Chapter XXXII: Appendix: D (1)

NOTICE ON CÆSAR’S LIEUTENANTS.

In his campaign against Ariovistus, Cæsar had six legions; he put at the head of each either one of his lieutenants or his quæstor. (_De Bello Gallico_, I. 52.) His principal officers, then, were at that period six in number, namely, T. Labienus, bearing the title of _legatus pro prœtore_ (I. 21), Publius Crassus, L. Arunculeius Cotta, Q. Titurius Sabinus, Q. Pedius, and C. Salpicius Galba.

1. T. ATTIUS LABIENUS.

T. Attius Labienus had been tribune of the people in 691, and had, in this quality, been the accuser of C. Rabirius. He served Cæsar with zeal during eight years in Gaul. Although he had been loaded with his favours, and had, thanks to him, amassed a great fortune (Cicero, _Epist. ad Atticum_, VII. 7.--Cæsar, _De Bello Civili_, I. 15), he deserted his cause as soon as the civil war broke out, and in 706 became Pompey’s lieutenant in Greece. After the battle of Pharsalia, he went, with Afranius, to rejoin Cato at Corcyra, and passed afterwards into Africa. When Scipio was vanquished, Labienus repaired to Spain, to Cn. Pompey. He was slain at the battle of Munda. Cæsar caused a public funeral to be given to the man who had repaid his benefits by so much ingratitude. (Florus, IV. 2.--Appian, _Civil Wars_, II. 105.--Dio Cassius, XLIII. 30, 38.)

2. PUBLIUS LICINIUS CRASSUS.

Publius Licinius Crassus Dives, youngest son of the celebrated triumvir, started with Cæsar for the war in Gaul, made the conquest of Aquitaine, and was employed to conduct to Rome the soldiers who were to vote in favour of Pompey and Crassus. He quitted Cæsar’s army in 698, or at the beginning of 699. Taken by his father into Syria, he perished, in 701, in the war against the Parthians, still very young; for Cicero, attached to him by an intimate friendship (_Epist. Familiar._, V. 8), speaks of him as _adolescens_ in a letter to Quintus (II. 9), written in May, 699. He was, nevertheless, already augur, and the great orator succeeded him in that dignity. (Cicero, _Epist. Familiar._, XV. 4.--Plutarch, _Cicero_, 47.)

3. L. ARUNCULEIUS COTTA.

The biography of Arunculeius Cotta, before his arrival in Gaul, is not known. His name leads us to suppose that he was descended from a family of clients or freedmen of the _gens Aurelia_, in which the name of _Cotta_ was hereditary. The mother of Cæsar was an Aurelia.

4. QUINTUS TITURIUS SABINUS.

The antecedents of Quintus Titurius Sabinus are no more known than those of Arunculeius Cotta, whose melancholy fate he shared. His name shows that he descended from the family of Sabine origin of the Titurii, which had given different magistrates to the Republic. The name of Titurius is found on several consular medals; it is also found in some inscriptions posterior to the time of Cæsar.

5. Q. PEDIUS.

Q. Pedius was the son of a sister of Cæsar. (Suetonius, _Cæsar_, 83.) Elected ædile in the year 700 (Cicero, _Orat. pro. Plancio_, 7), he must have quitted the army of Gaul at the latest in 699. When the civil war broke out, he remained one of the firmest adherents of his uncle, whose interests he sustained, in 705, at Capua. (Cicero, _Epist. ad Atticum_, IX. 14.) He was prætor when he was besieged in Cosa, by Milo, a partisan of Pompey. He was sent into Spain with Q. Fabius. (Cæsar, _De Bello Civili_, III. 22; _De Bello Hispan._, 2.--Dio Cassius, XLIII. 31.) Made by Cæsar’s will the heir of one-eighth of his wealth, he gave up what was left to him to Octavius. (Suetonius, _Cæsar_, 83.--Appian, _Civil Wars_, III. 94.) It was at the motion of Q. Pedius, then consul, that the law was passed which has received its name from him, and which was directed against the murderers of the Dictator. (Velleius Paterculus, II. 65.--Suetonius, _Nero_, 3.) Q. Pedius remained faithful to Octavius, yet he proposed the retractation of the declaration of war launched against Antony and Lepidus. He was admitted to the secret of the triumvirate, which was on the point of being concluded, and died suddenly before the end of the year 711. (Dio Cassius, XLVI. 52--Appian, _Civil Wars_, IV. 6.)

6. SERVIUS SULPICIUS GALBA.

Servius Sulpicius Galba, whom the Emperor Galba reckoned among his ancestors, was of the illustrious family of the Sulpicii; he descended from Sulpicius Galba, consul in 610, who had left the reputation of a great orator. S. Sulpicius Galba, Cæsar’s lieutenant in Gaul, had already served in the war in that country under C. Pomptinus, in 693 (Dio Cassius, XXXVII. 48), which explains the choice made of him by the future Dictator. He must have quitted Cæsar’s army at latest in 699, for he was, at his recommendation, elected prætor in 700. (Dio Cassins, XXXIX. 65.) He solicited the consulship in vain in 705. Pressed by the creditors of Pompey, for whom he had made himself surety, he was relieved from his difficulties by Cæsar, who paid his debts. (Valerius Maximus, V. 2, §11.) Finding himself finally deceived in his hope of arriving at the consulship, S. Galba joined the conspiracy against his old chief. (Suetonius, _Galba_, 3.--Appian, _Civil Wars_, II. 113.) He served in the war against Antony, under the Consul Hirtius. We have a letter from him to Cicero, written from the camp of Modena. (Cicero, _Epist. Familiar_., X. 30.) Prosecuted, in virtue of the law Pedia, as a murderer of Cæsar, (Suetonius, _Galba_, 3), he was condemned, and died probably in exile.

