Chapter XX: Introduction: Object of the work. Data of the Question (6)

8. The principle carried out in France is that special military education should not be begun until a comparatively late age, and should be founded upon a groundwork of good general education in civil schools. The only approach to a junior military school in France is that of La Flèche, and this is mainly a charitable institution; the pupils, it is true, learn drill, but beyond this no special military instruction is given them. The course of study is the same as that at the _Lycées_ or ordinary civil schools, and the pupils are under no obligation to enter the military service. Nor can the Polytechnic be called an exclusively military school; even those who enter the Artillery and Engineers from it have their education in common with civilians at the very least until the age of 18, and in the great majority of cases their strictly professional instruction at Metz does not begin till 20 or 21. The very earliest age at which a special military education commences in France is 17, which is the age of admission to St. Cyr, and comparatively few enter the school before 18 or 19. The knowledge required for admission to St. Cyr is entirely such as is acquired at civil schools, and so much importance is attached to a good general education that the degree of either _bachelier ès sciences_ or _bachelier ès lettres_ is made a necessary qualification for admission to the examination, while the possession of both degrees gives considerable advantage to a candidate. The principle of deferring the commencement of special instruction has even received extension since 1856; the age of admission to St. Cyr, which was then 16, has been now increased to 17, and the junior school of La Flèche has been made even less military in its character than it was at that time.

9. When a professional education has once commenced, the principle appears to be that it should be almost entirely confined to subjects which have a practical bearing on military duties. Mathematics, as a subject by themselves, do not form part of the ordinary course of instruction at any of the special schools. The previous course at the Polytechnic secures of course very high mathematical attainments in the candidates for the Artillery and Engineers who enter Metz; but at Metz itself the study of mathematics is no longer continued. In the same way at the Staff School a knowledge of mathematics as far as trigonometry is required for admission, and their practical applications to operations of surveying enter into the school course; but no part of the time spent at the school is devoted to mere theoretical instruction in pure mathematics; yet the officers of the Staff Corps are intrusted with the execution of those scientific surveys which in our service are in the hands of the Engineers.

St. Cyr offers to some extent an exception to the rule that the course of study at the special schools should be of an exclusively professional character, as the instruction given there during the first year is partly of a general nature, embracing history and literature. This, however, arises from the fact that the students from the _Lycées_ generally show a deficiency in the more literary subjects of a liberal education, and a portion of the time at the school is therefore spent in completing and improving their general acquirements. A knowledge of arithmetic, algebra, and plane trigonometry is required as a qualification for admission, but beyond a very brief revision of these subjects, and a voluntary course for candidates for the Staff Corps, mathematics are not taught at the school. It would seem indeed that, except in the case of candidates for admission to the Artillery and Engineers, mathematics do not hold so prominent a position in French military education as is generally supposed in England to be the case. For staff and regimental officers the main requisite demanded seems to be a practical knowledge of trigonometry as required for surveying.

10. Much time is devoted in all the French schools to drawing in its various branches; some hours daily are invariably given up to the subject; indeed the time spent upon purely geometrical drawing appears almost to be excessive. The great importance attached to the drawing of _machinery_ is a peculiar feature in all the schools. Landscape drawing is one of the regular subjects taught to candidates both for the line and the Staff Corps.

The theoretical instruction given at every school is supplemented by visits to numerous military establishments, manufacturing departments, and fortresses. This is also a feature in the system of military education in Prussia; in both countries it seems to be thought desirable to afford young officers a practical insight into the working of the various establishments connected with the army. In the case of officers of the Artillery and Engineers it appears in France to be made a special object to cultivate a mechanical genius, and to secure a thorough acquaintance with manufacturing departments with which their professional duties bring them into contact.

Military law and administration (comprising financial and other regulations connected with the army), and drill, riding, and fencing in the way of practical exercises, form part of the education of officers of all branches of the service; in drill, lectures explanatory of the drill-book are invariably given in addition to the practical instruction.

