Chapter XV: THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES (continued) (3)

Money, if it exists at all, occupies a very unimportant place in the culture of the people. There is no evidence of the use of any object in Polynesia with the definite scale of values which is possessed by several kinds of money in Melanesia. The Polynesians are largely communistic, probably more so than the Melanesians, and afford one of the best examples of communism in property with which we are acquainted. This feature may be ascribed to the earlier settlers. The suggestion that the kava-people never formed independent communities in Polynesia, but were accepted at once as chiefs of those among whom they settled would account for the absence of money (for which there was no need), and the failure to disturb in any great measure the communism of the earlier inhabitants. Communism in property was associated with sexual communism. There is evidence that Polynesian chiefs rarely had more than one wife, while the licentiousness which probably stood in a definite relation to the communism of the people is said to have been more pronounced among the lower strata of the community. Both communism and licentiousness appear to have been much less marked in the Samoan and Tongan islands, and here there is no evidence of interment in the sitting position. These and other facts support the view that the influence of the kava-people was greater here than in the more eastern islands: probably it was greatest in Tikopia, which in many respects differs from other parts of Polynesia.

Magic is altogether absent from the culture of Tikopia and it probably took a relatively unimportant place throughout Polynesia. In Tikopia the ghosts of dead ancestors and relatives as well as animals are _atua_ and this connotation of the word appears to be general in other parts of Polynesia. These may be regarded as the representatives of the ghosts and spirits of Melanesia. The _vui_ of Melanesia may be represented by the _tii_ of Tahiti, beings not greatly respected, who had to some extent a local character. This comparison suggests that the ancestral ghosts belong to the culture of the kava-people, and that the local spirits are derived from the culture of the people who interred their dead in the sitting position, from which people the dual people of Melanesia derived their beliefs and practices.

To sum up. Polynesian culture is made up of at least two elements, an earlier, associated with the practice of interring the dead in a sitting position, communism, geometric art, local spirits and magical rites, and a later, which practised preservation of the dead. These latter may be identified with the kava-people while the earlier Polynesian stratum is that which entered into the composition of the dual-people of Melanesia at a still earlier date, and introduced the Austronesian language into Oceania[1351].

FOOTNOTES:

[1194] Cf. J. Dechelette, _Manuel d'archeologie prehistorique_, Vol. II. 1910, p. 2, and for neolithic trade routes, _ib._ Vol. I. p. 626.

[1195] The Tell-el-Amarna correspondence contains names of chieftains in Syria and Palestine about 1400 B.C., including the name of Tushratta, king of Mitanni; the Boghaz Keui document with Iranian divine names, and Babylonian records of Iranian names from the Persian highlands, are a little later in date.

[1196] J. L. Myres, _The Dawn of History_, 1911, p. 200.

[1197] Cf. P. Giles, Art. "Indo-European Languages" in _Ency. Brit._ 1911.

[1198] S. Feist, _Kultur, Ausbreitung und Herkunft der Indogermanen_, 1913, pp. 40 and 486-528.

[1199] O. Schrader, _Sprachvergleichung und Urgeschichte_, 3rd ed. 1906-7.

[1200] G. Kossinna, _Die Herkunft der Germanen_, 1911.

[1201] H. Hirt, _Die Indogermanen, ihre Verbreitung, ihre Urheimat und ihre Kultur_, 1905-7.

[1202] S. Feist, _Kultur, Ausbreitung und Herkunft der Indogermanen_, 1913, pp. 40 and 486-528.

[1203] _Deutsche Altertumskunde_, I. 1913, p. 49.

[1204] See Note 3, p. 441 above.

[1205] Art. "Indo-European Languages," _Ency. Brit._ 1911, p. 500.

[1206] Centum (hard guttural) group is the name applied to the Western and entirely European branches of the Indo-European family, as opposed to the satem (sibilant) group, situated mainly in Asia.

[1207] _The Races of Europe_, 1900, p. 17 and chap. XVII. European origins: Race and Language: The Aryan Question.

[1208] S. Feist, _Kultur, Ausbreitung und Herkunft der Indogermanen_, 1913, pp. 497, 501 ff.

[1209] Cf. T. Rice Holmes, _Caesar's Conquest of Gaul_, 1911, p. 273.

[1210] E. de Michelis, _L'origine degli Indo-Europei_, 1905.