The Senate granted Cæsar, in 608, ten lieutenants: Labienus, Arunculeius Cotta, Titurias Sabinus, already in Gaul, Decimus Brutus, P. Sulpicius Rufus, Munatius Plancus, M. Crassus, C. Fabius, L. Roscius, and T. Sextius. As to Sulpicius Galba, P. Crassus, and Q. Pedius, they had returned to Italy.

7. DECIMUS JUNIUS BRUTUS.

Decimus Junius Brutus, belonging to the family of the _Junii_, was son of Decimus Junius Brutus, elected consul in the year 677, and of Sempronia, who performed so celebrated a part in Catiline’s conspiracy. He was adopted by A. Postumius Albinus, consul in 655, and took, for this reason, the surname of Albinus, by which we find him sometimes designated. When Cæsar took him into Gaul, he was still very young; the “Commentaries” apply to him the epithet _adolescens_. He must have returned to Rome in January, 704, since a letter of Cicero mentions his presence there at that period. (_Epist. Familiar._, VIII. 7.) The year following he commanded Cæsar’s fleet before Marseilles. (Cæsar, _De Bello Civili_, I. 36.--Dio Cassius, XLI. 19.) He gained, although with unequal forces, a naval victory over L. Domitius. (Cæsar, _De Bello Civili_, II. 5.) Having received from Cæsar, in 706, the government of Transalpine Gaul, he repressed, in 708, an insurrection of the Bellovaci. (Titos Livius, _Epitome_, CXIV.) An object of the special favours of his old general, who felt for him a warm affection, D. Brutus, along with Antony and Octavius, was associated in the triumph which Cæsar celebrated in 709, on his return from Spain, and mounted with them on the car. (Plutarch, _Antony_, 13.) By his will of the Ides of September, the Dictator named him one of the guardians of Octavius, and made him one of his second heirs (Dio Cassius, XLIV. 35.--Appian, _Civil Wars_, II, 143.--Suetonius, _Cæsar_, 83); he caused to be given him, for the year 712, the government of Cisalpine Gaul. In spite of this friendship, of which Cæsar had given him so many proofs, and which the latter believed to be paid by a requital, Brutus, who had remained faithful to his benefactor in the civil war, lent his ear to the proposals of the conspirators, and yielded to the seductions of M. Brutus, his kinsman. He not only went to the Senate to assist in striking the victim, but he accepted the mission of going to persuade the Dictator, who was hesitating, to repair to the curia. (Dio Cassius, XLIV. 14, 18.--Appian, _Civil Wars_, II. 115.--Plutarch, _Cæsar_, 70.) Exposed to public hatred (Cicero, _Philippic._, X. 7), and intimidated by the threats of Antony, he left Rome to go and take possession of the province which Cæsar had caused to be assigned to him. (Cicero, _Epist. ad Atticum_, XIV. 13.)

He appears, however, to have acted but feebly in favour of the party he had embraced. Antony, having obtained from the people, in exchange for Macedonia, the province commanded by Brutus (Appian, _Civil Wars_, III. 30), the latter refused to abandon his government, and, supported by Cicero, he obtained from the Senate an edict maintaining him in it (Cicero, _Philippic._, III. 4.--Appian, _Civil War_, III. 45), which led to an armed contest between the two competitors. Pursued by his rival, Brutus threw himself into Modena, and there sustained a long siege (Appian, _Civil Wars_, III. 49.--Titus Livius, _Epitome_, CXVII), which had for its final result the celebrated battle in which Antony was defeated. D. Brutus, overlooked among new actors in this sanguinary drama, remained in it almost a mere spectator. (Dio Cassius, XLVI. 40.) He then ranged himself on the side of Octavius, yet without the existence of any very close or very sincere intimacy between these two men. He continued to exercise an important command during the war, but fortune was not long in turning against him. Pressed by Antony, who had united with Lepidus, and threatened personally by the prosecutions which Octavius, armed with the law Pedia, was directing against the murderers of Cæsar (Titus Livius, _Epitome_, CXX.--Dio Cassius, XLVI. 53), he found himself deserted by his troops, and, after a vain attempt to cross into Macedonia, he directed his steps with a small escort towards Aquileia; but a Gaulish chief, named Camillus, betrayed towards him the rites of hospitality, kept him prisoner, and sent information of what he had done to Antony. The old lieutenant of Cæsar immediately sent Furius with a party of cavalry, who slew Brutus, and carried away his head. (Appian, _Civil Wars_, III. 97, 98.--Velleius Paterculus, III. 63, 64.) Brutus was one of the correspondents of Cicero, who gives him praise, especially for his constancy in friendship, of which he was certainly little worthy.

8. PUBLIUS SULPICIUS RUFUS.

Publius Sulpicius Rufus, who belonged to the same family as S. Sulpicius Galba, served, in 705, the cause of Cæsar in Spain (Cæsar, _De Bello Civili_, I. 74); he commanded in the following year, with the title of prætor, the fleet which was cruising at Vibo, on the coast of Bruttium (Cæsar, _De Bella Civili_, III. 101); subsequently he obtained the government of Illyria, a country where he had served in the ranks of the Cæsarians, and consequently succeeded Q. Cornificius (Cæsar, _De Bello Afric._, 10; _De Bello Alexandrin._, 42). A letter of Cicero, addressed to him (_Epist. Familiar._, XIII. 77), shows that he was still in that province in 709. We know nothing certain relating to his actions. It has been supposed with probability that he is the same with a P. Sulpicius, censor under the triumvirate, and mentioned in a Latin inscription _(Tabula Collatina_), to which Drumann refers (tom. i., p. 528).

