Chapter III: The Battle for Independence

It was not until the various colonies to the north of them had achieved their independence, and had come to be known as a new nation, the United States of America, that the Mexicans began to indulge the spirit of patriotism and the desire for independence which are implanted by nature in every human breast. Other patriots had succeeded in establishing their rights to freedom and its privileges, why not they?

As the years went on, this restless desire for liberty grew among the patriots of Mexico. The fruits, the wealth, the prodigal bounty of the country were theirs, they felt, by inheritance; why should they go to enrich the coffers of a foreign country while they were kept here in poverty and oppression? In 1798, the Spanish viceroy began to discover signs of the uprising that broke out with such force a few years later, under the noble Hidalgo. Even then the Mexicans had decided in their secret hearts that Mexico should no longer be New Spain either in name or in fact. She should be free. She should govern her own country and worship in her own church. She should come into her own Kingdom of Liberty.

It was a bloody struggle and one that was several times repeated ere the victory was gained and Mexico became firmly established as one of the republics of the world.

Hidalgo and his patriots made a noble fight, but internal dissensions and foreign invasions followed; the valuable mines, sacked for centuries by other rulers, had to be abandoned, and the tillable lands were left untouched. The patriots were fighting in the cause of honor and trying to wrest the crown of liberty from their oppressors, while starvation stared them in the face. It is always so in a desperate revolution. Liberty is to be won only by the sacrifice of many human lives.

And so the older patriots fought, bled, and died for their country, while their places were taken by younger men who continued the battle for progress and freedom, and only the Indians of the mountain fastnesses were left free from care or ambitions.

Mexico’s history has been singularly cursed by the greed of gold and lust of power on the part of foreign potentates. Her inexhaustible treasures have, in past ages, been to her, in a sense, a curse rather than a blessing; since it was only the greed of gold which brought the cruel, grinding oppressor, who for centuries kept her under the iron heel of the conquerors. While Mexico waited, many a less favored settlement rose to the distinction of a nation, and smaller colonies rose to proud prominence.

But Mexico was oppressed and despoiled in vain. Slowly, perhaps, her courage rose to the point of resistance, but when the day of struggle came her spirit was indomitable. Beaten repeatedly, thrust down from temporary acquisitions more than once, she knew not the meaning of the word defeat. Again and again she rose fresh from discouragement; and with a persistence that was almost divine, and a courage that comes only from the God of Liberty, cried, undismayed, “Mexico shall be free! Mexico shall take her place among the independent nations of the earth!”

In 1809, an independent plot had been born in Valladolid, in Michoacán, and in the next year the revolutionists directed their plans from the town of Querétaro. The chief guide in the incipient movement was Ignacio Allende, who, in coöperation with the licenciados Parra, Laso and Altamirano, and the captains Aldama and Arías, the lieutenants Lanzagorta, Epigmenio and Emeterio Gonzalez, officers in the Queen’s dragoons, established a _junta_ in Querétaro. The plan was to seize the leading Spaniards in the chief towns and thereupon to proclaim the independence of Mexico, with a government ruling in the name of Ferdinand VII., independent of Spanish authorities. In 1810, the leader of the revolutionists was the noble patriot _cura_ Hidalgo, who was in charge of the parish of Dolores, in Guanajúato. The plan was for a general uprising on December 8, 1810, when the great fair of San Juan de los Lagos would begin, but through the treachery of some of their comrades at Guanajúato, and by Captain Arías at Querétaro, their plan was untimely precipitated, and several arrests were made at Querétaro on September 13th, including the brothers Gonzalez. Warning of this was conveyed to the friends at San Miguel, and the news of the arrests at Querétaro was brought to Hidalgo at Dolores, who realizing the extremity of the situation exclaimed: “Gentlemen, we are lost; there is no other recourse but to seize the _gachupines_.” The people of Dolores were aroused; at early mass on that Sunday morning, Hidalgo urged them to defend their rights against the usurped dominion of the French. They seized the principal Spaniards in the town; the priest was acclaimed their leader and by noon of the same day a small patriot army, badly equipped, but very enthusiastic, marched on San Miguel under the lead of Hidalgo and Allende. On the march, they stopped at the sanctuary of Atotonilco, where taking from the altar the banner of the Virgin of Guadalupe, Hidalgo raised it as the patriot standard and uttered the _grito de Dolores_: “_Viva nuestra Senora de Guadalupe; mueran los gachupines!_”

