before the fort and offered favourable terms. The besieged bent on treachery asked the Sultán to send Nizám-ul-Mulk the minister and certain other great nobles. The Sultán agreed, and the besieged imprisoned the envoys. After a three days' siege Modása fell. Badri-ûlá and Rukn Khán were slain, and Fírúz Khán and the Rája of Ídar fled. The imprisoned nobles were released unharmed. The Rája seeing that all hope of success was gone, made his peace with the king by surrendering to him the elephants, horses and other baggage of Moid-ud-dín Fírúz Khán and Masti Khán, who now fled to Nágor, where they were sheltered by Shams Khán Dandáni. Áhmed Sháh after levying the stipulated tribute departed. Moid-ud-dín Fírúz Khán was afterwards slain in the war between Shams Khán and Rána Mokal of Chitor. [Suppresses a Revolt, 1414.] In A.D. 1414-15 Uthmán Áhmed and Sheikh Malik, in command at Pátan, and Sulaimán Afghán called Ázam Khán, and Ísa Sálár rebelled, and wrote secretly to Sultán Hushang of Málwa, inviting him to invade Gujarát, and promising to seat him on the throne and expel Áhmed Sháh. They were joined in their rebellion by Jhála Satarsálji [743] of Pátdi and other chiefs of Gujarát. Áhmed Sháh despatched Latíf Khán and Nizám-ul-Mulk against Sheikh Malik and his associates, while he sent Imád-ul-Mulk against Sultán Hushang, who retired, and Imád-ul-Mulk, after plundering Málwa, returned to Gujarát. Latíf Khán, pressing in hot pursuit of Satarsál and Sheikh Malik, drove them to Sorath. The king returned with joyful heart to Áhmedábád.

[Spread of Islám, 1414.] Though, with their first possession of the country, A.D. 1297-1318, the Muhammadans had introduced their faith from Pátan to Broach, the rest of the province long remained unconverted. By degrees, through the efforts of the Áhmedábád kings, the power of Islám became more directly felt in all parts of the province. Many districts, till then all but independent, accepted the Musalmán faith at the hands of Áhmed Sháh, and agreed to the payment of a regular tribute. In A.D. 1414 he led an army against the Ráv of Junágadh and defeated him. The Ráv retired to the hill fortress of Girnár. Áhmed Sháh, though unable to capture the hill, gained the fortified citadel of Junágadh. Finding further resistance vain, the chief tendered his submission, and Junágadh was admitted among the tributary states. This example was followed by the greater number of the Sorath chiefs, who, for the time, resigned their independence. Sayad Ábûl Khair and Sayad Kásim were left to collect the tribute, and Áhmed Sháh returned to Áhmedábád. Next year he marched against Sidhpur, [744] and in A.D. 1415 advanced from Sidhpur to Dhár in Málwa. [Áhmed I. Quells a Second Revolt, 1416.] At this time the most powerful feudatories were the Ráv of Junágadh, the Rával of Chámpáner, [745] the Rája of Nándod, the Ráv of Ídar, and the Rája of Jháláváda. Trimbakdás of Chámpáner, Púnja of Ídar, Siri of Nándod, and Mandlik of Jháláváda, alarmed at the activity of Áhmed Sháh and his zeal for Islám, instigated Sultán Hushang of Málwa to invade Gujarát. Áhmed Sháh promptly marched to Modása, [746] forced Sultán Hushang of Málwa to retire, and broke up the conspiracy, reproving and pardoning the chiefs concerned. About the same time the Sorath chiefs withheld their tribute, but the patience and unwearied activity of the king overcame all opposition. When at Modása Áhmed heard that, by the treachery of the son of the governor, Násír of Asír and Gheirát or Ghazni Khán of Málwa had seized the fort of Thálner in Sirpur in Khándesh, and, with the aid of the chief of Nándod, were marching against Sultánpur and Nandurbár. Áhmed sent an expedition against Nasír of Asír under Malik Mahmúd Barki or Turki. When the Malik reached Nándod he found that Gheirat Khán had fled to Málwa and that Nasír had retired to Thálner. The Malik advanced, besieged and took Thálner, capturing Nasír whom Áhmed forgave and dignified with the title of Khán. [747]

After quelling these rebellions Áhmed Sháh despatched Nizám-ul-Mulk to punish the Rája of Mandal near Viramgám, and [Expedition against Málwa, 1417.] himself marched to Málwa against Sultán Hushang, whom he defeated, capturing his treasure and elephants. In A.D. 1418, in accordance with his policy of separately engaging his enemies, [Attacks Chámpáner, 1418.] Áhmed Sháh marched to chastise Trimbakdas of Chámpáner, and though unable to take the fortress he laid waste the surrounding country. In A.D. 1419 he ravaged the lands round Sankheda [748] and built a fort there and a mosque within the fort; he also built a wall round the town of Mángni, [749] and then marched upon Mándu. On the way ambassadors from Sultán Hushang met him suing for peace, and Áhmed Sháh, returning towards Chámpáner, again laid waste the surrounding country. During the following year (A.D. 1420) he remained in Ahmedábád bringing his own dominions into thorough subjection by establishing fortified posts and by humbling the chiefs and destroying their strongholds. Among other works he built the forts of Dohad [750] on the Málwa frontier and of Jítpur in Lúnáváda. [751] In A.D. 1421 he repaired the fort in the town of Kahreth, otherwise called Meimún in Lúnáváda, which had been built by Ulugh Khán Sanjar in the reign of Sultán Alá-ud-dín (A.D. 1295-1315) and changed the name to Sultánpur. [War with Málwa, 1422.] He next advanced against Málwa and took the fort of Mesar. After an unsuccessful siege of Mándu he went to Ujjain. [752] From Ujjain he returned to Mándu, and failing to capture Mándu, he marched against Sárangpur. [753] Sultán Hushang sent ambassadors and concluded a peace. In spite of the agreement, while Áhmed Sháh was returning to Gujarát, Sultán Hushang made a night attack on his army and caused much havoc. Áhmed Sháh, collecting what men he could, waited till dawn and then fell on and defeated the Málwa troops, who were busy plundering. Sultán Hushang took shelter in the fort of Sárangpur to which Áhmed Sháh again laid siege. Failing to take the fort Áhmed retreated towards Gujarát, closely followed by Sultán Hushang, who was eager to wipe out his former defeat. On Hushang's approach, Áhmed Sháh, halting his troops, joined battle and repulsing Hushang returned to Áhmedábád.

