Chapter XLVI: Part X (1)

MILITARY SYSTEM AND SCHOOLS IN THE UNITED STATES.

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MILITARY SYSTEM AND EDUCATION OF THE UNITED STATES.

I. MILITARY SYSTEM.

The Constitution of the United States grants to Congress the power “to raise and support armies,” “to provide and maintain a navy,” “to make rules for the government of the land and naval forces; and to provide for calling forth the militia,” as well as “for organizing, arming and disciplining” the same, and for governing such parts of them as may be employed in the service of the United States--reserving to the States, respectively, the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress. By the same instrument the President is made commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several States when called into actual service of the United States “to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions.”

By law of August, 1789, a department of war, and in 1798, a secretary of the navy is provided to aid the President in the administration of military and naval affairs; and the original rules and articles of war enacted by the Congress of 1776, were continued in force, and in 1806 made the basis of the military code which has since governed all troops mustered into the service of the United States.

In 1790 the rank and file of the regular army was fixed at 1,216 men. In 1796 this force was organized into one corps of artillerists and engineers, whose head-quarters was at West Point, two companies of light dragoons, and four regiments of infantry of eight companies each. This force was increased by additional regiments in the war of 1812, the Indian war in Florida, and the war with Mexico, till in 1861, the army consisted of 14,000 men, stationed in the different forts and garrisons, and mainly on the Indian frontier. In the war of the Rebellion the regular army was increased to 50,000 men.

By act of July 15,1870, the number of enlisted men was reduced to 30,000 by or before July 1, 1871. On the 20th of October, 1871, the army was composed as follows:

Two regiments of Cavalry, 8,800 enlisted men.
Five regiments of Artillery, 3,105 “ “
Twenty-five regiments of Infantry, 23,742 “ “
One battalion of Engineers, 314 “ “
Ordnance Department, 444 “ “
West Point Detachment, 202 “ “
Signal Department, 199 “ “
Hospital stewards, 310 “ “
Ordnance Surgeons, 114 “ “
Available Recruits, _en route_, 349 “ “
Permanent Recruiting Parties, 904 “ “
General Service Men, 420 “ “
------
Total, 29,003
Commissioned Officers, 2,105
Retired Officers, 295

When the insurrectionary movements and combinations of the Southern States in 1861, proved too powerful to be suppressed by ordinary civil powers, the President, April 15, called for 75,000 volunteers for three months, to defend the capital, and May 3, 42,000 to serve for three years or during the war. On the 22d of July he was authorized to accept the services of 500,000, which, within six months afterwards was increased to 1,000,000. This force proving inadequate, a levy of 300,000 men was ordered in 1863, and in 1864, another call for 500,000 men--making an aggregate of 2,653,062 mustered into the service of the United States, or nearly one fourth of the entire male population of the Northern States. This entire force was disbanded within one year from the close of the war.

The development of the naval resources of the country was quite as marvelous. In 1861 the entire navy consisted of 94 war vessels of all classes and in all conditions, capable when in service of carrying 2,415 guns. Only 43 of these ships were in commission, and the seamen and mariners numbered 7,000. In less than three years 200 war vessels were constructed and 418 merchant vessels were converted to military service, and over 50,000 men enlisted in the naval service.

The Southern States in rebellion put into the field over 500,000 men, and exhausted their pecuniary resources, with the loss of 300,000 soldiers on the field or in hospital.

The debt of the United States contracted in the prosecution of the war, stood in 1866 at the enormous sum of $2,783,425,879.

These extraordinary efforts were made under circumstances which are not likely to exist again, and such expenditures could not be repeated without national bankruptcy.

The Militia of the United States, by act of Congress of 1792, consists of all white male citizens between the ages of 18 and 45, who must be enrolled and arranged into brigades, regiments, and companies, as the legislature of each State may direct. Of the militia, as organized by state legislation, the governor is commander-in-chief, except when called into the service of the United States. To provide arms and equipments for the whole body of militia, arsenals and armories are provided by Congress, in different parts of the country, at an annual charge of $200,000 (since 1808).