Arriving at San Miguel, Allende’s regiment joined Hidalgo’s force and the combined army marched on Guanajúato, gathering strength as it proceeded. At Celaya, the troops guarding the town abandoned it and Hidalgo entered on September 21st, after threatening with death the Spanish prisoners if the place was not surrendered. The patriot army now numbered fifty thousand, and it proclaimed Hidalgo captain-general of America, and Allende lieutenant-general. On to Guanajúato, with momentarily increasing force, the patriots moved. This important city contained considerable treasure, but through fear of the people the _intendente_ hesitated to defend it and retired to the Alhondiga de Granaditas, or granary, with his soldiers, where he was attacked by the patriots on September 28th and killed. The treasure seized amounted in value to three million pesos, and the city, as was the case at Celaya, was pillaged, though Hidalgo exerted himself to the utmost to prevent such excess.

Viceroy Venegas now recognized the formidable character of the revolution and took energetic steps to quell it. Volunteer troops were enlisted. A price of ten thousand pesos was put on the head of each of the leaders of the revolution; Hidalgo and his followers were excommunicated, and the Inquisition cited the patriot priest to answer charges of heresy and apostasy. Valladolid (Morelia) was occupied, without resistance, by the patriots, who emancipated slaves and abolished tribute payment. With his funds greatly increased in this town, Hidalgo prepared to march on the capital with an army, or perhaps more truly a rabble, of eighty thousand men. At this time he was proclaimed generalissimo with Allende as captain-general and Aldama, Ballerza, Jimenez and Joaquin Arías, lieutenant-generals.

General Torcuato Trujillo was sent with three thousand men to oppose Hidalgo’s way to the capital and the armies met at Las Cruces, about twenty miles from the capital, on October 30, 1810. The conflict was bitter, the greater number of the patriots being more than offset by the superior equipment and discipline of the royalists, who were equipped with artillery. In the capital, the viceroy, alarmed at the strength of the revolutionists, contemplated the removal of the government to Vera Cruz, but finally decided to remain and defend it. He secured the image of the Virgin de los Remedios from Totoltepec and enshrined it in the cathedral of the capital and with much ceremony hailed it as “lady captain-general of the army.” As a counteraction to that of Hidalgo, he adopted a sacred banner bearing the image of _Nuestra Senora de los Remedios_. Vigorous steps were taken by the viceroy to meet the perilous situation and defend the capital.

Meantime, Hidalgo on his retreat to Querétaro encountered Calleja at Aculco, where he was put to rout on November 7th, and fell back to Valladolid. On November 26th, he entered Guadalajara to join the revolutionary force under Torres, who had defeated the royalists at Zacoalco. In Guadalajara a government was established with Ignacio López Rayón and José Maria Chico as chief ministers. Here, as in the Province of Guanajúato, Hidalgo decreed the emancipation of slaves and abolished the tribute. At Guanajúato, whither Allende had retired after the battle of Las Cruces, the royalist army, under Calleja and Flon, attacked the patriots on November 25th and forced them to retreat. Before the royalist generals entered the town the people forced an entrance into the _Alhondiga_ and massacred one hundred and thirty-eight Spanish prisoners confined there, an act that Calleja terribly avenged soon by the promiscuous slaughter of inhabitants followed by the execution of forty-one prominent residents.