[Defeats the Ídar Chief, 1425.] In A.D. 1425 Áhmed Sháh led an army against Ídar, defeating the force brought to meet him and driving their leader to the hills. Ídar was always a troublesome neighbour to the Áhmedábád kings and one difficult to subdue, for when his country was threatened, the chief could retire to his hills, where he could not easily be followed. As a permanent check on his movements, Áhmed Sháh, in A.D. 1427, built the fort of Ahmednagar, [754] on the banks of the Háthmati, eighteen miles south-west of Ídar. In the following year the Ídar chief, Ráv Púnja, attacked a foraging party and carried off one of the royal elephants. He was pursued into the hills and brought to bay in a narrow pathway at the edge of a steep ravine. Púnja was driving back his pursuers when the keeper of the Sultán's elephant urged his animal against the Ráv's horse. The horse swerving lost his foothold and rolling down the ravine destroyed himself and his rider. [755]

During the two following years Áhmed Sháh abstained from foreign conquests, devoting himself to improving his dominions and to working out a system of paying his troops. The method he finally adopted was payment half in money and half in land. This arrangement attached the men to the country, and, while keeping them dependent on the state, enabled them to be free from debt. Further to keep his officials in check he arranged that the treasurer should be one of the king's slaves while the actual paymaster was a native of the particular locality. He also appointed ámils that is sub-divisional revenue officers. After Ráv Púnja's death Áhmed Sháh marched upon Ídar, and did not return until Ráv Púnja's son agreed to pay an annual tribute of £300 (Rs. 3000). In the following year, according to Farishtah (II. 369) in spite of the young chiefs promise to pay tribute, Áhmed Sháh attacked Ídar, took the fort, and built an assembly mosque. Fearing that their turn would come next the chief of Jháláváda and Kánha apparently chief of Dungarpur fled to Nasír Khán of Asír. Nasír Khán gave Kánha a letter to Áhmed Sháh Báhmani, to whose son Alá-ud-dín Násír's daughter was married, and having detached part of his own troops to help Kánha they plundered and laid waste some villages of Nandurbár and Sultánpur. Sultán Áhmed sent his eldest son Muhammad Khán with Mukarrabul Mulk and others to meet the Dakhanis who were repulsed with considerable loss. On this Sultán Áhmed Báhmani, under Kadr Khán Dakhani, sent his eldest son Alá-ud-dín and his second son Khán Jehán against the Gujarátis. Kadr Khán marched to Daulatábád and joining Nasír Khán and the Gujarát rebels fought a great battle near the pass of Mánek Púj, six miles south of Nándgaon in Násik. The confederates were defeated with great slaughter. The Dakhan princes fled to Daulatábád and Kánha and Nasír Khán to Kalanda near Chálisgaum in south Khándesh.

[Recovers Máhim, 1429;] In the same year (A.D. 1429), on the death of Kutub Khán the Gujarát governor of the island of Máhim, now the north part of the island of Bombay, [756] Áhmed Sháh Báhmani smarting under his defeats, ordered Hasan Izzat, otherwise called Malik-ut-Tujjár, to the Konkan and by the Malik's activity the North Konkan passed to the Dakhanis. On the news of this disaster Áhmed Sháh sent his youngest son Zafar Khán, with an army under Malik Iftikhár Khán, to retake Máhim. A fleet, collected from Diu Gogha and Cambay sailed to the Konkan, attacked Thána [757] by sea and land, captured it, and regained possession of Máhim. In A.D. 1431 Áhmed Sháh advanced upon Chámpáner, and Áhmed Sháh Bahmani, anxious to retrieve his defeat at Máhim, marched an army into [and Báglán, 1431.] Báglán [758] and laid it waste. This news brought Áhmed Sháh back to Nandurbár. Destroying Nándod he passed to Tambol, a fort in Báglán which Áhmed Sháh Báhmani was besieging, defeated the besiegers and relieved the fort. He then went to Thána, repaired the fort, and returned to Gujarát by way of Sultánpur and Nandurbár. In A.D. 1432, after contracting his son Fateh Khán in marriage with the daughter of the Rái of Máhim to the north of Bassein Áhmed Sháh marched towards Nágor, and exacted tribute and presents from the Rával of Dúngarpur. [759] From Dúngarpur he went to Mewár, enforcing his claims on Búndi and Kota, two Hára Rájput states in south-east Rájputána. He then entered the Delváda country, levelling temples and destroying the palace of Rána Mokalsingh, the chief of Chitor. Thence he invaded Nágor in the country of the Ráthods, who submitted to him. After this he returned to Gujarát, and during the next few years was warring principally in Málwa, where, according to Farishtah, his army suffered greatly from pestilence and famine. Áhmed died in A.D. 1441 in the fifty-third year of his life and the thirty-third of his reign and was buried in the mausoleum in the Mánek Chauk in Áhmedábád. His after-death title is Khûdaigán-i-Maghfûr the Forgiven Lord in token that, according to his merciful promise, Allah the pitiful, moved by the prayer of forty believers, had spread his forgiveness over the crime of Áhmed's youth, a crime bewailed by a lifelong remorse.