In the absence of any official information respecting the number and condition of the Militia of the several States,[1] we gather the following statistics from a pamphlet by General J. W. Hoffman, of Philadelphia, on the subject of the National Guard.

[Footnote 1: The Militia System was broken up by the Volunteer
System introduced by the United States and encouraged by State
Legislation, and now (1872) even formal returns as to enrollment
are not complied with by a majority of the States.]

_State. Population. Military Organization._

_Alabama_--996,902.

_Arkansas_--484,167,--78 companies of State Guard, with a total of
5,484 men.

_California_--560,247,--30 companies of infantry, 2 of artillery, 5 of cavalry; organized into 2 battalions, 2 regiments, 6 brigades, 1 division--aggregate, 2,686. Term of service one year. The State furnishes uniforms, and pays $50 per month to each company of infantry and cavalry, and $25 per gun per month to companies of artillery.

_Connecticut_--537,454,--40 companies of infantry, 2 sections of artillery organized into 4 regiments, 1 brigade; aggregate 2,906. Term of service 5 years; parade annually, by company or regiment, in the month of May; attend camp for six successive days once in every two years. In addition, companies parade once in August or September, and drill not less than one hour in the evenings, not exceeding two evenings in each month, from October to April, inclusive. Compensation to all officers and men $2 per day for each day’s duty performed, and 5 cents mileage to and from place of parade. Members of bands $2,50 per day and mileage; $2 per day for every horse used; rent of armories are paid by the State, and all citizens between 21 and 45 years liable to military duty, but may commute by annual payment of $2,00. Total moneys collected from this commutation tax, $62,000 per annum.

_Colorado_--39,864.

_Delaware_--125,015.

_Florida_--187,748,--96 volunteer companies organized with 3,360 men,
out of a total of 21,854 enrolled (116,112 white, and 10,242 colored).

_Georgia_--1,184,109. No organization.

_Illinois_--2,539,891. No state organization: a few volunteer companies who provide their own uniforms and are furnished with arms and accoutrements by the State.

_Indiana_--1,680,637. No organization.

_Iowa_--1,191,792. No State organization.

_Kansas_--364,399. No state organization beyond the 2 companies to
operate against the Indians.

_Kentucky_--1,321,011. No organization.

_Louisiana_--726,915,--37 companies of uniformed infantry, 3 of cavalry, 1 of artillery; organized with 6 regiments, 2 divisions--one of which has 2 brigade organizations; aggregate strength, 3,469 out of 107,821 enrolled militia. Term of service 2 years.

_Maine_--626,915,--10 companies, with an aggregate of 937; State
furnishes arms, equipments, and uniforms.

_Maryland_--780,894,--the State provides arms, uniforms, and rent of
armories, and exempts members from jury duty.

_Massachusetts_--1,457,351,--92 companies of uniformed infantry, 5 batteries of artillery, 5 companies of cavalry; organized into 10 regiments, 3 brigades, and 1 division; aggregate, 6,277; State pays nearly $200,000 per annum; at the annual inspection in 1870, 5,221 present.

_Michigan_--1,184,059.

_Minnesota_--439,706,--30 companies of infantry and 4 sections of
field artillery.

_Mississippi_--27,922.

_Missouri_--1,721,295.

_Nebraska_--2,993.

_Nevada_--2,491.

_New Hampshire_--318,300.

_New Jersey_--906,096,--51 companies of infantry, and 2 batteries of artillery; organized into 4 battalions, 6 regiments, 2 brigades; aggregate, 3,146 out of 127,000 enrolled; every company parade at least 12 times in the year, one of which is by brigade; State appropriated in 1870 $26,126. Term of service 6 years, with exemptions from poll tax and jury duty.