9. LUCIUS MUNATIUS PLANCUS.

Lucius Munatius Plancus, whose name is found in several inscriptions and on a rather great number of medals (see especially Orelli, _Inscriptions_, N. 591), belonged to an illustrious plebeian family. Intimate at first with Cato, he subsequently gained the entire affection of Cæsar (Plutarch, _Cato of Utica_, 42.--Cicero, _Epist. Familiar._, X. 24), and remained faithful to him to the last. After having served in Gaul, he became, in 705, one of his most active lieutenants in Spain (Cæsar, _De Bello Civili_, I. 40), and afterwards in Africa. (Cæsar, _De Bello Afr._, 4.) Cæsar caused to be given to him, for the year 710, the government of Transalpine Gaul, without the Narbonnese and Belgic Gaul (Appian, _Civil Wars_, III. 46--Cicero, _Philipp._, III. 15), and named him, with P. Brutus, for the consulship in 712 (Velleius Paterculus, II. 63.--Dio Cassius, XLVI. 53); he was then in great favour with the Dictator: Cicero made his approaches through him to obtain Cæsar’s favour. (_Epist. Familiar._, X. 3; XIII. 29.)

After the murder of Cæsar, Plancus, who no doubt, like Antony, feared the vengeance of the party of the conspirators, proposed an amnesty, in concert with him and Cicero (Plutarch, _Brutus_, 22), and hastened to go into the province which had been assigned to him. In Gaul he founded the colonies of Lugdunum and Raurica (Orelli, _Inscriptiones_, No. 590.--Dio Cassius, XLVI. 50); subsequently, gained by Antony, he abandoned to his vengeance, during the proscription, Plotius, his own brother. (Appian, _Civil Wars_, IV. 12.--Valerias Maximus, VI. 8, § 5.) In 712, Plancus took, with Lepidus, on the 1st of January, the consulship which Cæsar had destined for him. (Dio Cassius, XLVI. 53; LXVII. 16.) In the war of Perusia, he commanded the troops of Antony, who sent him, in 714, into Asia. In 719 he still governed Syria for that triumvir, and he has been accused of the death of Sextus Pompey. (Appian, _Civil Wars_, V. 144.) He proceeded to Egypt with Antony, to the court of Cleopatra. (Velleius Paterculus, II. 83.) Foreseeing the ruin of Antony, of whom he has been reproached with being the base flatterer, he did not wait for the defeat of Actium to embrace the party of Octavius: he returned to Rome, and attacked his former friend bitterly in the Senate. (Velleius Paterculus, II. 83.) Dio Cassius (L. 3) accuses him of having revealed Antony’s will. From this time devoted to Octavius, he proposed, in 727, to confer upon him the title of Augustus. (Suetonius, _Octavius_, 7.--Velleius Paterculus, II. 91.) In 732, he held the office of censor. (Dio Cassias, LIV. 2.) The inscriptions and medals show that he was also invested with other dignities. The date of his death is unknown. Horace addressed to him one of his odes. (Book I., Ode 7.)

10. MARCUS LICINIUS CRASSUS.

Marcus Licinius Crassus Dives was the elder brother of young Crassus, whose place he had taken as Cæsar’s lieutenant in Gaul. Little is known of his life. Cicero, less intimate with him than with his younger brother, has mentioned him but slightly. (_Epist. Familiar._, 8.) He ranged himself on Cæsar’s side at the time of the civil war, and became, in 705, governor of Citerior Gaul. (Appian, _Civil Wars_, II. 41.--Justin, XLII. 4.) The time of his death is unknown.

11. CAIUS FABIUS.

It is not known what Caius Fabius had been before the campaign of Gaul. When the civil war broke out, he remained faithful to Cæsar, who sent him orders to proceed from Narbonnese Gaul to Spain. With his usual rapidity, he moved by forced marches to Herda (_Herida_), near which town Afranius was encamped. He distinguished himself in the whole of this campaign, in which the army of Cæsar, which had joined him, was for a moment in danger.

No further mention is made of C. Fabius. His name does not occur either in the campaigns of Greece, Alexandria, or Africa, or in that of the second Spanish war, or elsewhere.

12. L. ROSCIUS.

L. Roscius, who only played a secondary part in the war of Gaul, appears to be the same as a personage to whom Cicero gives the name of _L. Fabatus_, and who fell in the battle of Modena in 711. (_Epist. Familiar._, X. 33.) He was prætor in 705, and Pompey, who knew the friendship which Cæsar had for Roscius, deputed him to him at Ariminum with proposals of peace. (Cæsar, _De Bello Civili_, I. 8, 10.--Dio Cassius, XLI 5.) It is believed that it is his name which, followed by the surname Fabatus, figures on the Roman denarii which bear the image of Juno Lanuvina. It is also believed to occur in a Latin inscription.

13. TITUS SEXTIUS.

Titus Sextius, whose history before his arrival in Gaul is not known, became, in 710, governor of Numidia. (Dio Cassius, XLVIII. 21.) According to Appian (_Civil Wars_, IV. 53), he took the side of Octavius; according to Dio Cassius (XLVIII. 21), that of Antony. He made war against Q. Cornificius, who sought to keep the ancient province of Africa, which the Senate had given him. Sextius aspired to the same government, and prepared to exercise it for Octavius, to whom Africa had been assigned in the partition of the triumvirs. (Appian, _Civil Wars_, IV. 53.) The defeat and death of Cornificius allowed him to realise his projects, and he remained in possession of his province until 713. Appian and Dio Cassius have told differently the events which forced Sextius, after the battle of Philippi, to abandon Numidia, where Octavius had sent a new governor. Nothing else is known of his biography.

In the year 700 two new lieutenants make their appearance, Q. Tullius Cicero and C. Trebonius, who came to replace Arunculeius Cotta and Titurius Sabinus, slain by the Gauls at Tongres.

