Chapter X: The American Aborigines (3)

Although doubtless designed for purposes of hiding and defence, many of the cliff houses were near streams and fields and were occupied because they afforded shelter and were natural dwelling places; many were storage places for maize and other property: others again were places for outlook from which the fields could be watched or the approach of strangers observed. In some districts evidence of post-Spanish occupancy exists. From intensive investigation of the cliff dwellings it is evident that the inhabitants had the same material culture as that of existing Pueblo Indians, and from the ceremonial objects which have been discovered and the symbolic decoration that was employed it is equally clear that their religion was essentially similar. Moreover the various types of skulls that have been recovered are similar to those of the present population of the district. It may therefore be safely said that there is no evidence of the former general occupancy of the region by peoples other than those now classed as Pueblo Indians or their neighbours.

J. W. Fewkes points out that the district is one of arid plateaus, separated and dissected by deep canons, frequently composed of flat-lying rock strata forming ledge-marked cliffs by the erosive action of the rare storms. "Only along the few streams heading in the mountains does permanent water exist, and along the cliff lines slabs of rock suitable for building abound; and the primitive ancients, dependent as they were on environment, naturally produced the cliff dwellings. The tendency toward this type was strengthened by intertribal relations; the cliff dwellers were probably descended from agricultural or semi-agricultural villagers who sought protection against enemies, and the control of land and water through aggregation in communities.... Locally the ancient villages of Canyon de Chelly are known as Aztec ruins, and this designation is just so far as it implies relationship with the aborigines of moderately advanced culture in Mexico and Central America, though it would be misleading if regarded as indicating essential difference between the ancient villagers and their modern descendants and neighbours still occupying the pueblos[863]."

Each pueblo contains at least one _kiva_, either wholly or partly underground, entered by means of a ladder and hatchway, forming a sacred chamber for the transaction of civil or religious affairs, and also a club for the men. In some villages each totemic clan has its own _kiva_. The Indians are eminently a religious people and much time is devoted to complicated rites to ensure a supply of rain, their main concern, and the growth of crops. Among the Hopi from four to sixteen days in every month are employed by one society or another in the carrying out of religious rites. The secret portions of these complicated ceremonies take place in the _kiva_, while the so-called "dances" are performed in the open.

The clan ancestors may be impersonated by masked men, called _katcinas_, the name being also applied to the religious dramas in which they appear[864].

In reference to J. Walter Fewkes' account of the "Tusayan Snake Ceremonies," it is pointed out that "the Pueblo Indians adore a plurality of deities, to which various potencies are ascribed. These zoic deities, or beast gods, are worshipped by means of ceremonies which are sometimes highly elaborate; and, so far as practicable, the mystic zoic potency is represented in the ceremony by a living animal of similar species or by an artificial symbol. Prominent among the animate representatives of the zoic pantheon throughout the arid region is the serpent, especially the venomous and hence mysteriously potent rattlesnake. To the primitive mind there is intimate association, too, between the swift-striking and deadly viper and the lightning, with its attendant rain and thunder; there is intimate association, too, between the moisture-loving reptile of the subdeserts and the life-giving storms and freshets; and so the native rattlesnake plays an important role in the ceremonies, especially in the invocations for rain, which characterize the entire arid region[865]."

Fewkes pursues the same fruitful line of thought in his monograph on _The Feather Symbol in Ancient Hopi Designs_[866], showing how amongst the Tusayan Pueblos, although they have left no written records, there survives an elaborate paleography, the feather _motif_ in the pottery found in the old ruins, which is in fact "a picture writing often highly symbolic and complicated," revealing certain phases of Hopi thought in remote times. "Thus we come back to a belief, taught by other reasoning, that ornamentation of ancient pottery was something higher than simple effort to beautify ceramic wares. The ruling motive was a religious one, for in their system everything was under the same sway. Esthetic and religious feelings were not differentiated, the one implied the other, and to elaborately decorate a vessel without introducing a religious symbol was to the ancient potter an impossibility[867]."