_New York_--4,382,759,--398 companies of infantry, 12 of artillery, 28 of cavalry; organized into 41 regiments, 21 brigades, 8 divisions; aggregate, 24,585; the State furnishes arms and allows rent for armory and $5 per day for any enlisted man who has paraded 7 days in the year, which sum goes into a uniform fund. The State allows for head-quarter expenses, and appropriates annually over $200,000 for its National Guard. Term of service is 7 years, with exemptions from jury duty, and a deduction of $1,000 on the assessed valuation of taxable property.

_North Carolina_--1,071,361.

_Ohio_--2,665,260,--2 companies of uniform infantry and 2 sections of
cavalry.

_Oregon_--90,923.

_Pennsylvania_--3,521,791,--311 companies, with an aggregate of 14,800; no general organization into regiments out of the county of Philadelphia.

_Rhode Island_--217,353,--State provides armories, or rent for same and pay of armorer, and $2,50 per day for two days’ parade, and $3 per horse.

_South Carolina_--725,606.

_Tennessee_--1,258,520.

_Texas_--818,579.

_Vermont_--330,551,--4 regiments of infantry, 1 battery of artillery; the State provides arms, uniforms, armories, and $2 per day for each days’ drill, not exceeding 4 days, and tents for a three days’ muster in the autumn.

_Virginia_--1,225,163.

_West Virginia_--442,014.

_Wisconsin_--1,054,670,--8 companies, organized as First Regiment.

The above statement of the legal condition of the militia of the several States, which together constitute the army of Reserve of the United States, is not very creditable to all concerned--to the cities and local communities, whose exemption from riots and illegal combinations of bad men may depend on the fact of an organized force, which the voice of authority could in an hour summon to the protection of the threatened houses and workshops of the citizens;--to the States, whose quota to any national call can not now be depended upon except at the cost of extravagant bounties, and whose raw recruits thus furnished would be worthless till after months of drill and field manœuvres;--to the nation, whose strength should be its weakness for purposes of foreign aggression, and its ability to summon millions of willing men, familiar with military organization and duties, to the defense of their hearths and free institutions.

The Volunteer Soldiery in time of peace, does not hold the same distinct recognition in the armed forces of the United States, apart from the Militia of the several States, as in Great Britain; and yet the most efficient military organizations of the several States, and especially in our larger cities, are of this character; and in most of the States where uniform companies exist, they constitute a permanent and important force, whose services have proved highly valuable in quelling riots and protecting public property. Of the number of regiments or companies--their officers and men, distinct from the enrolled and organized State Militia, we have no official statistics.

MODE OF OFFICERING THE ARMY.

The commissioned officers of the United States army are drawn from three sources:--_First_, from the cadets of the Military Academy at West Point; _Second_, from civil life; _Third_, from the rank and file.

1. The appointment to the grade of lieutenant in either corps, follows regularly to any cadet on graduation, after having completed the course of instruction at West Point. From 1815 to 1832, the army was officered almost exclusively from the Military Academy.

2. The expansion of the military force consequent on the Indian war in Florida, from 1832 to 1837, and the Mexican war from 1845 to 1848, and of the Civil war from 1861 to 1865, was followed by the appointment of many persons from civil life, who had received no military training, and without any special qualifications beyond personal and political considerations.

As a stimulus and reward to special service, promotions are occasionally made from the rank and file, after a mere formal examination in the elementary branches of a common school education, and without the provision for professional training except such as can be got from observation and private reading.

PROFESSIONAL INSTRUCTION AND TRAINING OF OFFICERS.

In the organization and movements of the armed forces of the Colonies, the officers were trained in the military service of the mother country.

In the War of Independence, the general spirit of the people supplied for a time the want of trained soldiers and officers, beyond the small force which had been schooled in the French and Indian Wars; but the necessities of the service compelled Congress to authorize its accredited agents abroad to offer commissions, especially to engineer and artillery officers; and at the close of the war we find nearly all the prominent officers in the artillery and engineer departments had been trained abroad. Nearly all the fortifications were planned by them and erected under their supervision. The names of Steuben, Kosciusko, Du Portail, Radière, Romans, Vincent, Rochefontaine, Toussard, Revardi, L’Enfant, Villefranche, and others of later date, will suggest to any reader of the military history of the country, the extent of our obligations to foreign military schools.