11. The system of instruction in all the French military schools is more or less that of the Polytechnic. Lectures attended by large numbers, enforced study of fixed subjects, the execution of all work under close supervision of the instructors, and frequent periodical examinations, are everywhere found. Active competition is the leading feature of the system; the students are perpetually being “kept up to the mark.” A fixed period of two years is in all cases assigned to the course of study; the course can not be completed in a shorter time, and the regulated period can not (unless under quite exceptional circumstances) be exceeded.

It seems also to be thought that, as a necessary consequence of the strictly competitive system, the subjects upon which the competition depends should be exactly the same for every student. No choice of studies is allowed; those which enter into the examination are equally obligatory for all. The only exception to this rule is at St. Cyr, where in languages a choice between German and English is given.

No pecuniary rewards are offered to the students at any of the schools. The bestowal of the numerous _bourses_ which are granted to those admitted to the Polytechnic and St. Cyr is regulated entirely by the poverty of the candidates, without any regard to their ability.

12. The education of officers in France is entirely concluded before any regimental duty has been done. The French system is in this respect the exact opposite of that pursued in Prussia, where no professional instruction, as a rule, is given until a certain amount of service with the troops has been performed. There are in France no establishments for the instruction of officers of some years’ service, like the Staff College in England, or the Artillery and Engineer School and the War Academy in Prussia.

13. The chief changes which have taken place in the military schools of France since the publication of the Report of the Commissioners of 1856 may be summarized as follows:--

(_a._) The modifications in the course of instruction at the Polytechnic; the abridgement of the studies previously pursued; and the slightly increased importance now attached to literary subjects.

(_b._) At Metz, the introduction of an examination at the end of the
first years’ course of study.

(_c._) At St. Cyr, the alteration of the age for admission to the school from 16 to 17; the extension of the subjects of the entrance examination; the modifications in the course of instruction, and the postponement of the commencement of strictly military studies almost entirely until the second year; the introduction of a stricter system of discipline, combined with additional encouragements to good conduct and industry; and the increased advantages offered with the view of attracting to the school a higher class of professors and officers.

(_d._) At La Flèche, the complete reorganization of the institution with the object of more closely assimilating its general arrangements to those of a purely civil school.

(_e._) At the Staff School some modifications in the course of study and in the mode of admission to the school have been made; but the most important alterations are those adopted in July 1869, by which the number of students admitted annually to the school is increased considerably beyond the number of vacancies likely to occur in the Staff Corps, and the novel principle is introduced that admission to the school does not carry with it the certainty of permanent employment on the staff.

It may be added that there seems a tendency to diminish the importance of mathematics as an element of preparatory military education, and to attach slightly more weight to studies of a literary character. This is more particularly seen at St. Cyr and at La Flèche, and to a less extent at the Polytechnic. There is also a growing disposition to increase, in the case of the cavalry and infantry, the proportion of officers who have received a professional education.

EXPENSE OF MILITARY SCHOOLS IN 1869.

SC Sums charged to the Schools Estimate.
MP Military pay charged to other Estimates.
T Total.
CS Cost to the State.‡
EP Each pupil.

Name of School. SC MP T CS EP
_Frs._ _Frs._ _Frs._ _Frs._ £.
Polytechnic 719,673 85,515 805,188 568,188 78
Artil’y and Eng’er
school at Metz 99,500 416,350* 515,850 515,850 50
St. Cyr 1,348,792 15,000 1,363,792 741,292 49
Staff school 99,000 214,870* 313,870 313,870 168
La Flèche 539,868 15,000 554,868 457,868 45
Medical school 659,300 † 659,300 -- --
Cavalry school
at Saumur 227,000 18,500 245,500 -- --
Gymnastics,
musketry schools 36,270 “ 36,270 -- --
Regimental schools 173,600 “ 173,600 -- --
---------- -------- --------- --------- ---
Total 3,903,003 765,235 4,668,238 2,597,068 390

[* These sums include the pay of the officer students at these establishments, amounting to 288,000 frs. at Metz, and 103,000 frs. at the Staff School.]