Physically the Pueblo Indians are of short stature, with long, low head, delicate face and dark skin. They are muscular and of great endurance, able to carry heavy burdens up steep and difficult trails, and to walk or even run great distances. It is said to be no uncommon thing for a Hopi to run 40 miles over a burning desert to his cornfield, hoe his corn, and return home within 24 hours. Distances of 140 miles are frequently made within 36 hours[868]. In disposition they are mild and peaceable, industrious, and extraordinarily conservative, a trait shown in the fidelity with which they retain and perpetuate their ancient customs[869]. Labour is more evenly divided than among most Indian tribes. The men help the women with the heavier work of house-building, they collect the fuel, weave blankets and make moccasins, occupations usually regarded as women's work. The women carry the water, and make the pottery for which the region is famous[870].

A. L. Kroeber has made a careful study of Zuni sociology[871] and come to the conclusion that the family is fundamental and the clan secondary, though kinship terms are applied to clan mates in a random fashion, and even the true kinship terms are applied loosely. In view of the obvious preeminence of the woman, who receives the husband into her and her mother's house, it is worthy of note that she and her children recognise her husband's relatives as their kin as fully as he adopts hers. The Zuni are not a woman-ruled people. As regards government, women neither claim nor have any voice whatever, nor are there women priests, nor fraternity officers. Even within the house, so long as a man is a legitimate inmate thereof, he is master of it and of its affairs. They are a monogamous people. Divorce is more easy than marriage, and most men and women of middle age have been married to several partners. Marriage in the mother's clan is forbidden; in the father's clan, disapproved. The phratries have no social significance, there is no central clan house, no recognised head, no meeting, council or any organisation, nor does the clan as such ever act as a body. The clans have little connection with the religious societies or fraternities. There are no totemic tabus nor is there worship of the clan totem. People are reckoned as belonging to the father's clan almost as much as to that of the mother. If one of the family of a person who belongs to a fraternity falls sick the fraternity is called in to cure the patient, who is subsequently received into its ranks. The Zuni fraternity is largely a body of religious physicians, membership is voluntary and not limited by sex. At Hopi we hear of rain-making more than of doctoring, more of "priests" than of "theurgists." The religious functions of the Zuni are most marked in the ceremonies of the Ko-tikkyanne, the "god-society" or "masked-dancer society," and it is with these that the _kivas_ are associated. They are almost wholly concerned with rain. Only men can become members and entrance is compulsory. Kroeber believes that "the truest understanding of Zuni life, other than its purely practical manifestation, can be had by setting the ettowe ['fetish'] as a centre. Around these, priesthoods, fraternities, clan organisation, as well as most esoteric thinking and sacred tradition, group themselves; while, in turn, kivas, dances, and acts of public worship can be construed as but the outward means of expression of the inner activities that radiate around the nucleus of the physical fetishes and the ideas attached to them[872]."

FOOTNOTES:

[737] A. C. Haddon, _The Wanderings of Peoples_, 1911, p. 72.

[738] R. F. Scharff, _The History of the European Fauna_, 1899, pp. 155, 186.

[739] D. G. Brinton, _The American Race_, 1891.

[740] K. Haebler, _The World's History_ (ed. Helmolt), I. 1901, p. 181.

[741] A. Hrdli[vc]ka, "Skeletal Remains suggesting or attributed to Early Man in North America," _Bureau Am. Eth. Bull._ 33, 1907, p. 98.

[742] A. Hrdli[vc]ka, "Early Man in South America," _Bureau Am. Eth. Bull._ 52, 1912.

[743] _Loc. cit._ pp. 385-6.

[744] _American Anthropologist_, XIV. 1912, p. 22.

[745] P. Rivet, "La Race de Lagoa-Santa chez les populations precolombiennes de l'Equateur," _Bull. Soc. d'Anth._ V. 2, 1908, p. 264.

[746] J. Deniker, _The Races of Man_, 1900, p. 512.

[747] _Bur. Am. Eth. Bull._ 52, 1912, pp. 183-4.

[748] _Loc. cit._ p. 267.

[749] A. Hrdli[vc]ka, _Am. Anth._ XIV. 1912, p. 10.

[750] _Ibid._ p. 12.

[751] A. C. Haddon, _The Wanderings of Peoples_, 1911, pp. 78-9.

[752] W. Bogoras, _Am. Anth._ IV. 1902, p. 577.

[753] _Bur. Am. Eth. Bull._ 28, 1904, p. 535.

[754] _Globus_, LXX. No. 3.