The sources of systematic professional instruction and training for officers of the armed forces of the United States, are--

I. The National Military Academy at West Point, for the general
scientific instruction of officers of all arms.

II. The Practical School of Artillery at Fortress Monroe.

III. The Engineer Battalion School of Practice at Hunter’s Point.

IV. The Company and Regimental Drill of various Volunteer Corps in the
larger cities of the country.

V. The Cadet Corps in various Military and Scientific Schools in
different States.

The gradual development of the military Academy at West Point, and the present condition of Military Education will now be given.

THE MILITARY ACADEMY AT WEST POINT

I. ORIGIN AND HISTORY. PERIOD I.--1802-1812.

The influence of the United States Military Academy upon education, as well as its wide reputation as a school of science, render an inquiry into its rise and progress, a subject both of interest and profit. Since it is mind, rather than any system of forms and studies, which gives power to such institutions, a mere statement of dates and facts is insufficient to give us a just view of its character. We must, if possible, trace the spirit of the men who guided, and the principles impressed upon it. To do this, we shall resort, not merely to the record of events, but to our memory of men and acts, with which we were for years familiar.

It was not to be expected, that schools of refined, scientific art should be founded by small colonies in the wilderness of the new world. When even their clergymen must resort to Europe for education, and their lawyers for license, it was in vain to expect their soldiers to be accomplished engineers. When the revolutionary war came on, this fact became a painful experience. No man felt it more than Washington. With a people, whose patriotism was unquenchable; with soldiers, who rivaled the warriors of Leonidas, he found the best and truest of men, with the smallest possible share of military science. He was obliged to depend on European engineers for a skill which his countrymen did not possess; while their European ideas, and artificial habits were displeasing to his American principles.[2] He felt military instruction to be a primary want in the country. Accordingly, he was the real founder of the Military Academy; that is, he put forth the _germinal idea_. What the plan of it was to be, and what shape it should ultimately take, he did not state, and probably had not thought of; for Washington in the office of president, seldom meddled with the details of public affairs. What he meant to obtain, however, he distinctly stated, in his message, dated December 3rd, 1793; in referring to measures of national defense, he says an inquiry may be made: “whether your own experience, in the several states has not detected some imperfection in the scheme; and whether a material feature in the improvement of it ought not to be to afford an opportunity for the _study of those branches of the military art which can scarcely ever be obtained by practice alone_.”

[Footnote 2: Prepared by Major E. D. Mansfield, a graduate of West
Point in 1819, for Barnard’s American Journal of Education, March,
1862.]

In his message of December 7th, 1796, he said: “Whatever, argument may be drawn, from particular examples, superficially viewed, a thorough examination of the subject will evince that the art of war is at once comprehensive and complicated; that it demands much previous study, and that the profession of it in its most improved and perfect state, is always of great moment to the security of a nation. This, therefore, ought to be a serious care of every government; _and for this purpose an academy, where a regular course of instruction is given_, is an obvious expedient, which different nations have employed.”[3]

[Footnote 3: It is not meant to say that this subject was not
mentioned before. It was by Col. Pickering, in 1783. But whoever
reads the letters and memoirs of Washington, will see, that all
the early ideas on the subject of military education and military
science were derived from the experience of Washington.]