Sultán Áhmed is still a name of power among Gujarát Musalmáns. He is not more honoured for his bravery, skill, and success as a war leader than for his piety and his justice. His piety showed itself in his respect for three great religious teachers Sheikh Rukn-ud-dín the representative of Sheikh Moín-ud-dín the great Khwájah of Ajmír, Sheikh Áhmed Khattu who is buried at Sarkhej five miles west of Áhmedábád, and the Bukháran Sheikh Burhán-ud-dín known as Kutbi Álam the father of the more famous Sháh Álam. Of Áhmed's justice two instances are recorded. Sitting in the window of his palace watching the Sábarmati in flood Áhmed saw a large earthen jar float by. The jar was opened and the body of a murdered man was found wrapped in a blanket. The potters were called and one said the jar was his and had been sold to the headman of a neighbouring village. On inquiry the headman was proved to have murdered a grain merchant and was hanged. The second case was the murder of a poor man by Áhmed's son-in-law. The Kázi found the relations of the deceased willing to accept a blood fine and when the fine was paid released the prince. Áhmed hearing of his son-in-law's release said in the case of the rich fine is no punishment and ordered his son-in-law to be hanged. [760]

[Muhammad II. 1441-1452.] Áhmed Sháh was succeeded by his generous pleasure-loving son Muhammad Sháh, Ghiás-ud-dunya Wad-dín, also styled Zarbaksh the Gold Giver. In A.D. 1445 Muhammad marched against Bír Rái of Ídar, but on that chief agreeing to give him his daughter in marriage, he confirmed him in the possession of his state. His next expedition was against Kánha Rái of Dúngarpur, who took refuge in the hills, but afterwards returned, and paying tribute, was given charge of his country. Muhammad married Bíbi Mughli, daughter of Jám Júna of Thatha in Sindh. She bore a son, Fateh Khán, who was afterwards Sultán Mahmúd Begada. In A.D. 1450, Muhammad marched upon Chámpáner, and took the lower fortress. Gangádás of Chámpáner had a strong ally in Sultán Mahmúd Khilji, the ruler of Málwa, and on his approach Muhammad Sháh retired to Godhra, [761] and Mahmúd Khilji continued his march upon Gujarát at the head of 80,000 horse. Muhammad Sháh was preparing to fly to Diu, when the nobles, disgusted at his cowardice, caused him to be poisoned. Muhammad Sháh's after-death title is Khûdáigán-i-Karím the Gracious Lord.

[Kutb-ud-dín, 1451-1459.] In A.D. 1451 the nobles placed Muhammad's son Jalál Khán on the throne with the title of Kutb-ud-dín. Meanwhile Sultán Mahmúd of Málwa had laid siege to Sultánpur. [762] Malik Alá-ud-dín bin Sohráb Kutb-ud-dín's commander surrendered the fort, and was sent with honour to [War with Málwa, 1451.] Málwa and appointed governor of Mándu. Sultán Mahmúd, marching to Sársa-Pálri, summoned Broach, then commanded by Sídi Marján on behalf of Gujarát. The Sídi refused, and fearing delay, the Málwa Sultán after plundering Baroda proceeded to Nadiád, whose Bráhmans astonished him by their bravery in killing a mad elephant. Kutb-ud-dín Sháh now advancing met Sultán Mahmúd at [Battle of Kapadvanj, 1454.] Kapadvanj, [763] where, after a doubtful fight of some hours, he defeated Sultán Mahmúd, though during the battle that prince was able to penetrate to Kutb-ud-dín's camp and carry off his crown and jewelled girdle. The Mirat-i-Sikandari ascribes Kutb-ud-dín's victory in great measure to the gallantry of certain inhabitants of Dholka [764] called Darwáziyahs. Muzaffar Khán, who is said to have incited the Málwa Sultán to invade Gujarát, was captured and beheaded, and his head was hung up at the gate of Kapadvanj. On his return from Kapadvanj Kutb-ud-dín built the magnificent Hauzi Kutb or Kánkariya Tank about a mile to the south of Áhmedábád. According to the Mirat-i-Sikandari (Persian Text, 50-57) this war between Málwa and Gujarát was controlled by the spiritual power of certain holy teachers. The war was brought on by the prayers of Sheikh Kamál Málwi, whose shrine is in Áhmedábád behind Khudáwand Khán's mosque near Sháh-i-Álam's tomb, who favoured Málwa. Kutb-ud-dín's cause was aided by the blessing of Kutbi Álam who sent his son the famous Sháh Álam time after time to persuade Kamál to be loyal to Gujarát. At last Kamál produced a writing said to be from heaven giving the victory to Málwa. The young Sháh Álam tore this charter to shreds, and, as no evil befel him, Kamál saw that his spiritual power paled before Sháh Álam and fell back dead. Sháh Álam against his will accompanied Kutb-ud-dín some marches on his advance to Kapadvanj. Before leaving the army Sháh Álam blessed a mean camp elephant and ordered him to destroy the famous Málwa champion elephant known as the Butcher. He also, against his wish for he knew the future, at the Sultán's request bound his own sword round Kutb-ud-dín's waist. In the battle the commissariat elephant ripped the Butcher and some years later Kutb-ud-dín by accident gashed his knee with the saint's sword and died.