The viceroy now put General José de la Cruz, who had just arrived from Spain, at the head of the royal forces. After capturing Valladolid, de la Cruz marched against Hidalgo at Guadalajara, but was intercepted by Colonel Ruperto Mier about twelve miles from Zamora and defeated him, but the delay prevented him from joining Calleja in time to participate against Hidalgo at the Bridge of Calderon, on January 17, 1811, where the patriot forces, under Allende, who had made his way to Zacatécas and thence to Guadalajara after his defeat at Guanajúato, joined Hidalgo’s half-clad, ill-disciplined force of eighty thousand men. The infantry were armed with the sling and the bow and there were less than a hundred cannon, many of which were of wood bound with hoops of iron, while only a few of the cavalry had sabres. This poor army, rich only in faith and patriotism, took up a strong position at the Bridge of Calderon and awaited the attack of the royalist forces under Calleja and Flon, numbering six thousand well-disciplined infantry and cavalry, with ten pieces of artillery. The battle ended in the utter defeat of the patriots with immense loss.

The patriot force dispersed, the Province of New Galicia must be pacified. Hidalgo was now forced to resign his office of generalissimo in favor of Allende whose military qualities were regarded by the leaders as superior to those of Hidalgo. Allende went to the aid of Jimenez at Saltillo, who had secured some slight victories over the royalists, but flight seemed the best course for the leaders and their cause and they went north in the hope of reaching the United States both for safety and aid. After many dramatic victories and some disappointments, the strength of the Mexicans seemed to grow, when the Father of his Country’s Independence, Hidalgo, was betrayed to the enemy by a Spaniard, Mariano Galvan, and the four patriots, Hidalgo, Allende, Aldama and Jimenez were captured and executed as an example and warning to all who chose to revolt against the Crown of Spain. Hidalgo was killed July 21st. Thirty other leaders were executed shortly after, including Mariano Hidalgo, the cura’s brother, and Chico, the minister of justice of the revolutionary government. The greatest indignity was added to the execution in the case of Hidalgo, Allende, Aldama and Jimenez, whose heads were cut off and sent to Guanajúato where they were placed in iron cages within the _alhondiga_, where they remained until 1821, when they were removed and with great pomp and honor buried with the bodies of the patriots in the chapel of Los Reyes beneath the altar of the kings in the cathedral of Mexico. The brutal act may have justified itself to the advisers of “divine right” majesty, as a warning against the assumption by the people that they possessed any rights; but humanity abhors the deed.

If with the destruction of the great leaders and the scattering of the armies they had led to final disaster, the royalists believed the independence of Mexico had been made impossible, the striking events that followed during the next year must have been painfully disheartening. Ignacio López Rayón, who had been a member of the revolutionary government and was later named captain-general of the revolutionary forces was not to be subdued by the fate of his colleagues. Neither was the spirit of the people crushed; the flame of revolution could not be quenched; desultory war continued. Rayón, after defeating the royalists, Ochoa and Zambrano, and meeting defeat and success in turn, unsuccessfully attacked Valladolid on August 19, 1811, and set up a national _junta_ at Zitácuaro in Michoacán, the members of which, besides himself, were Liceaga and the priest Verduzco. Another leader arose who also was to sacrifice his life for the cause of independence, after striking terror in the hearts of the _gachupines_ and carrying the national cause to the very threshold of success. José Maria Morelos was born on the last day of September, 1765, on a ranch near Apatzingan, in Michoacán. His father, Manuel Morelos, was a carpenter and his mother, Juana Pavón, was the daughter of a schoolmaster at Valladolid. His early life was a struggle, but at twenty-five he entered the college of San Nicolás as a sizar and studied philosophy under Hidalgo. His course completed he was consecrated a priest, thus realizing a long cherished ambition. He served as _cura_ for many years and was in office at Caracuaro when the revolution began in Dolores. The following month he offered his services to Hidalgo which, being accepted, he was commissioned to attempt to take the Port of Acapulco.