[1211] Even Sweden, regarded as the home of the purest Nordic type, already had a brachycephalic mixture in the Stone Age. See G. Retzius, "The So-called North European Race of Mankind," _Journ. Roy. Anthrop. Inst._ XXXIX. 1909, p. 304.

[1212] Cf. E. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_, 1909, l. 2, Sec. 551.

[1213] For the working out of this hypothesis see T. Peisker, "The Expansion of the Slavs," _Cambridge Medieval History_, Vol. II. 1913.

[1214] H. M. Chadwick, Art. "Teutonic Peoples" in _Ency. Brit._ 1911. Cf. S. Feist, _Kultur, Ausbreitung und Herkunft der Indogermanen_, 1913, p. 480.

[1215] See R. Much, Art. "Germanen," J. Hoops' _Reallexikon d. Germ. Altertumskunde_, 1914.

[1216] H. M. Chadwick, _The Origin of the English Nation_, 1907, pp. 210-215. For a full account of the affinities of the _Cimbri_ and _Teutoni_ see T. Rice Holmes, _Caesar's Conquest of Gaul_, 1911, pp. 546-553.

[1217] Paper read at the Meeting of the Ger. Anthrop. Soc., Spiers, 1896. Figures of Bastarnae from the Adamklissi monument and elsewhere are reproduced in H. Hahne's _Das Vorgeschichtliche Europa: Kulturen und Voelker_, 1910, figs. 144, 149. Cf. T. Peisker, "The Expansion of the Slavs," _Camb. Med. Hist._ Vol. II. 1913, p. 430.

[1218] Cf. H. M. Chadwick, _The Origin of the English Nation_, 1907, pp. 174 and 219.

[1219] _Monuments runiques_ in _Mem. Soc. R. Ant. du Nord_, 1893.

[1220] "Lactea cutis" (Sidonius Apollinaris).

[1221] W. Z. Ripley, _The Races of Europe_, 1900, p. 205 ff. See also O. Montelius, _Kulturgeschichte Schwedens_, 1906; G. Retzius and C. M. Fuerst, _Anthropologica Suecica_, 1902.

[1222] Commonly called the Borreby type from skulls found at Borreby in the island of Falster, which resemble Round Barrow skulls in Britain.

[1223] For Denmark consult _Meddelelser om Danmarks Antropologi_ udgivne af den Antropologiske Komite, with English summaries, Bd. I. 1907-1911, Bd. II. 1913.

[1224] The results were tabulated by Virchow and may be seen, without going to German sources, in W. Z. Ripley's map, p. 222, of _The Races of Europe_, 1900, where the whole question is fully dealt with.

[1225] See Ripley's Craniological chart in "Une carte de l'Indice Cephalique en Europe," _L'Anthropologie_, VII. 1896, p. 513.

[1226] The case is stated in uncompromising language by Alfred Fouillee: "Une autre loi, plus generalement admise, c'est que depuis les temps prehistoriques, les brachycephales tendent a eliminer les dolichocephales par l'invasion progressive des couches inferieures et l'absorption des aristocraties dans les democraties, ou elles viennent se noyer" (_Rev. des Deux Mondes_, March 15, 1895).

[1227] _Recherches Anthrop. sur le Probleme de la Depopulation_, in _Rev. d'Economie politique_, IX. p. 1002; X. p. 132 (1895-6).

[1228] _Nature_, 1897, p. 487. Cf. also A. Thomson, "Consideration of ... factors concerned in production of Man's Cranial Form," _Journ. Anthr. Inst._ XXXIII. 1903, and A. Keith, "The Bronze Age Invaders of Britain," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XLV. 1915.

[1229] Livi's results for Italy (_Antropometria Militare_) differ in some respects from those of de Lapouge and Ammon for France and Baden. Thus he finds that in the brachy districts the urban population is less brachy than the rural, while in the dolicho districts the towns are more brachy than the plains.

[1230] Dealing with some studies of the Lithuanian race, Deniker writes: "Ainsi donc, contrairement aux idees de MM. de Lapouge et Ammon, en Pologne, comme d'ailleurs en Italie, les classes les plus instruites, dirigeantes, urbaines, sont plus brachy que les paysans" (_L'Anthropologie_, 1896, p. 351). Similar contradictions occur in connection with light and dark hair, eyes, etc.