[War with Nágor, 1454-1459.] In the same year Sultán Mahmúd Khilji attempted to conquer Nágor then held by Fírúz Khán, a cousin of the Áhmedábád Sultán. Kutb-ud-dín Sháh despatched an army under the command of Sayad Atáulláh, and, as it drew near Sámbhar, [765] the Málwa Sultán retired and shortly after Fírúz Khán died. Kúmbha Rána of Chitor [766] now began interfering in the Nágor succession on behalf of Shams Khán, who had been dispossessed by his brother Mujáhid Khán, and expelled Mujáhid. But as Shams Khán refused to dismantle the fortifications of Nágor, the Chitor chief collected an army to capture Nágor, while Shams Khán repaired to Kutb-ud-dín Sháh for aid and gave that sovereign his daughter in marriage. Upon this Kutb-ud-dín sent Rái Anupchand Mánek and Malik Gadái with an army to Nágor to repulse the Rána of [War with Chitor, 1455-1459.] Chitor. In a battle near Nágor the Gujarát troops were defeated, and the Rána after laying waste the neighbourhood of that city, returned to Chitor. In A.D. 1455-56, to avenge this raid, Kutb-ud-dín Sháh marched against Chitor. On his way the Devra Rája of Sirohi [767] attended Kutb-ud-dín Sháh's camp, praying him to restore the fortress of Ábu, [768] part of the ancestral domain of Sirohi, which the Rána of Chitor had wrested from his house. The king ordered one of his generals, Malik Shaâbán, to take possession of Ábu and restore it to the Devra chieftain, while he himself continued to advance against Kumbhalmer. Malik Shaâbán was entangled in the defiles near Ábu, and defeated with great slaughter, and shortly after Kutb-ud-dín Sháh, making a truce with Chitor, retired to his own country. On his return the Málwa sovereign proposed that they should unite against Chitor, conquer the Rána's territories, and divide them equally between them. Kutb-ud-dín agreed and in A.D. 1456-57 marched against the Rána by way of Ábu, which fortress he captured and handed to the Devra Rája. [769] Next, advancing upon Kumbhalmer, he plundered the country round, and then turned towards Chitor. On his way to Chitor, he was met by the Rána, and a battle was fought, after which the Rána fell back on his capital, and was there besieged by the Gujarát army. The siege was not pressed, and, on the Rána agreeing to pay tribute and not to harass Nágor, Kutb-ud-dín withdrew to Gujarát, where he gave himself up to licentious excess. Meanwhile, the Rána by ceding Mandisor [770] to Málwa, came to terms with the Sultán of Mándu, and within three months attacked Nágor. Kutb-ud-dín Sháh, though so overcome with drink as to be unable to sit his horse, mustered his troops and started in a palanquin. As soon as the Rána heard that the Gujarát army was in motion he retired, and the king returned to Áhmedábád. In A.D. 1458, he again led an army by way of Sirohi and Kumbhalmer against Chitor, and laid waste the country. Soon after his return, according to one account by an accidental sword wound, according to another account poisoned by his wife, Kutb-ud-dín died in May A.D. 1459 after a reign of seven years and seven days. He was brave with a sternness of nature, which, under the influence of wine, amounted to fierceness. His after-death title is Sultán-i-Gházi the Warrior King.

[Mahmúd I. (Begada), 1459-1513.] On the death of Kutb-ud-dín Sháh, the nobles raised to the throne his uncle Dáúd, son of Áhmed Sháh. But as Dáúd appointed low-born men to high offices and committed other foolish acts, he was deposed, and in A.D. 1459 his half-brother Fateh Khán the son of Muhammad Sháh, son of Áhmed Sháh by Bíbi Mughli a daughter of Jám Júna of Thatha in Sindh, was seated on the throne at the age of little more than thirteen with the title of Mahmúd Sháh.

The close connection of Fateh Khán with the saintly Sháh Álam is a favourite topic with Gujarát historians. According to the Mirat-i-Sikandari (Persian Text, 66-70) of his two daughters Jám Júna intended Bíbi Mughli the more beautiful for the Saint and Bíbi Mirghi the less comely for the Sultán. By bribing the Jám's envoys the king secured the prettier sister. The enraged Saint was consoled by his father who said: My son, to you will come both the cow and the calf. After Muhammad II.'s death, fear of Kutb-ud-dín's designs against the young Fateh Khán forced Bíbi Mughli to seek safety with her sister, and on her sister's death she married the Saint. Kutb-ud-dín made several attempts to seize Fateh Khán. But by the power of the Saint when Kutb-ud-dín attempted to seize him, Fateh Khán in body as well as in dress became a girl. According to one account Kutb-ud-dín met his death in an attempt to carry off Fateh Khán. As he rode into the Saint's quarter Death in the form of a mad camel met the king. The king struck at the phantom, and his sword cleaving the air gashed his knee. This was the Saint's sword, which against his will, for he knew it would be the death of the king, Kutb-ud-dín forced Sháh Álam to bind round him before the battle of Kapadvanj.