[755] _Mexican Archaeology_, 1914, p. 7 ff.

[756] "The Social Organization, etc. of the Kwakiutl Indians," _Rep. U.S. Nat. Mus._ 1895, Washington (1897), p. 321 sq. and _Ann. Arch. Rep._ 1905, Toronto, 1906, p. 84.

[757] W. L. H. Duckworth, _Journ. Anthr. Inst._, August, 1895.

[758] _The Stone Age in North America_, 1911.

[759] On the other hand there are a few American archaeologists who believe in the occurrence of implements of palaeolithic type in the United States, but there is no corroborative evidence on the part of contemporaneous fossils. See N. H. Winchell, "The weathering of aboriginal stone artifacts," No. 1. _Collection of the Minnesota Hist. Soc._ Vol. XVI. 1913.

[760] _Am. Anth._ XIV. 1912, p. 55.

[761] Such disintegration is clearly seen in the Carib still surviving in Dominica, of which J. Numa Rat contributed a somewhat full account to the _Journ. Anthr. Inst._ for Nov. 1897, p. 293 sq. Here the broken form _arametakuahatina buka_ appears to represent the polysynthetic _arametakuanientibubuka_ (root _arameta_, to hide), as in Pere Breton's _Grammaire Caraibe_, p. 45, where we have also the form _arametakualubatibubasubutuiruni_ = know that he will conceal thee (p. 48). It may at the same time be allowed that great inroads have been made on the principle of polysynthesis even in the continental (South American) Carib, as well as in the Colombian Chibcha, the Mexican Otomi and Pima, and no doubt in some other linguistic groups. But that the system must have formerly been continuous over the whole of America seems proved by the persistence of extremely polysynthetic tongues in such widely separated regions as Greenland (Eskimo), Mexico (Aztec), Peru (Quichuan), and Chili (Araucanian).

[762] R. de la Grasserie and N. Leon, _Langue Tarasque_, Paris, 1896.

[763] J. E. R. Polak, _Ipurina Grammar_, etc., London, 1894.

[764] _The Eskimo Tribes, their Distribution and Characteristics_, Copenhagen, 1887, I. p. 62 sq.

[765] In fact this very word was first given "as an ordinary example" by Kleinschmidt, _Gram. d. Groenlandischen Sprache_, Sect. 99, and is also quoted by Byrne, who translates: "They disapproved of him, because he did not give to him, when he heard that he would go off, because he had nothing" (_Principles_, etc., I. p. 140).

[766] "Indian Linguistic Families of America north of Mexico," _Seventh Ann. Rept. Bureau of Ethnology_, 1885-6 (1891). See also the "Handbook of American Indian Languages," Part I by Franz Boas and others, _Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 40_, 1911. The Introduction by F. Boas gives a good general idea of the characteristics of these languages and deals shortly with related problems.

[767] Following this ethnologist's convenient precedent, I use both in _Ethnology_ and here the final syllable _an_ to indicate stock races and languages in America. Thus _Algonquin_ = the particular tribe and language of that name; _Algonquian_ = the whole family; _Iroquois_, _Iroquoian_, _Carib_, _Cariban_, etc.

[768] _Forum_, Feb. 1898, p. 683.

[769] Studies of these languages by Kroeber and others will be found in _University of California Publications; American Archaeology and Ethnology_, L. 1903 onwards. Cf. also A. L. Kroeber, "The Languages of the American Indians," _Pop. Sci. Monthly_, LXXVIII. 1911.

[770] _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XL. 1910, p. 73.

[771] _Urbewohner Brasiliens_, 1897, p. 46.

[772] Karl v. d. Steinen, _Unter den Naturvoelkern Zentral-Brasiliens_, 1894, p. 215.

[773] _Aborigines of South America_, 1912.

[774] _Loc. cit._ p. 75.

[775] _Indian Linguistic Families_, p. 141.

[776] "Whence came the American Indians?" _Forum_, Feb. 1898.

[777] J. Walter Fewkes, "Great Stone Monuments in History and Geography," _Pres. Add. Anthrop. Soc., Washington_, 1912.

[778] F. Graebner, _Anthropos_, IV. 1909, esp. pp. 1013-24. Cf. also his _Ethnologie_, 1914.