[1231] "E qui non posso tralasciare di avvertire un errore assai diffuso fra gli antropologi ... i quali vorrebbero ammettere una trasformazione del cranio da dolicocefalo in brachicefalo" (_Arii e Italici_, p. 155).

[1232] W. Z. Ripley's _The Races of Europe_, 1900, p. 544 ff.

[1233] This specialist insists "dass von einer mongolischen Einwanderung in Europa keine Rede mehr sein koenne" (_Der europaeische Mensch. u. die Tiroler_, 1896). He is of course speaking of prehistoric times, not of the late (historical) Mongol irruptions. Cf. T. Peisker, "The Expansion of the Slavs," _Camb. Med. Hist._ Vol. II. 1913, p. 452, with reference to mongoloid traits in Bavaria.

[1234] "Malgre les nombreuses invasions des populations germaniques, le Tyrolien est reste, quant a sa conformation cranienne, le Rasene ou Rhaetien des temps antiques--hyperbrachycephale" (_Les Aryens_, p. 7). The mean index of the so-called Disentis type of Rhaetian skulls is about 86 (His and Ruetimeyer, _Crania Helvetica_, p. 29 and Plate E. 1).

[1235] "The Tyrrhenians in Greece and Italy," in _Journ. Anthrop. Inst._ 1897, p. 258. In this splendidly illustrated paper the date of the immigration is referred to the 11th century B.C. on the ground that the first Etruscan saeculum was considered as beginning about 1050 B.C., presumably the date of their arrival in Italy (p. 259). But Sergi thinks they did not arrive till about the end of the 8th century (_Arii e Italici_, p. 149).

[1236] See R. S. Conway, Art. Etruria: Language, _Ency. Brit._ 1911.

[1237] _Op. cit._ p. 151. By German he means the round-headed South German.

[1238] S. Feist, _Kultur, Ausbreitung und Herkunft der Indogermanen_, 1913, p. 370.

[1239] S. Feist, _loc. cit._ p. 65. For cultural and linguistic influence of Celts on Germans see pp. 480 ff. Evidence of Celtic names in Germany is discussed by H. M. Chadwick "Some German River names," _Essays and Studies presented to William Ridgeway_, 1913.

[1240] H. d'Arbois de Jubainville, _Les Celtes depuis les Temps les plus anciens jusqu'en l'an 100 avant notre ere_, 1904, p. 1.

[1241] G. Dottin, _Manuel pour servir a l'etude de l'Antiquite Celtique_, 1915, p. 1.

[1242] T. Rice Holmes, Caesar's _Conquest of Gaul_, 1911, p. 321. W. Z. Ripley, _The Races of Europe_, 1900, reviewing the "_Celtic Question_, than which no greater stumbling-block in the way of our clear thinking exists" (p. 124) comes to a different conclusion. He states that "the term _Celt_, if used at all, belongs to the ... brachycephalic, darkish population of the Alpine highlands," and he claims for this view "complete unanimity of opinion among physical anthropologists" (p. 126). His own view however is that "the linguists are best entitled to the name _Celt_" while the broad-headed type commonly called Celtic by continental writers "we shall ... everywhere ... call ... Alpine" (p. 128).

[1243] Cf. the similar dual treatment in Italic.

[1244] "No Gael [_i.e._ Q Celt] ever set his foot on British soil save on a vessel that had put out from Ireland." Kuno Meyer, _Trans. Hon. Soc. Cymmrodorion_, 1895-6, p. 69.

[1245] _Ancient Britain_, 1907, pp. 409-424.

[1246] _Das keltische Britannien_, 1912, pp. 28-37.

[1247] J. Rhys, _The Welsh People_, 1902, pp. 13-14.

[1248] _Das keltische Britannien_, 1912, pp. 28-37.

[1249] _Ancient Britain_, 1907, p. 414. The name of the Picts is apparently Indo-European in form, and if the Celts were late comers into Britain (see above) they may well have been preceded by invaders of Indo-European speech.

[1250] T. Rice Holmes, _Ancient Britain_, 1907, p. 408. Cf. A. Keith, "The Bronze Age Invaders of Britain," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XLV. 1915.

[1251] Quoted in T. Rice Holmes, _Ancient Britain_, 1907, pp. 426-427.