[Defeats a Conspiracy, 1459.] The death of his uncle, the late Sultán Dáúd, who had become a religious devotee, relieved Fateh Khán of one source of danger. Shortly after certain of the nobles including Seiful Mulk, Kabír-ud-dín Sultáni surnamed Akd-ul-Mulk, Burhán-ul-Mulk and Hisám-ul-Mulk represented to the Sultán that the minister Shaâbán Imád-ul-Mulk contemplated treason and wished to set his son on the throne. Having seized and imprisoned the minister in the Bhadra citadel and set five hundred of their trusted retainers as guards over him, the rebels retired to their homes. At nightfall Abdulláh, the chief of the elephant stables, going to the young Sultán represented to him that the nobles who had imprisoned Imád-ul-Mulk were the real traitors and had determined to place Habíb Khán, an uncle of the Sultán's, on the throne. The Sultán consulting his mother and some of his faithful friends ordered Abdulláh at daybreak to equip all his elephants in full armour and draw them up in the square before the Bhadra. He then seated himself on the throne and in a voice of feigned anger ordered one of the courtiers to bring out Shaâbán Imád-ul-Mulk, that he might wreak his vengeance upon him. As these orders were not obeyed the Sultán rose, and walking up the Bhadra called: "Bring out Shaâbán!" The guards brought forth Imád-ul-Mulk, and the Sultán ordered his fetters to be broken. Some of the nobles' retainers made their submission to the Sultán, others fled and hid themselves. In the morning, hearing what had happened, the refractory nobles marched against the Sultán. Many advised the Sultán to cross the Sábarmati by the postern gate and retire from the city, and, after collecting an army, to march against the nobles. Giving no ear to these counsels the young Sultán ordered Abdulláh to charge the advancing nobles with his six hundred elephants. The charge dispersed the malcontents who fled and either hid themselves in the city or betook themselves to the country. Some were killed, some were trampled by the Sultán's orders under the elephants' feet, and one was pardoned. [771] His religious ardour, his love of justice, his bravery, and his wise measures entitle Mahmúd to the highest place among the Gujarát kings. One of the measures which the Mirat-i-Sikandari specially notices is his continuance of land grants to the son of the holder, and in cases where there was no male issue of half the grant to the daughter. His firm policy of never ousting the landholder except for proved oppression or exaction was productive of such prosperity that the revenue increased two, three and in some cases tenfold. The roads were safe from freebooters and trade was secure. A rule forbidding soldiers to borrow money at interest is favourably noticed. [Improves the Soldiery, 1459-1461.] A special officer was appointed to make advances to needy soldiers with the power to recover from their pay in fixed instalments. [772] Mahmúd also devoted much attention to the culture of fruit trees. [773] In A.D. 1461, or A.D. 1462 according to Farishtah, Nizám Sháh Báhmani (A.D. 1461-1463), king of the Dakhan, whose country had been invaded by Sultán Mahmúd Khilji of Málwa, applied for help to the Gujarát king. [Helps the King of the Dakhan, 1461.] Mahmúd Sháh at once started to Nizám Sháh's aid, and on his way receiving another equally pressing letter from the Dakhan sovereign, and being joined by the Báhmani general Khwájáh Jehán Gáwán, he pushed on with all speed by way of Burhánpur. [774] When Sultán Mahmúd Khilji heard of his approach, he retired to his own country by way of Gondwána, [775] from thirst and from the attacks of the Gonds, losing 5000 to 6000 men. The king of Gujarát, after receiving the thanks of the Dakhan sovereign, returned to his own dominions. In A.D. 1462 Sultán Mahmúd Khilji made another incursion into the Dakhan at the head of 90,000 horse, plundering and laying waste the country as far as Daulatábád. Again the Dakhan sovereign applied for help to Mahmúd Sháh, and on hearing of Mahmúd's advance the Málwa Sultán retired a second time to his own dominions. Mahmúd Sháh now wrote to the Málwa Sultán to desist from harassing the Dakhan, threatening, in case of refusal, to march at once upon Mándu. His next expedition was against the pirate zamíndárs of the hill fort of Barûr and the bandar of Dûn or Dáhánu, whose fort he took, and after imposing an annual tribute allowed the chief to continue to hold his hundred villages. [776]

[Expedition against Junágadh, 1467.] Mahmúd Sháh next turned his thoughts to the conquest of the mountain citadel of Girnár in central Káthiáváda. [777] In A.D. 1467 he made an attack on the fort of Junágadh, and receiving the submission of Ráv Mandlik, the local ruler, returned to his capital. In the following year, hearing that the Junágadh chief continued to visit his idol temple in state with a golden umbrella and other ensigns of royalty, Mahmúd despatched an army to Junágadh, and the chief sent the obnoxious umbrella to the king, accompanied by fitting presents. In A.D. 1469 Mahmúd once more sent an army to ravage Sorath, with the intention of finally conquering both Junágadh and Girnár. While Mahmúd was on the march the Ráv Mandlik suddenly joined him, and asking why the Sultán was so bent on his destruction when he had committed no fault, agreed to do whatever Mahmúd might command. The king replied there is no fault like infidelity, and ordered the Ráv to embrace Islám. The chief, now thoroughly alarmed, fled by night and made his way into Girnár. [Capture of Girnár, 1472.] In A.D. 1472-73 after a siege of nearly two years, forced by the failure of his stores, he quitted the fort and handing the keys to the king, repeated after him the Muhammadan profession of faith. Though the Ráv's life was spared Sorath from this date became a crown possession, and was governed by an officer appointed by the king and stationed at Junágadh. At the close of the war Mahmúd Sháh repaired the fort Jehánpanáh, the present outer or town wall of Junágadh, and, charmed with the beauty of the neighbourhood, settled sayads and learned men at Junágadh and other towns in Sorath. He induced the nobles to build houses, himself raised a palace and made the new city his capital under the name of Mustafábad and enforced his claims as overlord on all the neighbouring chiefs. It is true that in the times of Áhmed Sháh these chieftains, including even the Junágadh Ráv himself, had paid tribute. But Mahmúd established Áhmedábád rule so firmly that the duty of collecting the tribute was entrusted to an officer permanently settled in the country. The author of the Mirat-i-Sikandari dilates on the dense woods round Junágadh, full of mango, ráen, jámbu, gúlar, ámli, and áonla [778] trees, and notes that this forest tract was inhabited by a wild race of men called Khánts. [779]

[Disturbances in Chámpáner, 1472.] During Mahmúd Sháh's prolonged absence from his capital, Malik Jamál-ud-dín was appointed governor of Áhmedábád, with the title of Muháfiz Khán that is Care-taker. At this time Jesingh, son of Gangádás the chief of Chámpáner, harassed the country round Pávágad. The king appointed Bahá-ul-Mulk, who had the title of Imád-ul-Mulk, to the command of Sankheda; Malik Sárang Kiwám-ul-Mulk to the command of Godhra; and Táj Khán bin Sálár to the command of Norkha and Dákhna on the Máhi. In consequence of these precautions Jesingh abstained from rebellion. At this time the Ráv Mandlik received the title of Khán Jahán, and lands were bestowed on him, while the golden idols, which had been taken from the Junágadh temples, were broken and distributed among the soldiers.