This great leader commenced his march from the scene of his parochial labors with just twenty-five followers. Prevented by sickness from active operations for some time, the Galeanas successfully held back the royalist army. Upon his recovery, Morelos resumed his leadership and took possession of Chilpancingo. Here he was joined by the three brothers Bravo and the son of one of these, Nicolás, whose names are famous in the winning of independence. After active campaigning, Morelos routed Fuentes the royalist commander at Tixtla and took possession of the city on August 17, 1811, following this by the occupation of Chilapa, where he executed the officer Gago, who had deceived him as to the surrender of the fort at Acapulco.

In order to destroy the ancient revolutionary government at Zitácuaro, Viceroy Venegas sent General Calleja to seize the town, which was held by Rayón. This he accomplished on January 2, 1812, and gave the place to pillage and destruction and all the buildings save the churches and convents were razed. While Rayón thus suffered defeat, Morelos had triumphed over the royalists and by the close of January, had strongly fortified himself at Cuautla de Amilpas, where he was attacked on February 15th, by the allied forces of Calleja, Llano, and Porlier and after a heroically defended siege was compelled to abandon the place on May 2d; not, however, till he was absolutely starved out; so completely had the place been invested that neither entrance nor exit was possible. In honor of this defence the city later received the added name of Morelos. No less heroic was the service rendered by the Galeanas, the Bravos and Matamoros. A striking instance of the patriotism of the revolutionists is furnished in connection with the defence of Cuautla. Leonardo Bravo having been taken prisoner, the viceroy offered to spare his life on condition that his son Nicolás should abjure the cause of the revolution. Both father and son rejected the offer as an infamy and Leonardo was executed. The conduct of the patriotic son further furnishes a noble example of high-minded generosity. Though Morelos authorized Nicolás to put to death three hundred Spanish prisoners whom he had taken, he refused to follow the base example of the viceroy, but instead set his prisoners free. This act of chivalry has been embalmed in the pages of Mexican history and is called a _venganza insurgente_.

Recovering from his defeat at Cuautla, Morelos worsted the royalists at Orizaba in October of the same year and on the 24th of November he defeated General Saravia at Oaxaca and took possession of the city after a brilliant engagement of two hours. As Morelos advanced upon the city, the bishop preached a Holy War against him and raised a force of two thousand men to oppose him, but the resistance was quite feeble. Morelos paroled the royalist officers taken in the city, except General Regules and one or two others, who were executed on the spot where two years earlier two spies sent by Hidalgo had been put to death. The bodies of these men, as well as those of two deacons who had been beheaded as patriots in 1811, were now exhumed and buried with military honors.

The capture of Oaxaca was a serious blow to the prestige of the royalists. This great victory was soon followed by the supersession of Viceroy Venegas, who was succeeded by General Félix Maria Calleja del Rey, the sixtieth viceroy in succession. A municipal government was established in the city, with Manuel Nicolás Bustamante as president, and a garrison was established. After securing Oaxaca, Morelos moved toward Acapulco, which he captured on August 19th.