[1252] T. Rice Holmes, _Ancient Britain_, 1907, p. 443. See also John Abercromby, _A Study of the Bronze Age Pottery of Great Britain and Ireland and its associated Grave Goods_, 1912, tracing the distribution and migration of pottery forms: and the following papers of H. J. Fleure, "Archaeological Problems of the West Coast of Britain," _Archaeologia Cambrensis_, Oct. 1915; "The Early Distribution of Population in South Britain," _ib._ April, 1916; "The Geographical Distribution of Anthropological Types in Wales," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XLVI. 1916, and "A Proposal for Local Surveys of the British People," _Arch. Camb._ Jan. 1917.

[1253] W. Z. Ripley, _The Races of Europe_, 1900, p. 310; T. Rice Holmes, _Ancient Britain_, 1907, p. 432.

[1254] G. Coffey and R. Lloyd Praeger, "The Antrim Raised Beach: a Contribution to the Neolithic History of the North of Ireland," _Proc. Roy. Irish Acad._ XXV. (c.) 1904. See also the valuable series of "Reports on Prehistoric Remains from the Sandhills of the Coast of Ireland," _P. R. I. A._ XVI.

[1255] _Man_, IX. 1909, NO. 54.

[1256] _Proc. Roy. Irish Acad._ (3), III. 1896, p. 727.

[1257] Cf. also J. Wilfred Jackson, "The Geographical Distribution of the Shell-Purple Industry," _Mem. and Proc. Manchester Lit. and Phil. Soc._ LX. No. 7, 1916.

[1258] _Survivals from the Palaeolithic Age among Irish Neolithic Implements_, 1897.

[1259] _The Dolmens of Ireland_, 1897.

[1260] They need not, however, have come from Britain, and the allusions in Irish literature to direct immigration from Spain, probable enough in itself, are too numerous to be disregarded. Thus, Geoffrey of Monmouth:--"Hibernia Basclensibus [to the Basques] incolenda datur" (_Hist. Reg. Brit._ III. Sec. 12); and Giraldus Cambrensis:--"De Gurguntio Brytonum Rege, qui Rasclenses [read Basclenses] in Hiberniam transmisit et eandem ipsis habitandam concessit." I am indebted to Wentworth Webster for these references (_Academy_, Oct. 19, 1895).

[1261] H. Zimmer, "Auf welchen Wege kamen die Goidelen vom Kontinent nach Irland?" _Abh. d. K. preuss. Akad. d. Wiss._ 1912.

[1262] J. Gray, "Memoir on the Pigmentation Survey of Scotland," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XXXVII. 1907.

[1263] "A Last Contribution to Scottish Ethnology," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XXXVIII. 1908.

[1264] "The Geographical Distribution of Anthropological Types in Wales," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XLVI. 1916.

[1265] For the explanation see W. Z. Ripley, _The Races of Europe_, 1900, p. 322 ff.

[1266] W. Z. Ripley, _loc. cit._ p. 329.

[1267] "The Frenchman, the German, the Italian, the Englishman, to each of whom his own literature and the great traditions of his national life are most dear and familiar, cannot help but feel that the vernacular in which these are embodied and expressed is, and must be, superior to the alien and awkward languages of his neighbours." L. Pearsall Smith, _The English Language_, p. 54.

[1268] See above p. 455. T. Rice Holmes points out that the Aquitani were already mixed in type. _Caesar's Conquest of Gaul_, 1911, p. 12.

[1269] See above p. 454.

[1270] That is, the languages whose affirmatives were the Latin pronouns _hoc illud_ (_oil_) and _hoc_ (_oc_), the former being more contracted, the latter more expanded, as we see in the very names of the respective Northern and Southern bards: _Trouveres_ and _Troubadours_. It was customary in medieval times to name languages in this way, Dante, for instance, calling Italian _la lingua del si_, "the language of _yes_"; and, strange to say, the same usage prevails largely amongst the Australian aborigines, who, however, use both the affirmative and the negative particles, so that we have here _no_- as well as _yes_-tribes.

[1271] S. Feist points out that two physical types were recognised in antiquity, one dark and one fair, and reference to red hair and fair skin suggests Celtic infusion. _Kultur, Ausbreitung und Herkunft der Indogermanen_, 1913, p. 365.

[1272] _Science Progress_, p. 159.