[779] W. Schmidt, "Kulturkreise und Kulturschichten in Suedamerika," _Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie_, Jg. 45, 1913, p. 1014 ff.

[780] _Loc. cit._ pp. 1020, 1021.

[781] _Ibid._ p. 1093; cf. also p. 1098 where the Peruvian sailing balsa is traced to Polynesia, sailing rafts being still used in the Eastern Paumotu islands.

[782] _Am. Anth._ XIV. 1912, pp. 34-6.

[783] _Loc. cit._ p. 39.

[784] _Loc. cit._ p. 43.

[785] G. Elliot Smith, _The Migrations of Early Culture_, 1915.

[786] G. Elliot Smith, "The Influence of Ancient Egyptian Civilization in the East and in America," _Bull. of the John Rylands Library_, Jany.--March, 1916, pp. 3, 4.

[787] Cf. W. J. Perry, "The Relationship between the Geographical Distribution of Megalithic Monuments and Ancient Mines," reprinted from _Manchester Memoirs_, Vol. LX. (1915), pt. 1.

[788] W. J. Perry, _Mem. and Proc. Manchester Lit. and Phil. Soc._ LX. 1916, No. 6.

[789] _Loc. cit._ No. 5.

[790] _Loc. cit._ No. 4.

[791] _Loc. cit._ No. 8.

[792] _Loc. cit._ No. 7.

[793] _Putnam Anniversary Volume_, 1909, p. 365.

[794] _Nature_, Nov. 25 and Dec. 16, 1915.

[795] H. H. Bancroft, _The Native Races of the Pacific States of North America_, 1875.

[796] E. B. Tylor, "On the game of Patolli in Ancient Mexico and its probably Asiatic origin," _Journ. Anthr. Inst._ VIII. 1878, p. 116. _Rep. Brit. Ass._ 1894, p. 774.

[797] Zelia Nuttall, "The Fundamental Principles of Old and New World Civilisations," _Arch. and Eth. Papers, Peabody Mus. Cambridge, Mass._ II. 1901.

[798] J. Macmillan Brown, _Maori and Polynesian_, 1907.

[799] C. R. Enoch, _The Secret of the Pacific_, 1912.

[800] Livingston Farrand, _Basis of American History_, 1904, pp. 88-9.

[801] _7th Ann. Rep. Bur. Am. Eth. 1885-6_ (1891).

[802] "Primitive American History," _Am. Anth._ XVI. 1914, pp. 410-11.

[803] Roland B. Dixon, _Am. Anth._ XV. 1913, pp. 538-9.

[804] "Areas of American culture characterization tentatively outlined as an aid in the study of the Antiquities," _Am. Anth._ XVI. 1914, pp. 413-46.

[805] Clark Wissler, "Material Cultures of the North American Indians," _Am. Anth._ XVI. 1914, pp. 447-505.

[806] "The Central Eskimo," _6th Ann. Rep. Bur. Am. Eth. 1884-5_ (1888), p. 419.

[807] The name is said to come from the Abnaki _Esquimantsic_, or from _Ashkimeq_, the Ojibway equivalent, meaning "eaters of raw flesh." They call themselves Innuit, meaning "people."

[808] H. Rink, "The Eskimo Tribes, their Distribution and Characteristics," _Meddelelser om Groenland_, II. 1887.

[809] F. Boas, "Ethnological Problems in Canada," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XL. 1910, p. 529.

[810] H. P. Steensby, "Contributions to the Ethnology and Anthropogeography of the Polar Eskimos," _Meddelelser om Groenland_, XXXIV. 1910.

[811] H. P. Steensby, _loc. cit._ p. 384.

[812] _Loc. cit_. pp. 366, 376.

[813] V. Stefansson, _My life with the Eskimo_, 1913, p. 194 ff.

[814] F. Boas, "The Eskimo," _Annual Archaeological Report_, 1905, Toronto (1906), p. 112 ff.

[815] A. G. Morice, "Notes on the Western Denes," _Trans. Canadian Inst._ IV. 1895; "The Western Denes," _Proc. Canadian Inst._ XXV. (3rd Series, VII.) 1890; "The Canadian Denes," _Ann. Arch. Rep. 1905_ (1906), p. 187.