Morelos realized the necessity of establishing union and coöperative effort between the revolutionists, and with this in view he caused a congress of elected delegates to meet. The congress assembled at Chilpancingo on September 14, 1813, the members being elected in the case of the provinces in which the patriots were in power and appointed by Morelos for those held by the royalists. Eight members were present representing New Galicia, Michoacán, Guanajúato, Oaxaca, Tecpán, Mexico, Puebla and Vera Cruz. This congress, styled the congress of Anáhuac, issued a declaration of independence, the terms of which asserted the absolute sovereignty of the people of Mexico and unrestricted independence of Spain. It read as follows: “The congress of Anáhuac, installed legitimately in the City of Chilpancingo in North America by its provinces, declares solemnly in the presence of the Lord God, arbiter of powers and author of society, who gives and takes away according to the inscrutable designs of his Providence, that, owing to the present conditions in Europe, it has recovered the exercise of its usurped sovereignty; that accordingly its dependence upon the Spanish throne remains forever broken and dissolved; that it is competent to establish the laws which please it, for the best government and interior felicity; to make war and peace and establish alliance with the monarchs and republics of the old continent, no less than to make concordats with the Supreme Roman Pontiff for the direction of the Catholic, Apostolic, and Roman Church, and send ambassadors and consuls; that it professes and recognizes no other religion than the Catholic and will neither permit nor tolerate the public or secret practice of any other; that it will protect it with all its power, and will watch over the purity of the faith and its dogmas and the preservation of the regular bodies. It declares as guilty of high treason any one who will oppose directly or indirectly its independence, or protecting the European oppressors by work, word or writing, neglecting to contribute to the expenses, subsidies and pensions to continue the war, until its independence be recognized by the foreign nations; the congress reserving for itself the right to present to them, by means of a ministerial note, which will circulate in all the cabinets, the manifesto of its complaints and the justice of this revolution, recognized already by Europe itself.”

Following the declaration of independence, Morelos planned the capture of Valladolid and appeared before the city on December 22, 1813, supported by a large army led by his brave lieutenants Matamoros, Nicolás Bravo and Galeana. The capture was frustrated, Viceroy Calleja had promptly sent the army of the north under Llano and Iturbide with a body of nearly four hundred horsemen. This was followed on January 5th, by a complete rout and the brave Matamoros being captured, he was shot at Valladolid on February 3d. Such was the fate of the bravest of Mexicans fighting for national liberty against a government whose only claim was that of an official legality decreed by an alien power, established by a military superiority and maintained by force and fraud. But time has avenged their memory, and their patriotism and valor shed lustre and glory on their names and rank them among the world’s heroes as exemplars for the human race.

A new political phase, however, gave fresh incentive to the cause of Mexico. In 1812, smarting under French domination, Spain had granted representation in the _cortes_ to the West Indian possessions, which were made an integral part of the kingdom. Ferdinand, on his restoration, in March, 1814, repudiated the constitution and this reactionary and despotic course aroused widespread discontent among the royalists in Mexico, and furnished a new motive for independence. It may be said, without any disparagement of the brave patriots who first realized the need of revolution and embarked in its work, that except for the miserable and contemptible conduct of Ferdinand, independence would probably not have been achieved till a much later period than it was. But the act of the king was a blow at Mexican pride and interest at the same time and its effect upon the Creole royalists was immediate.

The independence congress met at Apatzingan on October 22d and proclaimed a constitution, under which Mexico was divided into seventeen independent provinces, namely: Mexico, Puebla, Tlascala, Vera Cruz, Yucatán, Oaxaca, Tecpán, Michoacán, Querétaro, Guadalajara, Guanajúato, Potosí, Zacatécas, Durango, Sonora, Coahuila, and Nuevo Reyno de Léon. Full powers of government were provided provisionally until peace could be established, when the sovereignty should reside in an elected congress. The executive branch of the government was entrusted to Liceaga, Morelos and Cos, the first named being president.

The revolutionary movement continued to meet with reverses and the congress was constantly menaced, so for hoped-for greater security, it was proposed to meet at Tehuacán beyond the mountains. On the way thither from Uruapán, under the lead of Morelos, the royalist forces of Colonel Concha encountered the patriots at Tesmalaca on November 5, 1815, and the latter were disastrously routed, the brave Morelos being captured. He asked no consideration as he had shown little. The royalists were foes of his people and their cause and he had acted with severity against them when it seemed that the conditions demanded it. His trial and condemnation took place in Mexico, amid the exultation of the royalists, and he was shot at San Cristobal Ecatepec, near the capital, on the judgment of both the military tribunal and the Inquisition. He had been a no less able than brave leader. During the most difficult period of the revolution he had maintained his forces in face of great difficulties; he had crystallized the movement for independence into a sort of representative government, however localized in its powers; and had secured the issue of a formal declaration of independence; above all he had kept alive and given consistency to the struggle. Time has but strengthened the claim of Morelos to the affection of the Mexican people.