[1273] "The Portuguese are much mixed with Negroes more particularly in the south and along the coast. The slave trade existed long before the Negroes of Guinea were exported to the plantations of America. Damiao de Goes estimated the number of blacks imported into Lisbon alone during the 16th century at 10,000 or 12,000 per annum. If contemporary eye-witnesses can be trusted, the number of blacks met with in the streets of Lisbon equalled that of the whites. Not a house but had its negro servants, and the wealthy owned entire gangs of them" (Reclus, I. p. 471).

[1274] "The Spanish People," _Cont. Rev._ May, 1907, and _The Soul of Spain_, 1908.

[1275] T. E. Peet, _Stone and Bronze Ages in Italy and Sicily_, 1909, gives a full account of the archaeology.

[1276] "Zur Palaeoethnologie Mittel- u. Suedeuropas" in _Mitt. Wiener Anthrop. Ges._ 1897, p. 18. It should here be noted that in his _History of the Greek Language_ (1896) Kretschmer connects the inscriptions of the Veneti in north Italy and of the Messapians in the south with the Illyrian linguistic family, which he regards as Aryan intermediate between the Greek and the Italic branches, the present Albanian being a surviving member of it. In the same Illyrian family W. M. Lindsay would also include the "Old Sabellian" of Picenum, "believed to be the oldest inscriptions on Italian soil. The manifest identity of the name _Aodatos_ and the word _meitimon_ with the Illyrian names [Greek: Audata] and _Meitima_ is almost sufficient of itself to prove these inscriptions to be Illyrian. Further the whole character of their language, with its Greek and its Italic features, corresponds with what we know and what we can safely infer about the Illyrian family of languages" (_Academy_, Oct. 24, 1896). Cf. R. S. Conway, _The Italic Dialects_, 1897.

[1277] R. Munro, _Bosnia, Herzegovina and Dalmatia_, 1900. See also W. Ridgeway, _The Early Age of Greece_, 1901, ch. V., showing that remains of the Iron Age in Bosnia are closely connected with Hallstatt and La Tene cultures.

[1278] _Arii e Italici_, p. 158 sq.

[1279] "Liguri e Pelasgi furono i primi abitatori d'Italia; e Liguri sembra siano stati quelli che occupavano la Valle del Po e costrussero le palafitte, e Liguri forse anche i costruttori delle palafitte svizzere: Mediterranei tutti" (_Ib._ p. 138).

[1280] Ripley's chart shows a range of from 87 in Piedmont to 76 and 77 in Calabria, Puglia, and Sardinia, and 75 and under in Corsica. _The Races of Europe_, 1900, p. 251.

[1281] But cf. W. Ridgeway, _Who were the Romans?_ 1908.

[1282] The true name of these southern or Macedo-Rumanians, as pointed out by Gustav Weigland (_Globus_, LXXI. p. 54), is _Aramani_ or _Armani_, _i.e._ "Romans." _Tsintsar_, _Kutzo-Vlack_, etc. are mere nicknames, by which they are known to their Macedonian (Bulgar and Greek) neighbours. See also W. R. Morfill in _Academy_, July 1, 1893. The Vlachs of Macedonia are described by E. Pears, _Turkey and its People_, 1911, and a full account of the Balkan Vlachs is given by A. J. B. Wace and M. S. Thompson, _The Nomads of the Balkans_, 1914.

[1283] _Romaenische Studien_, Leipzig, 1871.

[1284] _Les Roumains au Moyen Age, passim._ Hunfalvy, quoted by A. J. Patterson (_Academy_, Sept. 7, 1895), also shows that "for a thousand years there is no authentic mention of a Latin or Romance speaking population north of the Danube."

[1285] This view is held by L. Rethy, also quoted by Patterson, and the term _Vlack_ (_Welsch_, whence Wallachia) applied to the Rumanians by all their Slav and Greek neighbours points in the same direction.

[1286] T. Peisker, "The Asiatic Background," _Camb. Med. Hist._ Vol. I. 1911, p. 356, and "The Expansion of the Slavs," _ib._ Vol. II. 1913, p. 440.

[1287] _Mitt. Wiener Anthrop. Ges._ 1897, p. 18.

[1288] _Dawn of Civilization_, p. 391.

[1289] _The Ancient History of the Near East_, 1913, p. 69.