The views, always entertained, and repeatedly expressed by General Washington, were adopted by Mr. Adams, and Mr. McHenry, secretary of war, in his administration, made an elaborate report on this subject, which was transmitted to congress, on 10th of December, 1800. It is due to Mr. McHenry, to say that his ideas of what ought to be a course of military instruction, were far in advance of what were actually provided, till after the war of 1812-’15 proved his ideas to be correct. In 1794, prior to the last message of Washington, congress attempted to supply the want of a military academy, by attaching cadets to the corps of artillerists, and engineers. This corps consisted of four battalions, to each of which eight cadets were to be attached. This made the whole number of cadets thirty-two; and for this corps of artillerists, engineers and cadets, the secretary of war was directed to procure books, instruments and apparatus. The term _cadet_ signifying in French, the youngest brother of a family, and in Spanish, a young volunteer officer, became naturally applied to young men, who were junior, volunteer officers. In England, the _cadet_ of a family was a young son, who volunteered for the India service; and in the United States has been properly applied to the youth, who enter the military academy.

It seems from the message of Washington, in 1796, that the attempt at military instruction, was a failure. No place, no teachers, no studies, were appointed. It was on the 16th of March, 1802, in the early administration of Mr. Jefferson, that congress established, by that name, the _Military Academy_. It was still made part of an army corps; the idea of making a separate institution for scientific studies not being yet matured. The artillerists and engineers were made two distinct corps, of which there were forty cadets of artillery and ten of engineers. The corps of engineers consisted of a major, two captains, four lieutenants, and ten cadets, making seventeen in all. _The corps constituted the military academy_, established at West Point, in the State of New York. So little idea was then entertained of the true objects and mode of scientific instruction, that the law required the cadet, as well as officer, to do duty in any part of the United States. In other words, the only idea of the military academy, at that time, was _a place appointed where the officers of engineers might give or receive instruction, when not on other duty_. The actual academy, such as it was, conformed to that idea. The major of engineers was the commander, or superintendent. The two captains were instructors, and the cadets were pupils. It was, as a school, an inchoate existence, without regular teachers, or limited studies, or proper discipline. Yet, even in this imperfect condition, it did, as we shall see, some service which ought to be gratefully remembered.

In the meanwhile, let us turn for a moment, to the _place_ which is so memorable in the annals of this country, and is now so intimately associated with science. If Dr. Beattie is correct in saying that the character of the mind is much associated with natural scenery, no place in America could have been more wisely selected, as the site of a national institution. World renowned, as West Point justly is, there is that in its scenery and associations, more interesting to a poetic or a patriotic mind, than its famed Academy. Its green plain, hidden amidst its mountains; its craggy summits; its rocky barriers; its dark evergreens; its darker waters, flowing on forever; that beautiful view of town and country, seen through the frowning brows of Crow Nest and the Beacon; that quiet vale, where Washington oft bent his steps; those lonely little mounds, where the soldiers of the Revolution repose; these forts and ramparts now indistinctly seen, which once guarded these mountain passes; yon ledge of rocks, where Kosciusko once made his little garden; all these and other memorable things, call up whatever is sublime in nature, or noble in history. It is impossible to forget them. It is impossible for the dullest mind, not to have its sensibilities excited, or its character elevated by the contemplation of such sublime scenes, or such interesting events. When such a spot becomes the place of our education, its memories become poetic; its associations mingle with the flow of life, and the structure of our minds.