A momentary discord among the revolutionary leaders manifested itself on the death of Morelos and some defections to the royalist cause occurred. Through the influence of Manuel de Mier y Terán a provisional executive committee was substituted for the congress whose protection on its migration to Tehuacán had cost the life of Morelos. At the moment when the royalist arms were so nearly triumphant over the opposing forces, Viceroy Calleja was recalled to Spain, where he received marked honor and was created Conde de Calderón. In contrast to these honors in Spain, he was dubbed by the Mexicans “the wild beast,” as a fitting recognition of his ruthless severity.

On September 19, 1816, Juan Ruiz de Apodaca succeeded to the vice-royalty, the sixty-first in succession. He was an able administrator and had been captain-general of Cuba. In the same year the Jesuits returned to Mexico, a general desire being manifested therefor, in view of their influence as teachers and missionaries.

On April 15, 1817, Francisco Javier Mina, a native of Navarre, reached Mexico. He had abandoned his studies at the University of Saragossa to participate in the resistance of his countrymen against the invasion of Napoleon in 1808, and became famous for the guerrilla warfare he maintained against the foreigners. He joined the liberals in resistance to the measures of Ferdinand in 1814, on his restoration. Being forced to flee from Spain he resolved to go to the aid of the Mexican patriots and sailed from Liverpool in May, 1816, on a ship provided by the contributions of a few Englishmen, to the United States where he enlisted volunteers at Baltimore and Galveston and receiving at the latter place reinforcements he reached with seven vessels the River Santander on April 15th, and a few days later arrived at Soto la Marina, where he erected and garrisoned a fort, which he left in command of Major Sarda, while he advanced into the interior.

Mina soon found himself engaged with the royalist forces and, after defeating them in minor engagements, he captured and sacked Pinos and joined the patriot forces at Fort Sombrero in Guanajúato under Moreno. Moreno was killed as he tried to escape, and Mina was shot by Liñan’s order on November 11, 1817, on a hill in front of the fort he had vainly tried to relieve, which stronghold, held by Father Torres, quickly fell into the hands of the royalists and its defender was shot soon after. The fort at Soto la Marina established by Mina had already been taken. Again had a great leader paid with his life for the cause of liberty.

The brave Nicolás Bravo suffered defeat on December 1st, at Cóporo and on the 22d he was captured, with Ignacio Rayón and Verduzco, members of the first _junta_ established at Zitácuaro. The viceroy spared their lives and they were released in 1820.

The gap caused by Nicolás Bravo’s capture was filled by Vicente Guerrero, who had safely conducted the congress to Tehuacán on November 16, 1816, after the capture of Morelos at Tesmalaca. But the tide of defeat could not be turned. The _junta_ at Jaujilla was broken up and its members taken prisoners or shot. Many of the leading revolutionists, deeming the struggle futile, submitted to the viceroy and were pardoned. The less severe policy he adopted seemed of more service to his king than was the severity of his predecessor. Manuel Félix Fernández, self-named Guadalupe Victoria, refused, however, to forego the terrors of a patriot, at the price of submission.

The fruit of Mexican disaffection which had set at the time of Ferdinand’s repudiation, in 1814, of the constitution of 1812, was ripened by a revolution in Spain, resulting from his despotic rule. The _cortes_ enacted the closing of the convents, the abolition of the Inquisition, the freedom of the press, and the right of popular meetings and of forming political organizations. The constitution of 1812 was restored. It was favorably regarded in Mexico by the Creoles; but the times had changed and the official Spanish party realized that they could not retain their influence in the province under the new conditions; hence they chose to favor independence as offering a better means of retaining the control of public affairs. Such at least, would seem to be the motive of the _volte face_; at any rate a conspiracy was formed, the pretext being put forward, in some quarters, that as Ferdinand had accepted the new constitution under compulsion, he should be tendered a refuge in the New World.