[1290] Hall notes (p. 73) that "it is to the Thesprotian invasion, which displaced the Achaians, that, in all probability, the general introduction of iron into Greece is to be assigned. The invaders came ultimately from the Danube region, where iron was probably first used in Europe, whereas their kindred, the Achaians, had possibly already lived in Thessaly in the Stone Age, and derived the knowledge of metal from the Aegeans. The speedy victory of the new-comers over the older Aryan inhabitants of Northern Greece may be ascribed to their possession of iron weapons." Ridgeway, however, has little difficulty in proving that the Achaeans themselves were tall fair Celts from Central Europe. _The Early Age of Greece_, 1901, especially chap. IV., "Whence came the Acheans?" The question is dealt with from a different point of view by J. L. Myres, in _The Dawn of History_, 1911, chap. IX., "The Coming of the North," tracing the invasion from the Eurasian steppes.

[1291] H. R. Hall, _loc. cit._ p. 68; cf. H. Peake, _Journ. Roy. Anth. Inst._ 1916, p. 154.

[1292] C. H. Hawes, "Some Dorian Descendants," _Ann. Brit. School Ath._ No. XVI. 1909-10, proves that the Dorian or Illyrian (Alpine) type still persists in South Greece and Crete.

[1293] _Geschichte der Halbinsel Morea, Stuttgart_, 1830. See also G. Finlay's _Mediaeval Greece_, and the _Anthrop. Rev._ 1868, VI. p. 154.

[1294] _Romaenische Studien_, 1871.

[1295] _Bul. Soc. d'Anthrop._ 1896, p. 351 sq.

[1296] By a sort of grim irony the word has come to mean "slave" in the West, owing to the multitudes of Slavs captured and enslaved during the medieval border warfare. But the term is by many referred to the root _slovo_, word, speech, implying a people of intelligible utterance, and this is supported by the form _Slovene_ occurring in Nestor and still borne by a southern Slav group. See T. Peisker, "The Expansion of the Slavs," _Camb. Med. Hist._ Vol. II. 1913, p. 421 _n._ 2.

[1297] IV. 21.

[1298] These Budini are described as a large nation with "remarkably blue eyes and red hair," on which account Zaborowski thinks they may have been ancestors of the present Finns. But they may also very well have been belated proto-Germani left behind by the body of the nation _en route_ for their new Baltic homes.

[1299] Cf. p. 304.

[1300] _Scythians and Greeks_, 1909.

[1301] The meaning of Wend is uncertain. It has led to confusion with the Armorican _Veneti_, the Paphlagonian _Enetae_, and the Adriatic _Enetae-Venetae_, all non-Slav peoples. Shakhmatov regards it as a name inherited by Slavs from their conquerors, the Celtic Venedi, who occupied the Vistula region in the 3rd or 2nd centuries B.C. See T. Peisker, "The Expansion of the Slavs," _Camb. Med. Hist._ Vol. II. 1913, p. 421 _n._ 2.

[1302] That is, the Elbe Slaves, from _po_=by, near, and _Labe_=Elbe; cf. _Pomor_ (Pomeranians), "by the Sea"; Borussia, Porussia, Prussia, originally peopled by the _Pruczi_, a branch of the Lithuanians Germanised in the 17th century.

[1303] _Carpath_, _Khrobat_, _Khorvat_ are all the same word, meaning highlands, mountains, hence not strictly an ethnic term, although at present so used by the _Crovats_ or _Croatians_, a considerable section of the Yugo-Slavs south of the Danube.

[1304] See note 5, p. 537.

[1305] That is, "Highlanders" (root _alb_, _alp_, height, hill). From _Albanites_ through the Byzantine _Arvanites_ comes the Turkish _Arnaut_, while the national name _Skipetar_ has precisely the same meaning (root _skip_, _scop_, as in [Greek: skopelos], scopulus, cliff, crag).

[1306] There are about twenty of these _phis_ or _phar_ (phratries) amongst the Ghegs, and the practice of exogamous marriage still survives amongst the Mirdites south of the Drin, who, although Catholics, seek their wives amongst the surrounding hostile Turkish and Muhammadan Gheg populations.

[1307] J. Deniker, "Les Six Races composant la Population actuelle de l'Europe," _Journ. Anthr. Inst._ XXXIV. 1904, pp. 182, 202.