14. Q. TULLIUS CICERO.

Quintus Tullius Cicero, younger brother of the great orator, was born in 652, and went with him to Athens, in order to perfect himself in literature, which he cultivated with success. The correspondence of the two brothers which has been preserved is a proof of this, and we know, from other sources, that Quintus had composed divers works which are lost. Quintas had married, before the year 686, Pomponia, sister of Atticus (Cicero, _Epist. ad Atticum_, I. 5, 6), with whom he lived on bad terms, and from whom he finally separated. He was ædile in 688, the year of his brother’s prætorship; and in 691, when his brother was consul, he lent him in the affair of Catiline his intelligent support, and shared the same dangers. (Cicero, _Epist. ad Quintum_, I. 1; _Catilinaria Quarta_, 2, 3.) However, he did not share in his opinion in the judgment of the conspirators, when he voted, with Cæsar, against the punishment of death. (Suetonius, _Cæsar_, 14.) He became prætor in 692, defeated in Bruttium the bands of the Catilinarian Marcellus (Orosius, VI. 6), and presided over the tribunal which judged Archias. (_Scholiast of Bobbio on the Oration for Archias_, p. 354, edit. Orelli.) In March of the year 693, he proceeded to the province of Asia, of which he had obtained the government (Cicero, _Pro Flacco_, 14); he administered that province with as much equity as talent, seconded by able lieutenants. (Cicero, _Epist. ad Quintum_, I. 1.) They had, however, to reproach him with frequent fits of anger, which drew upon him the remonstrances of his brother. At the end of April, 696, Quintus left Asia in order to proceed direct to Rome, without taking time to visit at Thessalonica M. Cicero, who was still under the weight of his condemnation to exile. The fact was, he feared an accusation of extortion, which his enemies, and those of his brother, endeavoured to prepare against him. (Cicero, _Epist. ad Atticum_, III. 9; _Epist. ad Quintum_, I. 3; _Oratio pro Domo sua_, 36.) He employed himself actively in favour of his brother, and narrowly escaped being killed in the riot raised by Clodius, on the 8th of the Calends of February, 697, on the occasion of the proposition of the tribune Fabricius. (Cicero, _Oratio pro Sextio_, 35.--Plutarch, _Cicero_, 44.) When this same Clodius opposed the rebuilding of the house of M. Cicero, Quintus saw his own, which was next to that of his brother, burnt by the partisans of that turbulent demagogue. (Cicero, _Epist. ad Atticum_, IV. 3.) Towards the end of the same year, Quintus was one of the fifteen lieutenants given to Pompey in order to direct the supplying of victuals, and in that quality he proceeded to Sardinia. (Cicero, _Epist. ad Quintum_, II. 2.) He started for Gaul in the beginning of 700, and it appears from a passage in the _Oratio pro Milone_ that he was still there in 702. He left Cæsar’s army in 703, and joined, in the quality of legate, his brother, who had been made proconsul of Cilicia, and to whom he lent the indispensable support of his experience and ability in matters of war. (Cicero, _Epist. Familiar_., XV. 4; _Epist. ad Atticum_, V, 20.) During the civil war, Quintus took the side of Pompey, but he imitated his brother’s circumspection, and, after the battle of Pharsalia, he made every effort to clear himself in the eyes of Cæsar, to whom he sent as his deputy in Asia his own son, and thus obtained his pardon. After the death of Cæsar, Quintus pronounced energetically, like M. Cicero, against Antony, an opposition which turned out equally fatal to him, for, like his brother, he was comprised in the proscription. Having vainly attempted with him to reach Macedonia, he returned to Rome accompanied by his son, and both were delivered up by slaves to the executioner. (Appian, _Civil Wars_, IV. 20.--Plutarch, _Cicero_, 62.)

15. CAIUS TREBONIUS.

Caius Trebonius was the son of a Roman knight, of whom Cicero speaks in his _Philippica_ (XIII. 10). Being quæstor in 694, he opposed the law Herennia, which authorised the adoption of Clodius by a plebeian; as tribune of the people in 699, he proposed the celebrated laws which gave to Pompey and Crassus important provinces, and continued for five years Cæsar’s command in Gaul. Having been called by Cæsar the year after in quality of legate, he remained in Gaul until the commencement of the civil war. He was afterwards sent to Spain against Afranius, and next charged with the siege of Marseilles by land. (Cæsar, _De Bello Civili_, I. 36.--Dio Cassius, XLI. 19;) In 706, he became præter urbanus (Dio Cassius, XLII. 20); a year later he succeeded Cassius Longinus in the government of one of the two Spains. (Cæsar, _De Bello Alexandrino_, 64; _De Bello Hispano_, 7.--Dio Cassius, XLIII. 29.) Compelled to leave the Peninsula, after some checks, he returned to Rome, where Cæsar caused him to be named consul in October, 709, and with the province of Asia, on quitting office. (Dio Cassius, XLIII. 46.--Appian, _Civil Wars_, III. 2.) All these acts of kindness, however, could not secure to the dictator the devotedness of his lieutenant: even before Trebonius had taken possession of his proconsulate of Asia, he entered into the conspiracy formed against the life of Cæsar. But, detained by Antony outside the curia, he could not strike him with his own hand. (Appian, _Civil Wars_, II. 117.--Dio Cassius, XLIV. 19.--Cicero, _Philippica_, II. 14; XIII. 10.) After the death of Cæsar, Trebonius started quietly for his government of Asia, and was in May, 710, at Athens. (Cicero, _Epist. Familiar_., XII. 16.) During his proconsulship he supported the party of Brutus and Cassius. In February, 711, Dolabella, who had come to replace him, drew him into a snare at Smyrna; slew him, and threw his head at the foot of a statue of Cæsar, thus revenging his friend who had been so shamefully betrayed. (Cicero, _Philippica_, XIII. 10.--Appian, _Civil Wars_, III. 26.--Velleius Paterculus, II. 69.--Dio Cassius, XLVII. 29.) Cicero, whose correspondent Trebonius had been, stigmatises this murder, in which Antony saw the just punishment of a villain and a parricide. It is certain that Trebonius had entered the conspiracy without remorse, since afterwards he wrote to Cicero: “If you compose anything on the murder of Cæsar, do not attribute a small part of it to me.” (Cicero, _Epist. Familiar._, XII. 16.)