[816] From the Nootka word _potlatsh_, "giving" or "a gift," so called because these great winter ceremonials were especially marked by the giving away of quantities of goods, commonly blankets. Cf. J. R. Swanton in _Handbook of American Indians_ (F. W. Hodge, editor), 1910.

[817] Besides C. Wissler, _loc. cit._ p. 457 and A. G. Morice, _loc. cit._, cf. J. Jette, _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XXXVII. 1907, p. 157; C. Hill-Tout, _British North America_, 1907; and G. T. Emmons, "The Tahltan Indians," _Anthr. Pub. University of Pennsylvania_, IV. 1, 1911.

[818] C. Wissler, _loc. cit._ p. 454.

[819] J. G. Frazer, _Totemism and Exogamy_, III. 1910, p. 319.

[820] _Loc. cit._ p. 333.

[821] See p. 367.

[822] F. Boas, _Brit. Ass. Reports_, 1885-98; _Social Organisation of the Kwakiutl Indians_, 1897; A. P. Niblack, "The Coast Indians," _U.S. Nat. Mus. Report_, 1898.

[823] For this area consult J. Teit, "The Thompson Indians of British Columbia," "The Lillooet Indians," and "The Shushwap," in _Memoirs, Am. Mus. Nat. Hist._ Vol. II. 4, 1900; Vol. IV. 5, 1906; and Vol. IV. 7, 1909; F. Boas, "The Salish Tribes of the Interior of British Columbia," _Ann. Arch. Rep._ 1905 (Toronto, 1906); C. Hill-Tout, "The Salish Tribes of the Coast and Lower Fraser Delta," _Ann. Arch. Rep._ 1905 (Toronto, 1906); H. J. Spinden, "The Nez Perces Indians," _Memoirs, Am. Anth. Ass._ II. 3, 1908; R. H. Lowie, "The Northern Shoshone," _Anth. Papers, Am. Mus. Nat. Hist._ II. 2, 1908; A. B. Lewis, "Tribes of the Columbia Valley," etc., _Memoirs, Am. Anth. Ass._ I. 2, 1906.

[824] C. Hill-Tout, _British North America_, 1907, p. 37.

[825] _Loc. cit._ p. 50.

[826] _Loc. cit._ pp. 158-9.

[827] A. L. Kroeber, "Types of Indian Culture in California," _University of California Publications Am. Arch. and Eth._ II. 3, 1904; cf. also the special anthropological publications of the University of California.

[828] _Loc. cit._ p. 81 ff.

[829] P. S. Spartman, _University of California Publications, Am. Arch. and Eth._ VIII. 1908, p. 221 ff.; A. L. Kroeber, "Types of Indian Culture in California," _ibid._ II. 1904, p. 81 ff.

[830] A. L. Kroeber, _ibid._ VIII. 1908, p. 72.

[831] C. G. DuBois, "The Religion of the Luiseno Indians," _tom. cit._ p. 73 ff.

[832] Dakota is the name of the largest division of the Siouan linguistic family, commonly called Sioux; Santee, Yankton and Teton constituting, with the Assiniboin, the four main dialects.

[833] See note 4, p. 370.

[834] _Wakonda_ is the term employed "when the power believed to animate all natural forms is spoken to or spoken of in supplications or rituals" by many tribes of the Siouan family. _Manito_ is the Algonquian name for "the mysterious and unknown potencies and powers of life and of the universe." "_Wakonda_," says Miss Fletcher, "is difficult to define, for exact terms change it from its native uncrystallized condition to something foreign to aboriginal thought. Vague as the concept seems to be to one of another race, to the Indian it is as real and as mysterious as the starry night or the flush of the coming day," "Handbook of American Indians" (ed. F. W. Hodge), _Bur. Am. Eth. Bull._ 30, 1907.

[835] See G. A. Dorsey, "Handbook of American Indians" (ed. F. W. Hodge), _Bur. Am. Eth. Bull._ 30, 1907.

[836] G. B. Grinnell points out that the personal torture often associated with the ceremonies has no connection with them, but represents the fulfilment of individual vows. "The Cheyenne Medicine Lodge," _Am. Anth._ XVI. 1914, p. 245.