[Conquest of Kachh.] Mahmúd Sháh's next expedition was against the turbulent inhabitants of the confines of Sindh. These were Jádejás, though they are described as Rájputs of the Sumra and Sodha tribes. [780] They appear to have readily submitted, and to have voluntarily sent men to Junágadh to be instructed in Islám and to settle in Gujarát. Shortly afterwards they again became troublesome, and the king advancing into Kachh completely defeated them. About this time a learned man, Mulla Mahmúd Samarkandi, on his way from the Dakhan to Central Asia, complained to the king that he had been robbed by the pirates of Jagat or Dwárka. [781] On hearing of this outrage Mahmúd Sháh marched to [Jagat Destroyed.] Jagat, took the fort, and destroyed the idol temples. The pirates, in the first instance, retired to the island of Shankhodára or Bet, but from this, too, after a stout resistance they were driven with great slaughter. The king built a mosque at Jagat, entrusted the government to Farhat-ul-Mulk, and himself returned to Junágadh. Before this Dwárka had never been conquered. Bhím, the Rájá of Dwárka, was sent to Muháfiz Khán, the governor of Áhmedábád, with orders that he was to be hewn in pieces and a piece fastened to every gate of the city. After settling the affairs of Sorath, the king turned his face towards Áhmedábád. On the way hearing that a fleet of Malabár craft were annoying the Gujarát ports, he marched to Gogha, equipped a fleet to oppose the pirates, and stopping at Cambay returned to Áhmedábád.

[Conspiracy, 1480.] In A.D. 1480, when Mahmúd Sháh was at Junágadh, Khudáwand Khán and others, who were weary of the king's constant warfare, incited his eldest son Áhmed to assume royal power. But Imád-ul-Mulk, by refusing to join, upset their plans, and on the king's return the conspiracy was stamped out. In the previous year (A.D. 1479) Mahmúd Sháh sent an army to ravage Chámpáner, which he was determined to conquer. About this time, hearing that the neighbourhood was infested with robbers, he founded the city of Mehmúdábád on the banks of the Vátrak, about eighteen miles south of Áhmedábád. In A.D. 1482 there was a partial famine in Gujarát, and the Chámpáner country being exempt from scarcity the commandant of Morámli or Rasúlábád, a post in the Gáckwár's Sáonli district on the Chámpáner frontier, made several forays across the border. In return the chief attacked the commandant and defeated him, killing most of his men and capturing two elephants and several horses. On hearing this Mahmúd Sháh set out for Baroda with a powerful army. When Mahmúd reached Baroda the Rával of [War against Chámpáner, 1482-1484.] Chámpáner, becoming alarmed, sent ambassadors and sued for forgiveness. The king rejected his overtures, saying: 'Except the sword and the dagger no message shall pass between me and you.' [782] The Rával made preparations for a determined resistance, and sent messengers to summon Ghiás-ud-dín Khilji of Málwa to his aid. To prevent this junction Mahmúd Sháh entrusted the siege to his nobles and marched to Dohad, on which Sultán Ghiás-ud-dín withdrew to Mándu. On his return from Dohad the Sultán began building a Jáma Mosque at Chámpáner to show that he would not leave the place till he had taken the hill-fort of Pávágad. After the siege had lasted more than twenty months (April 1483-December 1484), the Musalmáns noticed that for an hour or two in the morning most of the Rájputs were off duty bathing and dressing. A morning assault was planned and the first gate carried. Then Malik Ayáz Sultáni finding a practicable breach passed through with some of his men and took the great gate. The Rával and his Rájputs, throwing their women children and valuables into a huge fire, rushed out in a fierce but unavailing charge. [783]

[Capture of Pávágad, 1484.] The Rával and his minister Dúngarshi fell wounded into the conqueror's hands, and, on refusing to embrace Islám, were put to death. The Rával's son, who was entrusted to Seif-ul-Mulk, and instructed by him in the Muhammadan religion, afterwards, in the reign of Muzaffar Sháh (A.D. 1523-1526), was ennobled by the title of Nizám-ul-Mulk. On the capture of Pávágad in A.D. 1484, Mahmúd Sháh built a wall round the town of Chámpáner, and made it his capital under the name of Muhammadábád. Under Mahmúd's orders the neighbourhood became stocked with mangoes, pomegranates, figs, grapes, sugarcane, plantains, oranges, custard apples, khirnis or ráens (Mimusops indica or hexandra), jackfruit, and cocoapalms, as well as with roses, chrysanthemums, jasmins, champás, and sweet pandanus. A sandal grove near Chámpáner is said to have had trees large enough to help the Musalmán nobles to build their mansions. At the instance of the Sultán a Khurásáni beautified one of the gardens with fountains and cascades. A Gujaráti named Hálur learning the principle improved on his master's design in a garden about four miles west of Chámpáner, which in his honour still bears the name Hálol. [784]

In Mahmúd's reign an instance is mentioned of the form of compensation known as valtar. Some merchants bringing horses and other goods for sale from Irák and Khurásán were plundered in Sirohi limits. The king caused them to give in writing the price of their horses and stuffs, and paying them from his own treasury recovered the amount from the Rája of Sirohi.