During the years 701 to 705 new lieutenants joined Cæsar in Gaul: they were Minucius Basilus, Antistius Reginus, M. Silanus, Caninius Rebilus, Sempronius Rutilus, Marcus Antonius, P. Vatinius, Q. Calenus, and Lucius Cæsar.

16. MINUCIUS BASILUS.

L. Minucius Basilus had taken his name and surname from a rich Roman who had adopted him. Previously his name was L. Satrius. Cicero names him thus in one of his treatises (_De Officiis_, III. 18), although elsewhere (_Epist. ad Atticum_, XI. 5) he designates him by his name and surname. He became prætor in 709. (Dio Cassius, XLIII. 47.) Irritated at not having obtained, on leaving office, the province which he coveted, and at having only received money from Cæsar, he entered into the conspiracy formed against the Dictator. (Appian, _Civil Wars_, II; 113.--Dio Cassius, XLIII. 47.) A few months after, he was assassinated by his slaves, who thus took revenge for his having subjected several of them to the punishment of castration. (Appian, _Civil Wars_, III. 98.)

17. C. ANTISTIUS REGINUS.

Nothing is known of the antecedents or the end of this lieutenant of Cæsar. To judge by his name, he must have belonged to the family of the _Antistii_, which produced divers magistrates of the Republic, and several members of which have perpetuated their memory in inscriptions.

18. M. SILANUS.

Marcus Junius Silanus, son of Servilia, was brother, by the mother’s side, to M. Brutus. After the murder of Cæsar, he accompanied his brother-in-law Lepidus in his campaign in the north of Italy, and was sent by him, in 711, to Modena, without precise instructions (Dio Cassius, XLVI. 38); to the great regret of Lepidus, he took the side of Antony. (Cicero, _Epist. Familiar._, X. 30, 34.) After Antony’s defeat, Silanus, who had lost the confidence of Lepidus, proceeded to Sicily, to Sext. Pompey, and did not return to Rome until the peace of Misenum had been concluded with the latter, in 715. (Velleius Paterculas, II. 77.) Nothing more is known of his life, except that Augustus, in 729, took him as his colleague in the consulship. (Dio Cassius, LIII. 25.).

19. C. CANINIUS REBILUS.

Caius Caninius Rebilus, great-grandson, in all probability, of the person of that name who was prætor in 583, does not appear in history until the war with Gaul. Cæsar sent him, in 705, to Scribonius Libo, to treat of peace with Pompey. (Cæsar, _De Bello Civili_, I. 26.) Rebilus next accompanied Curio into Africa, and escaped only with a small number from the defeat inflicted upon them by King Juba. (_De Bello Civili_, II. 24.) In 708 he was still making war in the same province, and took Thapsus after the defeat of Scipio. (Cæsar, _De Bello Africano_, 86, 93.) In 709 he commanded in Spain the garrison of Hispalis. (Cæsar, _De Bello Hispano_, 35.) At the end of the same year, Cæsar caused him to be named consul, in the place of Q. Fabius, who had died suddenly: it was on the eve of the Calends of January that this event had taken place. Rebilus consequently was only consul for a few hours, and the short period of his office has excited the jokes of Cicero. (_Epist. Familiar._, VII. 30.--Dio Cassius, XLIII. 46.--Plutarch, _Cæsar_, 63.) No other details are known of the life of this lieutenant of Cæsar.

20. M. SEMPRONIUS RUTILUS.

History is silent on what became of this lieutenant after the war of Gaul.

21. MARCUS ANTONIUS (MARK ANTONY).

The biography of Mark Antony is too well known, and is too much mixed up with the events which followed the war in Gaul, to render it necessary to give a sketch of it here. It is well known that Mark Antony, born in 671, was the son of a Mark Antony who had served in Crete, and grandson of the celebrated orator of the same name. His mother was a Julia, and belonged, consequently, to the family of Cæsar. After having encouraged and supported Cæsar in his projects on Rome, he became his _magister equitum_, when the dictature had been conferred upon him. At Pharsalia, he commanded the left wing of Cæsar’s army. After the murder of the great man, he was the rival of Octavius, and subsequently, with Lepidus, his colleague in the triumvirate. When disunion arose between the future Augustus and the ancient lieutenant of his uncle, the battle of Actium completed the ruin of Antony, who, having taken refuge in Egypt, slew himself in despair, on the information which Cleopatra, with whom he was violently in love, gave him of her intended suicide.