[837] See G. A. Dorsey, "Arapaho Sun Dance," _Pub. Field Col. Mus. Anth._ IV. 4 (Chicago), 1903; "The Cheyenne," _tom. cit._ IX. 1905.

[838] A. C. Fletcher, in "Handbook of American Indians" (ed. F. W. Hodge), _Bur. Am. Eth.,_ Bull. 30, 1907; _Am. Anth._ IV. 4, 1902; "The Hako, a Pawnee Ceremony," _22nd Ann. Rep. Bur. Am. Eth. 1900-1_, 2 (1904); G. A. Dorsey, "Traditions of the Skidi Pawnee," _Mem. Am. Folklore Soc._ VIII. 1904.

[839] From _siksinam_ "black," and _ka_, the root of _oqkatsh_ "foot." The origin of the name is commonly given as referring to the blackening of their moccasins by the ashes of the prairie fires.

[840] J. Mooney, "Handbook of American Indians" (ed. F. W. Hodge), _Bur. Am. Eth._, Bull. 30, 1907; C. Wissler, "Material culture of the Blackfoot Indians," _Anth. Papers, Am. Mus. Nat. Hist._ V. 1, 1910; J. W. Schultz, _My Life as an Indian_, 1907.

[841] A. L. Kroeber. "The Arapaho," _Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist._ XVIII. 1900; G. A. Dorsey and A. L. Kroeber, "Traditions of the Arapaho," _Pub. Field Col. Mus. Anth._ V. 1903; G. A. Dorsey, "Arapaho Sun Dance," _ib._ IV. 1903.

[842] J. Mooney, "The Ghost Dance Religion," _14th Ann. Rep. Bur. Am. Eth._ 1896.

[843] G. A. Dorsey, "The Cheyenne," _Pub. Field Col. Mus. Anth._ IX. 1905; G. B. Grinnell, "Social organisation of the Cheyennes," _Rep. Int. Cong. Am._ XIII. 1902.

[844] Consult the following: A. C. Parker, "Iroquois uses of Maize and other Food Plants," Bull. 144, _University of California Pub., Arch. and Eth._ VII. 4, 1909; W. J. Hoffman, "The Menomini Indians," _14th Ann. Rep. Bur. Am. Eth. 1892-3_, I. (1896); A. E. Jenks, "The Wild Rice Gatherers of the Upper Lakes," _19th Ann. Rep. Bur. Am. Eth. 1897-8_, II. (1912); A. F. Chamberlain, "The Kootenay Indians and Indians of the Eastern Provinces of Canada," _Ann. Arch. Rep. 1905_ (1906); A. Skinner, "Notes on the Eastern Cree and Northern Saulteaux," _Anth. Papers, Am. Mus. Nat. Hist._ IX. 1, 1911; _The Indians of Greater New York_, 1914; J. N. B. Hewitt, "Iroquoian Cosmology," _21st Ann. Rep. Bur. Am. Eth._ 1899-1900 (1903), etc.

[845] For the Foxes (properly Musquakie) see M. A. Owen, _Folklore of the Musquakie Indians_, 1904.

[846] C. Wissler, _loc. cit._ p. 459.

[847] Ojibway, meaning "to roast till puckered up," referred to the puckered seam on the moccasins. Chippewa is the popular adaptation of the word.

[848] W. Jones, _Ann. Arch. Rep._ 1905 (Toronto), 1906, p. 144. Cf. note on p. 372.

[849] W. J. Hoffman, "The Midewiwin or 'grand medicine society' of the Ojibwa," _7th Ann. Rep. Bur. Am. Eth._ 1886 (1891).

[850] From the Algonkin word meaning "real adders" with French suffix.

[851] A decoction made by boiling the leaves of _Ilex cassine_ in water, employed as "medicine" for ceremonial purification. It was a powerful agent for the production of the nervous state and disordered imagination necessary to "spiritual" power.

[852] C. Wissler,_ loc. cit._ pp. 462-3.

[853] A. J. Pickett, _Hist. of Alabama_, 1851 (ed. 1896), p. 87.

[854] Cf. A. S. Gatschet, "A migration legend of the Creek Indians," _Trans. Acad. Sci. St Louis_, V. 1888.

[855] F. G. Speck, "Some outlines of Aboriginal Culture in the S. E. States," _Am. Anth._ N. S. IX. 1907; "Ethnology of the Yuchi Indians," _Anth. Pub. Mus. Univ. Pa._ I. 1, 1909.