To return. The law having authorized this ideal Academy, it was immediately instituted, by the appointment of officers. The Academy, it is seen, was on quite a small scale. In fact, so far as teaching was concerned, the Academy consisted of two captains of engineers and ten cadets. The two captains were WILLIAM H. BARRON and JARED MANSFIELD. Mr. Mansfield had been a teacher of mathematics, navigation, and the classics, first at New Haven, (Conn.,) and then at Philadelphia. He had written a volume of “Essays” on mathematics and physics, quite original, and distinguishing him at that time, as the first mathematician of his country. This was brought to the notice of Mr. Jefferson, who with no great love of military affairs, was a warm friend of science. When the act was passed authorizing the Military Academy, Mr. Jefferson wrote to Mr. Mansfield, that he would appoint him a captain of engineers, for the _very purpose of becoming a teacher at West Point_. Accordingly he was appointed, on May 3rd, 1802; Captain Barron had been appointed in April. Then, in May 1802, the actual Military Academy was constituted, Captains Barron and Mansfield being teachers of mathematics and philosophy, to some half dozen or more cadets and lieutenants. No professor of engineering or of any other department was appointed before 1812. In pursuing the course and growth of instruction at West Point, during this period of ten years, we can only refer to the services of the instructors and graduates. In fact, there were no graduates prior to 1815; but there were _appointments_ made from the cadets of the Military Academy, after more or less study at West Point. To understand what was done, we must refer to the actions of teachers and cadets, rather than to history. Its teachers were few and its annals brief. Captain Mansfield, after a year’s teaching at West Point, was in 1808, appointed by Mr. Jefferson, to a more responsible position. It was necessary to the correctness of our public surveys, that the meridian lines and the base lines (which are co-ordinates,) should be established with astronomical accuracy. For this purpose, Captain Mansfield was appointed surveyor general of the north-western territory; furnished with astronomical instruments, and taking his residence in Ohio, proceeded to establish and perfect that beautiful system of surveys, by which the north-western states are distinguished. Retaining his military bent, with a view to his original destination at West Point, he actually returned there in 1814, to recommence, as we shall see hereafter, his career as an instructor in the national institution. Of Captain Barron, his co-teacher, we only know that he was relieved in February, 1807. At the same time, his successor, FERDINAND R. HASSLER, was appointed, and remained till he resigned in 1810. Mr. Hassler was, we believe, a Swiss by birth. He wrote a small treatise on mathematics, and had quite an extensive reputation, as a mathematician, but was said to be too analytical and refined in the character of his mind, for American practical habits. He was intended for the coast survey, and, we believe, actually commenced it.

In November, 1806, ALDEN PARTRIDGE, superintendent of engineers, was appointed _acting assistant_ professor of mathematics, and retained that position till April, 1812.

The “Teacherships” of French and drawing were created, by the act of February, 1803, being a very important addition to the original scheme of the Academy. To the teachership of French, FRANCIS DE MASSON was appointed, March, 1804, and resigned in March, 1812. To the teachership of drawing, CHRISTIAN E. ZOELLER was appointed, September, 1808, and resigned in April, 1810. Mr. Masson was a Frenchman by birth; Mr. Zoeller, a Swiss. Mr. Masson was highly spoken of by Colonel Williams, a good judge of what constitutes a scholar. Mr. Zoeller was an amiable man, of no high attainments, whose instruction in drawing was wholly confined to the military part, fortifications and bridges.

From this brief history, it appears, that there were but six teachers at West Point, between 1802 and 1812. Of these, no more than four were ever present at one time, and that only between 1808 and 1810. The teachers present, each year, were as follows:

1802-1803, Captain Barron, Mathematics.
Captain Mansfield, Philosophy.
1804-1806, Captain Barron, “
Francis Masson, French.
1806-1807, Captain Barron, Mathematics.
Francis Masson, French.
Alden Partridge, Mathematics.
1808-1810, Ferdinand Hassler, “
Alden Partridge, “
Francis Masson, French.
Christian Zoeller, Drawing.
1810-1812, Alden Partridge, Mathematics.
Francis Masson, French.

This glance at the actual teachers of West Point enables us to see at a glance, what was done. No continuous study was pursued at all, except mathematics. For the eight years, between 1804 and 1812, French was taught by an able professor, Mr. Masson, and from 1808 to 1810, drawing. In 1812, this inchoate existence of the Academy was ended by the act of congress, reorganizing the institution, and placing it on a permanent and extensive foundation. The next period of five years, from 1812 to 1817, was the _forming_ period of the Academy. In some respects, its elements were chaotic. In others, its _personnel_ was inefficient and inharmonious. In others, again, its materials of instruction were inadequate. From this condition it finally emerged, and attained its present high character and usefulness. The history of this change is important, if not interesting to those who would understand what are the true foundations of a great school of education. In the meanwhile, let us return to what the CADETS of the Academy had done. If they were few, and with small means of instruction, they may nevertheless have shown that the Academy was not altogether fruitless. How many cadets were appointed between 1802 and 1812, we do not exactly know, but we have the number appointed _from the Academy_. The number of cadets promoted from the Academy during that period were for each year, thus:

In 1802, 2.
In 1803, 3.
In 1804, 2.
In 1805, 3.
In 1806, 15.
In 1807, 5.
In 1808, 15.
In 1809, 7.
In 1811, 19.
In 1812, 18.