The man of the hour was Augustin de Iturbide. He was one of the most formidable of the royalist leaders and had punished the patriots without show of mercy. He, whose sword had been so active in destroying the independence army, was the hero selected by the conspirators to effect the independence of Mexico. He was born at Valladolid on September 27, 1783. His father was a Spaniard and his mother a Mexican; hence, though called a Creole, he was in truth a _Mestizo_. His personality was remarkably prepossessing and his bravery unlimited. His first step in the new movement for Mexican independence was to obtain command of the royalist army of the south, in order to conquer Vicente Guerrero and “pacify the whole kingdom,” as he himself said. Not succeeding against this doughty patriot he made known his plan to him, and received Guerrero’s promise of support. Accordingly, he announced the famous “Plan de Iguala,” or the plan of “The Three Guarantees,” on February 24, 1821. The basis of this claim was the exclusive establishment of the Roman Catholic religion; the absolute independence of Mexico, with a constitutional monarchy under the rule of Ferdinand; the union and equality of Mexicans and Spaniards. These three guarantees are emblemized in the national colors of Mexico--_green_ representing the union of Mexicans and Spaniards; _white_, religious purity; _red_, independence. Provision was made for the government by a _junta_, pending the meeting of the _cortes_, and also in case the emperor did not come to Mexico. No disqualification for public office was permitted by reason of race or color. An army was to be created, to be called the Army of the Three Guarantees. The army at Iguala was sworn to support Iturbide’s plan, and the viceroy was informed of its details and of the proposed membership of the _junta_, at the same time he was offered its presidency. Apodaca not only refused to entertain the plan but took measures to oppose its execution; in consequence he was removed from office on July 5th, and in his stead General Pedro Novella was provisionally appointed and ruled till July 30, 1821, when General Juan O’Donojú arrived at Vera Cruz as the regular successor--the last of the viceroys.

Iturbide’s plan made many friends for the cause of independence and among its supporters were Anastasio Bustamante, Santa Anna and Pedro Celestino Negrete. Iturbide held Guanajúato, Valladolid, Querétaro, and other places. The new viceroy finding that he could not reach the capital arranged a conference with Iturbide at Córdoba, which took place on August 24th, and the viceroy agreed to the Plan de Iguala, subject to his being appointed one of the provisional rulers of Mexico until the monarch could be selected. The agreement embodied in this plan is known as the “Treaty of Córdoba.”

The way to independence was now clear. Iturbide, after rejoining his army, marched on the capital, which was evacuated by the royalist forces on the order of Viceroy O’Donojú and the army of independence entered the city in triumph, September 27, 1821. Mexico’s freedom from Spain was accomplished for there was slight probability of a Bourbon occupying the throne, as in default of Ferdinand himself becoming monarch, it was provided that the _cortes_ should select the sovereign.

To the fact that the plan of the first revolutionists was not fulfilled is doubtless due the years of discord that followed until a republican and popular form of government became the guerdon of the long struggle for political freedom. Nevertheless, a national empire was an advance upon a provincial dependency, although a further struggle must intervene before the true aspirations of the people could be realized.

The new era opening on the birth of the nation presents the immediate consummation of the Plan de Iguala in a provisional government, or regency composed of Iturbide, O’Donojú, Manuel de la Barcena, José Isidro Yañez and Manuel Velasquez de León, the first named being president of the governing body. It is significant that the patriots who had fought and bled and suffered for independence, the real successors of Hidalgo, were not recognized in the new situation. The territorial limits of Mexico included, besides all the area of the republic of to-day, that part of the United States from the Red and Arkansas Rivers to the Pacific Coast, extending north to the limits of the British dominion of Canada. A few days after the establishment of the new government O’Donojú died, October 8th, and the vacancy thus caused was filled by the appointment of Bishop Joaquin Oton Perez, of the See of Puebla.