22. PUBLIUS VATINIUS.

The part played by Publius Vatinius, before he became lieutenant in Gaul, has been told in the course of this work. At the conclusion of his tribuneship, he was employed in the army of Cæsar; but he had already, after his quæstorship, served in Spain in the same quality of lieutenant, under the proconsul C. Cosconius. Threatened by the laws Licinia and Junia, Vatinius returned to Rome, and succeeded, thanks to the support of Clodius, in avoiding the trial with which he was threatened. He failed in his candidature for the ædileship, figured as one of the witnesses in the trial of Sextius, in which he showed great animosity against the accused, and against Cicero who defended him. Important events marked his prætorship in 699. As lieutenant of Cæsar in the civil war (_De Bello Civili_, III. 19), after the battle of Pharsalia, he defended Brundusium against Lælius. (_De Bello Civili_, III. 100.) In 706 and 707 he continued to serve in the ranks of the partisans of the Dictator, who, in the end of that year, caused the consulship to be conferred upon him for a few days. (Dio Cassius, XLII. 55.--Macrobius, _Saturnalia_, II. 3.) In 709 he was sent by Cæsar into Illyria, with the title of proconsul (Appian, _Illyric War_, 13), from which province he sent obliging letters to Cicero. (_Epist. Familiar._, V. 9, 10.) After the murder of the Dictator, when the Dalmatians had revolted and had defeated a considerable corps of his army, Vatinius, who mistrusted the fidelity of his soldiers, retired to Epidamnus, and delivered his province and his legions to M. Brutus, (Titus Livius, _Epitome_, CXVIII.--Velleius Paterculus, II. 69.--Appian, _Illyric War_, 13.) Nevertheless, he obtained, at the end of that year (711), a triumph for his victories. It is not known what became of him afterwards.

23. Q. FUFIUS CALENUS.

Q. Fufius Calenus, of one of the most illustrious families of Rome, the _gens Fufia_, was tribune of the people in 693, and served at that time actively the interests of Clodius, when the latter was accused of having violated the mysteries of the _Bona Dea_. (Cicero, _Epist. ad Atticum_, I. 14.) As prætor during the consulship of Cæsar and Bibulus, he gave his name to a judiciary law, and served with zeal, during his magistracy, the projects of him whose lieutenant he became in Gaul. He also supported Clodius in the affair of Milo. When the civil war broke out, Fufius Calenus joined Cæsar at Brundusium; he followed him afterwards into Spain, in the character of lieutenant. (_Epist. ad Atticum_, IX. 5.--Cæsar, _De Bello Civili_, I. 87.) Sent afterwards into Epirus, he took, before the battle of Pharsalia, the principal towns of Greece. In 707, he became consul with Vatinius (Dio Casius, XLII. 55); sided, after the death of Cæsar, with Antony, whom he defended against the attacks of Cicero (_Philippica_, VIII. 4.--Dio Cassius, XLVI. 1-28), and was his lieutenant during the struggles which followed. He commanded an army in Transalpine Gaul in 713, when he was carried off by a sudden death, at the moment when he was on the point of encountering the troops of Octavius. (Appian, _Civil Wars_, V. 3, 51.--Dio Cassius, XLVIII. 20.)

24. L. CÆSAR

L. Julius Cæsar, who appears as lieutenant of the great Cæsar only at the end of the war of Gaul, belonged to the same family as himself; he was a son of L. Julius Cæsar, consul in the time of the war against the Marsi, who was assassinated by Fimbria, and brother of Julia, mother of Mark Antony. He stood for the ædileship without success (Cicero, _Orat. pro Plancio_, 21), was more fortunate in his petition for the consulship, and exercised that high magistracy in 690. (Cicero, _Orat. pro Murena_, 34; _Epist. ad Atticum_, I. 1, 2.--Dio Cassius, XXXVII. 6.) He was, with Cæsar, the year after, one of the judges (_duumvir perduellionis_) in the trial of C. Rabirius. (Dio Cassius, XXXVII. 27.) When the Senate was deliberating on the conspiracy of Catiline, the relationship which united him with P.Lentulus did not prevent him from voting for his condemnation to death. After the war of Gaul, he returned to Rome, and, in the year 707, Mark Antony invested him with the functions of prefect of the town; he was then very aged. (Dio Cassius, XLII. 30.) After Cæsar had been assassinated, L. Cæsar withdrew from the party of Antony, although the latter was his nephew, for which he has been praised by Cicero. (_Epist. Familiar._, XII. 2.) But his opposition softened down afterwards, and he rejected the proposal to declare war against the ancient lieutenant of Cæsar, made by the great orator. (Cicero, _Philippica_, VIII. 1; _Epist. Familiar._, X. 28.) This was the effect of the influence exercised upon him by his sister Julia, to whom he owed his safety in the proscription which followed the conclusion of the triumvirate. (Appian, _Civil Wars_, IV. 12.--Plutarch, _Cicero_, 61; _Antony_, 20.--Floras, IV. 6.--Velleias Paterculus, II. 67.) Nothing is known concerning his after life.

END OF VOL. II.

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FOOTNOTES:

[1] Justin, XXIV. 4.--Titus Livius, V. 48.

[2] Polybius, II. 17-19.--Titus Livius, V. 35.

[3] Pausanias, X. 19-23.--Diodorus Siculus, _Eclog._, XXII. 13.

[4] Strabo, IV. p. 156, edit. Dübner and Müller.--Justin, XXXII. 3.

[5] Polybius, IV. 46.

[6] Justin, XXV. 2.--Titus Livius, XXXVIII. 16.--Pausanias, VII. 6, § 5.

[7] Polybius, XXXIII. 7, 8.--Titus Livius, _Epitome_, XLVII.

[8] Strabo, IV., p. 169.

[9] Titus Livius, _Epitome_, LX.

[10] Titus Livius, _Epitome_, LXI.

[11] Strabo, IV., pp. 154, 159.--Titus Livius, _Epitome_, LXI.--Florus, III. 2.--Velleius Paterculus, II. 10.

[12] Lucan, I. 424.

[13] Cæsar, _De Bello Gallico_, I. 45.--Strabo, IV., p. 158.

[14] Titus Livius, _Epitome_, LXII.--Eutropius, IV. 10.--Velleius Paterculus, I. 15.

[15] Strabo, VII., p. 243.