[The Khándesh Succession, 1508.] In A.D. 1494-95 Mahmúd went against Bahádur Khán Gíláni, a vassal of the Bahmanis, who from Goa and Dábhol [785] had so harassed the Gujarát harbours that, from the failure of the supply of betelnut, coriander seed had to be eaten with betel leaves. The Bahmani Sultán, fearing the consequences to himself, marched against Bahádur Khán, and, capturing him alive, struck off his head, and sent it to the Gujarát monarch, who returned to his own country. In A.D. 1499-1500, hearing that Násir-ud-dín of Málwa had killed his father Ghiás-ud-dín and seated himself on the throne, the Sultán prepared to advance against him, but was appeased by Násir-ud-dín's humble attitude. The next seven years passed without any warlike expedition. In A.D. 1507, near Daman on his way to Cheul, Mahmúd heard of the victory gained at Cheul over the Portuguese by the Gujarát squadron under Malik Ayáz Sultáni, in concert with the Turkish fleet. [786] In A.D. 1508 Mahmúd succeeded in placing his nephew Mirán Muhammad Ádil Khán Fárúki on the throne of Ásir-Burhánpur. From 1508 Mahmúd remained at his capital till his death in December A.D. 1513 at the age of sixty-seven years and three months, after a reign of fifty-four years and one month. Mahmúd was buried at Sarkhej, [787] and received the after-death title of Khúdáigán-i-Halím or the Meek Lord. Immediately before his death Sultán Mahmúd was informed that Sháh Ismáil Safawi of Persia had sent him a friendly embassy headed by Yádgár Beg Kazil-básh. As the Kazil-báshes were known to be Shíahs the Sultán, who was a staunch Sunni, prayed that he might not be forced to see a Shíah's face during his last days. His prayer was heard. He died before the Persian embassy entered the city. [788] During the last days of Sultán Mahmúd, Sayad Muhammad of Jaunpur, who claimed to be the Mahdi or Messiah, came from Jaunpur and lodged in Tájkhán Sálár's mosque near the Jamálpur gate of Áhmedábád. His sermons drew crowds, and were so persuasive that he gained a large body of followers, who believed his eloquence to be due to hál or inspiration. Mahmúd's ministers persuaded him not to see the Jaunpur preacher.

Mahmúd Begada's court was adorned by several pious and high-minded nobles. In life they vied with one another in generous acts; and after death, according to the Persian poet Urfi, they left their traces in the characters and carvings of stone walls and marble piles. First among these nobles the Mirat-i-Sikandari (Persian Text, 132, 142) mentions Dáwar-ul-Mulk, whose god-fearing administration made his estates so prosperous that they were coveted by princes of the blood. As Thánadár of Amron in north Káthiáváda, he spread the light of Islám from Morvi to Bhúj, and after his death his fame as a spirit-ruling guardian drew hosts of sick and possessed to his shrine near Morvi. The second was Malik Ayáz, governor of Diu, who built the strong fortress afterwards reconstructed by the Portuguese. He also built a tower on an under-water rock, and from the tower drew a massive iron chain across the mouth of the harbour. A substantial bridge over the creek, that runs through the island of Diu, was afterwards destroyed by the Portuguese. The third was Khudáwand Khán Alím, the founder of Alímpura a suburb to the south of Áhmedábád, adorned with a mosque of sandstone and marble. He introduced the cultivation of melons figs and sugarcane into Gujarát from Bijápur. The fourth was Imád-ul-Mulk Asas who founded Ísanpur, a suburb between Sháh Álam's suburb of Islámpur and Batwa, and planted along the road groves of khirnis and mangoes. The fifth was Tájkhán Sálár, so loved of his peers that after his death none of them would accept his title. The sixth was Malik Sárang Kiwám-ul-Mulk, a Rájput by birth, the founder of the suburb of Sárangpur and its mosque to the east of Áhmedábád. The seventh and eighth were the Khurásáni brothers Aâzam and Moâzzam, who built a cistern, a mosque, and a tomb between Áhmedábád and Sarkhej.

Besides Khalíl Khán, who succeeded him, Mahmúd had three sons: Muhammad Kála, Ápá Khán, and Áhmed Khán. Kála, son of Ráni Rúp Manjhri died during his father's lifetime as did his mother, who was buried in Mánek Chauk in Áhmedábád in the building known as the Ráni's Hazíra. The second son Ápá Khán was caught trespassing in a noble's harím, and was ordered by the Sultán to be poisoned. The third son was the Áhmed Khán whom Khudáwand Khán sought to raise to the throne during Sultán Mahmúd's lifetime.