[† The estimate for the Medical School appears to be exclusive of the pay of all military medical officers employed at the school, but the amount of this additional sum is not stated.]

[‡ For 1,520 pupils, who repaid 956,500 francs.]

[Errata for Part I (France):
_In the section on Mathematics, the form “assymplotes” is used
several times alongside “asymptote(s)”. The spelling “assymptotic”
occurs once at line break. Accents on French words are printed as
shown; missing accents have not been supplied._

I. GENERAL MILITARY ORGANIZATION OF FRANCE.
ORGANIZATON
[Footnote 4]
_Footnote tag missing; position conjectural_
the chief scientific creation of the first French Revolution
scientic
patriotism and courage can not always supply
“always
returned to Paris in the reign of terror, “to see from his lodgings
_quotation mark in original_
are obliged to re-enter the army.
abliged
chosen from former pupils of the school
_“the” missing_
and the life that is led in them.
lead
work heartily and zealously together
togethen
[TABLE FOR THE SECOND OR LOWER DIVISION]
Geodesy
Goedesy
Schools of Application for Artillery and Engineers
_hyphen in “En-/gineers” invisible at line break_
LESSONS--10-13. _Derivatives and Differentials ..._
LESSONS--10-13.
LESSONS 24-27. _Geometrical Applications continued ..._
LESSONS 14-17.
Geometrical demonstration of the formula.
demostration
LESSON 3. _Integration of Differentials ..._
LESSONS 3.
[DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY.--GEOMETRICAL DRAWING.]
LESSONS 1-3. _Revision and Completion..._
_. missing_
not enough in themselves to define objects completely._
_final . missing or invisible_
LESSONS 3-6. _Composition of the Velocities of a Point._
_period . after “3-6” invisible_
three movements of translation with respect to three axes
tranlation
of invariable form, but also in motion.
motion,
Suspendors
_spelling unchanged_
LESSONS 1-2. / Chemical sources of electricity.
_period . after “1-2” missing or invisible_
LESSON 3. 1. _Chemical Actions._
LESSON 3.--1.
Straight and curved rods.
Staight
the general direction of the vibrating motion communicated.
commuicated.
[Footnote 12]
recently introduced at the school.
introdued
Clerks and draughtsmen are provided as required.
clerks
EXAMINATION AND CLASSIFICATION.
_header supplied from Table of Contents_
REGIMENTAL SCHOOLS.
_header supplied from Table of Contents_
_Fifty-eighth Lecture._--(2.) ... artillery commands.
_missing . after “commands”_
which is indicated in the programme of the memoir.
_final . missing_
[RECAPITULATIVE TABLE.--ARTILLERY STUDENTS.]
| 75 | 73 50 | 78 | 151 50 | 10
_totals printed as shown: error for 11?_
1st. The direction ... / 2d. The tracing ...
_paragraph breaks added by transcriber for consistency_
_Lecture_ 7.--Gauging of the volumes and valuation
Guaging
_Lecture_ 22.--Resistance to torsion.
21.
1st. Composition of the personnel and matériel of the Artillery
matéreil
At 5 A.M. the drum beats, the young men quit their beds;
theis
made without points; and a description of the battle.”
_final ” missing_
{ Geographical Representation, 6 } 10
_text unchanged: error for “Graphical”?_
The prescribed instruction comprises the following courses:--
comprise
MILITARY AND NAVAL SCHOOLS OF MEDICINE AND PHARMACY
_word AND supplied from Table of Contents_
They leap backward precisely in the same directions
in the some
_First._ To form a rapid judgment of the obstacle,
obstable
regular hours, and a rational discipline.
discipline,
but beyond a very brief revision of these subjects, and a voluntary
course for candidates for the Staff Corps
very beief ... condidates
the execution of all work under close supervision of the instructors,
instrutors]

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