[16] This victory was gained by the Tigurini, a people of Helvetia, on the territory of the Allobroges. According to the _Epitome_ of Titus Livius (LXV.), the battle took place in the district of the Nitiobriges, a people inhabiting the banks of the Garonne, which is not very probable.

[17] After pillaging the temple of Toulouse.

[18] Titus Livius, _Epitome_, LXVII.--Tacitus, _Germania_, 37.

[19] _Jugurtha_, 114.

[20] _Orat. de Provinciis Consularibus_, 13.

[21] _Orat. de Provinciis Consularibus_, 13.

[22] The fugitives from Vienne founded the town which subsequently took the name of _Lugdunum_, in a place called _Condate_, which is synonymous with confluence. (Dio Cassius, XLVI. 50.)

[23] _Orat. de Provinciis Consularibus_, 13.

[24] _Jugurtha_, 114.

[25] Cicero, _Orat. de Provinciis Consularibus_, 13.

[26] Cicero, _Epist. ad Atticum_, I. 19.

[27] Plutarch, _Cæsar_, 41.--Appian, _Civil Wars_, II. 41.

[28] Appian, _Civil Wars_, II. 41.

[29] Plutarch, _Cæsar_, 41.--Appian, _Civil Wars_, II. 41.

[30] Appian, _Civil Wars_, II. 41.

[31] Cicero, _Orat. de Provinciis Consularibus_, 11.--Dio Cassius, XL. 50.

[32] Cicero, _Orat. de Provinciis Consularibus_, 14.

[33] Cicero, _Orat. de Provinciis Cousularibus_, 12.

[34] It is stated in the “Commentaries” that Cæsar placed in winter quarters four legions among the Belgæ, and the same number among the Ædui. (_De Bello Gallico_, VIII. 54.)--“Cæsar had with him but 5,000 men and 300 horse. He had left the rest of his army beyond the Alps.” (Plutarch, _Cæsar_, 36, and Appian, _Civil Wars_, II. 34.)

[35] Appian, _Civil Wars_, II. 35.

[36] _De Bello Gallico_, VIII. 55.

[37] Suetonius, _Cæsar_, 68.

[38] In Suetonius, _Cæsar_, 56.--Cicero, _Brutus_, 75.

[39] Preface of Hirtius to Book VIII. of the “Commentaries.”

[40] _De Bello Gallico_, VI. 13.

[41] _De Bello Gallico_, IV. 10.

[42] Strabo, IV. 3, p. 160

[43] The Narbonnese reminded the Romans of the climate and productions of Italy. (Strabo, IV. 1, p. 147.)

[44] Pomponius Mela, who compiled in the first century, from old authors an abridgement of Geography, says that Gaul was rich in wheat and pastures, and covered with immense forests: “Terra est frumenti præcipue ac pabuli forax, et amœna lucis immanibus.” (_De Situ Orbis_, III. 2.)--(_De Bello Gallico_, I, 16.)--The winter was very early in the north of Gaul. (_De Bello Gallico_, IV. 20.) Hence the proverbial expression at Rome of _heims Gallica_. (Petronius, _Satir._ 19.--Strabo, IV., 147-161.)--See the “Memoire on the Forests of Gaul” read before the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, by M. Alfred Maury.

[45] Strabo, IV., p. 147.--Diodorus Siculus, V. 26.

[46] Cæsar, after having said (V. 3) that the forests of the Ardennes extended from the Rhine to the frontier of the Remi, _ad initium Remorum_, adds (VI. 29) that it extended also towards the Nervii, _ad Nervios_. Nevertheless, according to chapter 33 of book VI., we believe that this forest extended, across the country of the Nervii, to the Scheldt. How otherwise could Cæsar have assigned to the forests of the Ardennes a length of 500 miles, if it ended at the eastern frontier of the Nervii? This number is, in any case, exaggerated, for from the Rhine (at Coblentz) to the Scheldt, towards Ghent and Antwerp, it is but 300 kilomètres, or 200 miles.

[47] _De Bello Gallico_, VIII. 5.

[48] “Citra flumen Ararim ... reliqui sese fugæ mandarunt atque in proximas silvas abdiderunt.” (_De Bello Gallico_, I. 12.)

[49] “Menapii propinqui Eburonum finibus, perpetuis paludibus silvisque muniti.” (_De Bello Gallico_, VI. 5.)

[50] “(Morini et Menapii) ... silvas ac paludes habebant, eo se suaque contulerunt.” (_De Bello Gallico_, III. 28.)

[51] “(Sugambri) primos Eburonum fines adeunt ... non silvæ morantur.” (_De Bello Gallico_, VI. 35.)

[52] Strabo, p. 163, edit. Didot.

[53] _De Bello Gallico_, IV. 2.

[54] Strabo, pp. 121, 155, 170, edit. Didot.

[55] “Carpenta Gallorum.” (Florus, I. 13)--“Plurima Gallica (verba) valuerunt, ut reda ac petorritum.” (Quintilian, _De Institutione Oratoria_, lib. I., cap. v. 57.)--“Petorritum enim est non ex Græcia dimidiatum, sed totum transalpibus, nam est vox Gallica. Id scriptum est in libro M. Varronis quarto decimo _Rerum Divinarum_; quo in loco Varro, quum de petorrito dixisset, esse id verbum Gallicum dixit.” (Aulus Gellius, XV. 30.)--“Petoritum et Gallicum vehiculum est, et nomen ejus dictum esse existimant a numero quatuor rotarum. Alii Osce, quod hi quoque _petora_ quatuor vocent. Alii Græce, sed αἱλικὡς dictum.” (Festus, voc. _Petoritum_, p. 206, edit. Müller.)--“Belgica esseda, Gallicana vehicula. Nam Belga civitas est Galliæ in qua hujusmodi vehiculi repertus est usus.” (Servius, _Commentaries on the Georgics_ of Virgil, lib. III. v. 204.--Cæsar, _De Bello Gallico_, IV. 33, and _passim_.