[1308] _Bul. Soc. d'Anthrop._ VII. 1896.

[1309] Hence Virchow (Meeting Ger. Anthrop. Soc. 1897) declared that the extent and duration of the Slav encroachments in German territory could not be determined by the old skulls, because it is impossible to say whether a given skull is Slav or not.

[1310] Especially Lubor Niederle, for whom the proto-Slavs are unquestionably long-headed blonds like the Teutons, although he admits that round skulls occur even of old date, and practically gives up the attempt to account for the transition to the modern Slav.

[1311] "The Racial Geography of Europe," in _Popular Science Monthly_, June, 1897.

[1312] _Bul. Soc. d'Anthrop._ 1896, p. 81 sq.

[1313] _Bul. Soc. d'Anthrop._ 1894, p. 36.

[1314] _Droit Coutumier Ossethien_, 1893.

[1315] Quoted by Ujfalvy, _Les Aryens_ etc. p. 11.

[1316] The _Yagnobi_ of the river of like name, an affluent of the Zerafshan; yet even this shows lexical affinities with Iranic, while its structure seems to connect it with Leitner's Kajuna and Biddulph's Burish, a non-Aryan tongue current in Ghilghit, Yasin, Hunza and Nagar, whose inhabitants are regarded by Biddulph as descendants of the Yue-chi. The Yagnobi themselves, however, are distinctly Alpines, somewhat short, very hirsute and brown, with broad face, large head, and a Savoyard expression. They have the curious custom of never cutting but always breaking their bread, the use of the knife being sure to raise the price of flour.

[1317] F. v. Luschan points out that very little is known of the anthropology of Persia. "In a land inhabited by about ten millions not more than twenty or thirty men have been regularly measured and not one skull has been studied." The old type preserved in the Parsi is short-headed and dark. "The Early Inhabitants of Western Asia," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XLI. 1911, p. 233.

[1318] _Dih, deh_, village. _Zaban_, tongue, language.

[1319] H. Walter, _From Indus to Tigris_, p. 16. Of course this traveller refers only to the Tajiks of the plateau (Persia, Afghanistan). Of the Galchic Tajiks he knew nothing; nor indeed is the distinction even yet quite understood by European ethnologists.

[1320] III. 91.

[1321] Even Ptolemy's [Greek: pasichai] appear to be the same people, [Greek: p] being an error for [Greek: t], so that [Greek: tasikai] would be the nearest possible Greek transcription of _Tajik_.

[1322] _Tribes of the Hindoo-Koosh_, 1880, _passim._

[1323] _An Account of the Kingdom of Caubul_, 1815.

[1324] "Ces Savoyards attardes du Kohistan" (Ujfalvy, _Les Aryens_ etc.).

[1325] The anthropological data are dealt with by T. A. Joyce, "Notes on the Physical Anthropology of Chinese Turkestan and the Pamirs," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XLII. 1912. "The original inhabitant ... is that type of man described by Lapouge as _Homo Alpinus_," p. 468.

[1326] F. v. Luschan, "The Early Inhabitants of Asia," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XLI. 1911, p. 243.

[1327] For the evidence of the extension of this element in East Central Asia see Ch. IX.

[1328] R. B. Foote, _Madras Government Museum_. _The Foote Collection of Indian Prehistoric and Protohistoric Antiquities. Notes on their ages and distribution_, 1916, is the most recent contribution to the prehistoric period, but the conclusions are not universally accepted.

[1329] A. F. R. Hoernle, _A Grammar of Eastern Hindi compared with the other Gaudian Languages_, 1880, first suggested (p. xxxi. ff.) the distinction between the languages of the Midland and the Outer Band, which has been corroborated by G. A. Grierson, _Languages of India_, 1903, p. 51; _Imperial Gazetteer of India_, 1907-8, Vol. I. pp. 357-8.

[1330] H. H. Risley, _The People of India_, 1908, p. 54. See also J. D. Anderson, _The Peoples of India_, 1913, p. 27.

[1331] _Tribes and Castes of Bengal_ etc. 1892, _Indian Census Report_, 1901, and _Imperial Gazetteer_, Vol. I. ch. VI.

[1332] The jungle tribes of this group, such as the _Paniyan_, _Kurumba_ and _Irula_ are classed as PRE-DRAVIDIAN. See chap. XII.