[856] W. H. Holmes, "Areas of American Culture," etc., _Am. Anth._ XVI. 1914, p. 424.

[857] _L'Anthropologie_, 1897, p. 702 sq.

[858] _16th Ann. Rep. Bur. Am. Eth._, Washington, 1897, p. lvi sq.

[859] Walpi, Sichumovi, Hano (Tewa), Shipaulovi, Mishongnovi, Shunopovi and Oraibi.

[860] Zuni proper, Pescado, Nutria and Ojo Caliente.

[861] Taos, Picuris, San Juan, Santa Clara, San Ildefonso, Tesuque, Pojoaque, Nambe, Jemez, Pecos, Sandia, Isleta, all of Tanoan stock; San Felipe, Cochiti, Santo Domingo, Santa Ana, Sia Laguna and Acoma, of Keresan stock.

[862] For this area see A. F. Bandelier, "Final Report of Investigations among the Indians of the S. W. United States," _Arch. Inst. of Am. Papers_, 1890-2; P. E. Goddard, "Indians of the Southwest," _Handbook Series, Am. Mus. Nat. Hist._ 2, 1913; F. Russell, "The Pima Indians," _26th Ann. Rep. Bur. Am. Eth._ 1904-5 (1908); G. Nordenskioeld, _The Cliff Dwellers of Mesa Verde, S. W. Colorado_, 1893; C. Mindeleff, "Aboriginal Remains in Verde Valley, Arizona," _13th Ann. Rep. Bur. Am. Eth._ 1891-2 (1896). For chronology cf. L. Spier, _Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. Anth._ XVIII.

[863] _16th Ann. Report_, p. xciv. Cf. E. Huntington, "Desiccation in Arizona," _Geog. Journ._, Sept. and Oct. 1912.

[864] For the religion consult F. H. Cushing, "Zuni Creation Myths," _13th Ann. Rep. Bur. Am. Eth._ 1891-2 (1896); _Zuni Folk Tales_, 1901; Matilda C. Stevenson, "The Religious Life of the Zuni Child," _5th Ann. Rep. Bur. Am. Eth._ 1887; "The Zuni Indians, their mythology, esoteric fraternities, and ceremonies," _23rd Rep._ 1904; J. W. Fewkes, "Tusayan Katcinas," _15th Ann. Rep. Bur. Am. Eth._ 1893-4 (1897); "Tusayan Snake Ceremonies," _16th Rep._ 1894-5 (1897); "Tusayan Flute and Snake Ceremonies," _19th Rep._ 1897-8, 11. (1900); "Hopi Katcinas," _21st Rep._ 1899-1900 (1903), and other papers. For dances see W. Hough, _Moki Snake dance_, 1898; G. A. Dorsey and H. R. Voth, "Mishongnovi Ceremonies of the Snake and Antelope Fraternities," _Pub. Field Col. Mus. Anth._ III. 3, 1902; J. W. Fewkes, "Snake Ceremonials at Walpi," _Jour. Am. Eth. and Arch._ IV. 1894 and "Tusayan Snake Ceremonies," _16th Ann, Rep. Bur. Am. Eth._ 1897; H. Hodge, "Pueblo Snake Ceremonies," _Am. Anth._ IX. 1896.

[865] p. xcvii.

[866] _Amer. Anthropologist_, Jan. 1898.

[867] p. 13.

[868] G. W. James, _Indians of the Painted Desert Region_, 1903, p. 90.

[869] L. Farrand, _Basis of American History_, 1904, p. 184.

[870] W. H. Holmes, "Pottery of the ancient Pueblos," _4th Ann. Rep. Bur. Am. Eth. 1882-3_ (1886); F. H. Cushing, "A study of Pueblo Pottery," etc., _ib,_; J. W. Fewkes, "Archaeological expedition to Arizona," _17th Rep. 1895-6_ (1898); W. Hough, "Archaeological field work in N.E. Arizona" (1901), _Rep. U.S. Nat. Mus._ 1903.

[871] "Zuni Kin and Clan," _Anth. Papers, Am. Mus. Nat. Hist._ XVIII. 1917, p. 39.

[872] p. 167.