[56] _De Bello Gallico_, II. 5.

[57] _De Bello Gallico_, I. 7.

[58] _De Bello Gallico_, VII. 11.

[59] _De Bello Gallico_, VII. 34, 53.

[60] _De Bello Gallico_, VII. 58.

[61] The reckoning of these contingents is the most positive element for estimating the state of the population. We find in the “Commentaries” three valuable statements: 1st, the numerical state of the Helvetian immigration in 696 (_De Bello Gallico_, I. 29.); 2nd, that of the Belgic troops, in the campaign of 697 (_De Bello Gallico_, II. 4.); 3rd, the census of the Gaulish army which, in 702, attempted to raise the siege of Alesia (_De Bello Gallico_, VII. 75.) Of 368,000 men, composing the agglomeration of the Helvetii and their allies, 92,000 were able to bear arms; that is, about a quarter of the population. In the campaign of 697, the Belgic coalition counted 296,000 combatants, and, in 702, at the time of the blockade of Alesia, the effective force of a great part of Gaul amounted to 281,000 men. But, in order not to count twice the different contingents of the same states, we suppress from the enumeration of the year 702 the contingents of the countries already mentioned in the census of 697, which reduces the effective force to 201,000 men. Yet this number cannot represent the total of men fit for war; it comprises only the troops which could easily be sent out of the territory, and which were more numerous accordingly as the people to which they belonged were nearer to the theatre of military operations. Thus Cæsar informs us that the Bellovaci, who could bring into the field 100,000 men, only furnished 60,000 picked men in 697, and 10,000 in 702. The contingent of the Atrebates, which had been 15,000 men in 697, was reduced to 4,000 in 702; that of the Nervii, of 50,000 in the former year, sank to 5,000; and that of the Morini similarly from 25,000 to 5,000. From these circumstances we may be allowed to infer that the Gauls armed three-fifths of their male population when the enemy was near their territory, and only one-fifth, or even one-sixth, when he was more distant.

If, then, we would form an idea of the total number of men able to carry arms in Gaul, we must augment the contingents really furnished, sometimes by two-fifths, sometimes in a higher proportion, according to the distances which separated them from the seat of war. By this calculation, the levies of 697 represent 513,600 men capable of carrying arms, and those of 702, at least 573,600; we add together these two numbers, because, as stated above, each army comprises different populations, which gives 1,087,200 men, to whom we must add 92,000 Helvetii; moreover, it is indispensable to take into account the contributive capability of the populations which are not mentioned in the “Commentaries” among the belligerents at the two epochs indicated above, such as the Pictones, the Carnutes, the Andes, the Remi, the Treviri, the Lingones, the Leuci, the Unelli, the Redones, the Ambivareti, and the peoples of Armorica and Aquitaine. By an approximate estimate of their population according to the extent of their territory, we shall obtain the number of 625,000 men. Adding together these four numbers, to obtain the total number of men capable of bearing arms, we shall get 513,600 + 573,600 + 92,000 + 625,000 = 1,804,200 men. Quadrupling this number to get, according to the proportion applied to the Helvetii, the total of the population, we shall have 7,216,800 inhabitants for Gaul, the Roman province not included. In fact, Diodorus Siculus, who wrote in the first century of our era, says (lib. V., c. 25) that the population of the different nations of Gaul varies from 200,000 to 50,000 men, which would make a mean of 125,000 men. If we take the word ἁνδρες in the sense of inhabitants, and if we admit with Tacitus that there were in Gaul sixty-four different nations, we should have the number of 8,000,000 inhabitants, very near the preceding.

[62] Pliny expresses himself thus: “The country comprised under the name of _Gallia Comata_ is divided into three peoples, generally separated by rivers. From the Scheldt to the Seine is Belgic Gaul; from the Seine to the Garonne, Celtic, called also _Lyonnese_; from thence to the Pyrenees is Aquitaine.” (_Hist. Nat._, IV. xxxi. 105.)

[63] PEOPLES COMPOSING THE ROMAN PROVINCE:

_The Albici_ (the south of the department of the Lower Alps, and the north of the Var). (_De Bello Civil._, I. 34; II. 2.)

_The Allobroges_, probably of Celtic origin, inhabited the north-west of Savoy, and the greater part of the department of the Isère.

_The Helvii_, inhabitants of the ancient Vivarais (the southern part of the department of the Ardèche), separated from the Arverni by the Cévennes. (_De Bello Gallico_, VII. 8.)

_The Ruteni_ of the province (_Ruteni Provinciales_), a fraction of the Celtic nation of the Ruteni, incorporated into the Roman province, and whose territory extended over a part of the department of the Tarn.

_The Sallyes_, or _Salluvii_ (the Bouches-du-Rhône, and western part of the Var). (_De Bello Civil._, I. 35, edit. Nipperdey.)

_The Vocontii_ (department of the Drôme and Upper Alps, southern part of the Isère, and the northern part of the Ardèche).

_The Volcæ_ occupied all Lower Languedoc, from the Garonne to the Rhone. They had emigrated from the north of Gaul. They were subdivided into the Volcæ Tectosages, who had Tolosa (_Toulouse_) for their principal town; and the Volcæ Arecomici.

_The Deciates_ (western part of the department of the }
Maritime Alps). }
}
_The Oxybii_ (eastern part of the department of the } Not mentioned by
Var). } Cæsar.
}
_The Sordones_, of the same race as the Aquitainians, }
inhabiting the Eastern Pyrenees and the Aude. }