[1333] A. C. Haddon, _Wanderings of Peoples_, 1911, p. 27.

[1334] _The Indo-Aryan Races_, 1916, pp. 65-71 and 75-78.

[1335] "A Third Journey of Exploration in Central Asia 1913-16," _Geog. Journ._ 1916.

[1336] _Natives of Northern India_, 1907, pp. 19, 24. See also his article "R[=a]jputs and Mar[=a]thas," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XL. 1910.

[1337] "His report, compiled during the inevitable distractions incident to the enumeration of a population of some 300 millions, was a notable performance, and will remain one of the classics of Indian anthropology." "The Stability of Caste and Tribal Groups in India," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XLIV. 1914, p. 270.

[1338] A vast amount of material has been collected in recent years besides _Ethnographical Surveys_ of the various provinces, the _Imperial Gazetteer_ of 1909, and the magnificent _Census Reports_ of 1901 and 1911. Some of the more important works are as follows:--H. H. Risley, _Ethnography of India_, 1903, _The People of India_, 1908; E. Thurston, _Ethnographical Notes on Southern India_, 1906, _Castes and Tribes of Southern India_, 1909; H. A. Rose, _Glossary of the Tribes and Castes of the Punjab and N.W. Frontier Province_, 1911; E. A. de Brett, _Gazetteer, Chhatisgarh Feudatory States_, 1909; C. E. Luard, _Ethnographic Survey, Central India_, 1909; L. K. Anantha Krishna Iyer, _The Cochin Tribes and Castes_, 1909, _Tribes and Castes of Cochin_, 1912; M. Longworth Dames, _The Baloch Race_, 1904; W. H. R. Rivers, _The Todas_, 1906; P. R. T. Gurdon, _The Khasis_, 1907; T. C. Hodson, _The Meitheis_, 1908, _The Naga Tribes of Manipur_, 1911; E. Stack and C. J. Lyall, _The Mikirs_, 1908; A. Playfair, _The Garos_, 1909; S. Endle, _The Kacharis_, 1911; C. G. and B. Z. Seligman, _The Veddas_, 1911; J. Shakespear, _The Lushei Kuki Clans_, 1912; S. Chandra Roy, _The Mundas and their Country_, 1912, _The Oraons_, 1915; and R. V. Russell, _Tribes and Castes of the N.W. Central Provinces_, 1916.

[1339] The term _Kol_, which occurs as an element in a great many tribal names, and was first introduced by Campbell in a collective sense (1866), is of unknown origin, but probably connected with a root meaning "Man" (W. Crooke, _Tribes and Castes_, III. p. 294).

[1340] _Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal_, p. 190.

[1341] In a letter to the author, June 18, 1895.

[1342] Edgar Thurston, _Anthropology_ etc., Bul. 4, Madras, 1896, pp. 147-8. For fuller details see his _Castes and Tribes of S. India_, 1909.

[1343] _The Todas_, 1906. See chap. XXX. "The Origin and History of the Todas."

[1344] For the discussion of Caste see E. A. Gait's article in _Ency. of Religion and Ethics_, 1910, with bibliography; also V. A. Smith, _Caste in India, East and West_, 1913.

[1345] See Ch. VII.

[1346] See A. Kraemer, _Hawaii, Ostmikronesien und Samoa_, 1906.

[1347] For Polynesian wanderings see S. Percy Smith, _Hawaiki: the original home of the Maori_, 1904; J. M. Brown, _Maori and Polynesian; their origin, history and culture_, 1907; W. Churchill, _The Polynesian Wanderings_, 1911.

[1348] _H_ everywhere takes the place of _S_, which is preserved only in the Samoan mother-tongue; cf. Gr. [Greek: hepta] with Lat. _septem_, Eng. _seven_.

[1349] _The History of Melanesian Society_, 1914.

[1350] Cf. p. 139 ff.

[1351] Among recent works on Polynesia see H. Mager, _Le Monde polynesien_, 1902; B. H. Thomson, _Savage Island_, 1902; A. Kraemer, _Die Samoa-Inseln_, 1902; J. M. Brown, _Maori and Polynesian_, 1907; G. Brown, _Melanesians and Polynesians_, 1910; F. W. Christian, _Eastern Pacific Islands_, 1910.