[Muzaffar II. 1513-1526.] Muhammad was succeeded by Khalíl Khán, the son of Ráni Hírábái the daughter of a Rájput chieftain named Nága Rána who lived on the bank of the Mahi. On ascending the throne, at the age of twenty-seven, Khalíl adopted the title of Muzaffar Sháh. For some time before his father's death, Prince Khalíl Khán had been living at Baroda and shortly after his accession he visited that neighbourhood, and founded a town which he named Daulatábád. In A.D. 1514 Ráv Bhím, the son of Ráv Bhán of Ídar, [Expedition against Ídar, 1514.] defeated Ain-ul-Mulk, governor of Pátan, who was coming to Áhmedábád to pay his respects to the king. This officer had turned aside to punish the Ráv for some disturbance he had created, but failing in his purpose, was himself defeated. On the approach of Muzaffar Sháh, Ídar was abandoned by the Ráv, who made his peace with difficulty and only by agreeing to pay a heavy tribute. Meanwhile the king marched to Godhra, and so to Málwa by way of Dohad, whose fort he caused to be repaired, and soon after went on to Dhár. After a short stay in Málwa, thinking it mean to take advantage of the distracted condition of Mahmúd of Málwa, who was at war with his nobles, Muzaffar returned to Muhammadábád (Chámpáner). At this time Ráimal, nephew of the late Ráv Bhím of Ídar, expelled the Ráv's son Bhármal by the aid of his father-in-law Rána Sánga of Chitor, and succeeded to the chieftainship of Ídar. The king was displeased at the interference of the Rána, and directed Nizám Khán, the governor of Ahmednagar, to expel Ráimal and reinstate Bhármal. Nizám Khán took Ídar and gave it to Bhármal. Ráimal betook himself to the hills where Nizám Khán incautiously pursuing and engaging him lost many men. When the rains were over the Sultán visited Ídar. Shortly after, Nizám Khán, the governor of Ahmednagar, fell sick and was called to court. He left Ídar in charge of Zahír-ul-Mulk at the head of a hundred horse. Ráimal made a sudden raid on Ídar and killed Zahír-ul-Mulk and twenty-seven of his men. On hearing of this reverse Sultán Muzaffar ordered Nizám Khán to destroy Bíjápur. [789] [Disturbances in Málwa, 1517.] In A.D. 1517, the nobles of Málwa besought Muzaffar's interference, alleging that the Hindu minister Medáni Rái was planning to depose the Málwa Sultán, Mahmúd Khilji, and usurp the throne. Muzaffar Sháh promised to come to their help, and shortly after Sultán Mahmúd Khilji, escaping from the surveillance of Medáni Rái, himself sought the aid of the Gujarát monarch. In A.D. 1518 Muzaffar Sháh marched by Godhra into Málwa, and on his arrival at Dhár, that town was evacuated by Medáni Rái. The Gujarát king next besieged Mándu and Medáni Rái summoned the Chitor Rána to his aid. [Capture of Mándu, 1518.] When the Rána had reached Sárangpur, Muzaffar Sháh detaching a force caused the Rána to retire, while the Gujarát soldiers exerted themselves so strenuously that they captured Mándu, recovering the girdle which Kutb-ud-dín had lost at the battle of Kapadvanj. This conquest virtually placed Málwa in Muzaffar's power, but he honourably restored the kingdom to Sultán Mahmúd Khilji, and, withdrawing to Gujarát, proceeded to Muhammadábád. In A.D. 1519, news was received of the defeat and capture of Sultán Mahmúd Khilji by the Rána of Chitor. Muzaffar Sháh sent a force to protect Mándu. But the Rána, who distinguished himself by releasing the Sultán of Málwa and keeping his son in his stead as a hostage, enjoyed continued good fortune. Some time before these events a bhát or bard in the presence of Nizám Khán, the governor of Ídar, boasted that the Rána of [War with Chitor, 1519.] Chitor would never fail to help Rána Ráimal of Ídar. The angry governor said 'Whose dog is Rána Sánga to help Ráimal while we are here.' Nizám Khán called a dog Sánga, chained him in the fort, and dared the Rána to carry him away. His successes enabled Sánga to answer the challenge. In consequence of dissensions at head-quarters Nizám Khán withdrew to Ahmednagar leaving a small garrison in Ídar. When Rána Sánga appeared before Ídar the garrison resisted but were slain to a man. The Rána advanced to Ahmednagar and severely defeated Nizám Khán who withdrew to Áhmedábád, while the Rána plundered Vishálnagar. [790] In A.D. 1521, Malik Ayáz Sultáni, the governor of [The Rána of Chitor Submits, 1521.] Sorath, was sent with a large and carefully equipped force to revenge this inroad. Dissensions between Malik Ayáz and the Gujarát nobles prevented this expedition doing more than burn and despoil both Dungarpur and Bánsváda. Muzaffar Sháh, greatly displeased with the result, was preparing to march against Chitor, when he was dissuaded by a submissive embassy from that chief, who sent his son to Áhmedábád with valuable presents for the king. Shortly afterwards, on the death of Malik Ayáz, Muzaffar Sháh confirmed his elder son Malik Is-hák in his father's rank and possessions. Malik Is-hák remained in Sorath which was confirmed as his jágir. In the following year the Sultán went about his dominions strengthening his frontier posts, especially the fort of Modása, which he rebuilt. About A.D. 1524 prince Báhádur Khán, ostensibly dissatisfied with the smallness of his estates but really to remove himself from the jealousy of his brother Sikandar who being appointed heir-apparent was seeking his life, left Gujarát and withdrew to Hindustán. King Muzaffar, after formally appointing his son Sikandar Khán his heir, [Dies, 1526.] died at Áhmedábád in A.D. 1526, after a reign of fourteen years and nine months. Muzaffar was buried in the shrine of Sheikh Áhmed Khattu at Sarkhej near his father's grave. He was the most learned and one of the most pious of the Áhmedábád Sultáns. So extreme an abstainer was he that not only during his whole life did he eschew intoxicating drugs and liquor but he never again rode a favourite horse because the horse was cured by a draught of wine. He was an accomplished musician, a finished horseman, a practised swordsman, and withal so modest and humble in his dress and temper that observing once to a favourite page how simple and yet graceful his own turban was the boy laughed: 'Ay, if the turbans of Mullahs and Bohoras are graceful, then is your Majesty's.' The Sultán said 'I should have been proud to have my turban likened to a Mullah's, why compare it with the headdress of a schismatic Bohora.' Muzaffar was careful never to pain the feelings of those around him. He suspected Kiwám-ul-Mulk who was in charge of his drinking water but contented himself with breathing over the water one of the verses of the Kurâán which make poison harmless. [791] During his reign cultivation increased so much in Jháláváda that it became necessary to reserve certain waste land for pasture. In 1526 the rains held off so long that famine began to rage. The Sultán exclaimed, 'Oh Allah! If thou scourgest the country for the sins of its king take his life and spare thy creatures.' The prayer was heard and the soul of the guardian Sultán passed in a flood of gracious rain. [792]