This makes eighty-nine in ten years. Let us look at their career, as stated in the brief annals of the army; or, as they are retained in memory. Of this number, comprising ten cadets of more than half a century ago, this is the result:

Killed in battle, 10.
Died in service, 21.
In service, 7.
Resigned, 33.
Disbanded, 10.
Dropped, 3.
Dismissed, 4.
Declined, 1.

This is no bad roll. If we were to search our college rolls for those who had been really useful, those who died in battle, or served to the end, or entered other fields of usefulness, or now live in the performance of duty, we should find a less grateful exhibition than this. The number of those who had been “dropped,” or “dismissed,” for incompetence, or vice, would be far greater. Alas! if we could read the secret history of the college roll, how sad would be that account! We know, that in times past, many of the officers of the army were addicted to dissipation. Happily, we can say, many less now. But since we would estimate the value of the Military Academy, even in its most imperfect condition, let us see _who_ some of these men were.

The first cadet appointed was General JOSEPH G. SWIFT,[4] who having risen to the rank of general of engineers and inspector of the Military Academy, resigned, became surveyor of the port of New York, and is now a venerable and respected citizen of Geneva. Of those who were killed in battle, _Eleazer D. Wood_, (whose monument stands at West Point,) was killed while loading a cannon, in the sortie from Fort Erie. Five others were killed on the Canada frontier, and four in battle with the Indians. Of those who died in service, _two_ reached the rank of general, and _eight_ that of field officers. Of those who are now in service, (7,) one is General JOSEPH G. TOTTEN, chief of the corps of engineers, who served on the Canada frontier in the war of 1812, and at the siege of Vera Cruz. One is Col. SYLVANUS THAYER, who served in the war of 1812-’15; who was superintendent of the Military Academy from 1817 to 1833, and to whom it is indebted for a large part of its usefulness. Of these gentlemen, we shall have more to say, when we refer to the forming period of the institution. Another is Colonel RENE DE RUSSY, who was distinguished in the battle of Plattsburg, and became superintendent of the Academy on the retirement of Col. Thayer. Of those who resigned or were disbanded, many died young; one became a member of congress and politician; and another, Col. WILLIAM MCREE, was a remarkable man, distinguished for gallant conduct in the battle of Niagara and Fort Erie, a member of the board of engineers, and of cultivated mind; he resigned from the army and became surveyor general for Missouri and Arkansas, and finally died of cholera at St. Louis. Of the whole eighty-nine, who were commissioned prior to 1813, but twenty-one were alive in 1850, and several others have died since. The few who now remain have seen more than half a century’s service in useful employments. Perhaps it should be mentioned to the advantage of the Military Academy, as a school of physical education, that at the end of half a century, twenty of its pupils out of eighty-nine, should be yet alive. In twenty years of civil life, as appears from the United States census of 1830 and 1850, more than the same proportion of youth between ten and twenty years of age perished. The general strength and health of the pupils of West Point are beyond a doubt greater than that of the same number of young men brought up in the ordinary methods of education. This is not wholly due to physical exercises, but also to moral education, and to the care and comforts of their mode of life. Will any one deny that _discipline_ is a part of moral education? Is not self-restraint, the regularity of habits, and the art of using the mind in intellectual pursuits, the most important elements of a moral education? It is to all these, and not merely the training and exercise of arms, that the eléves of the Academy owe so large a share of the health and strength of life.

[Footnote 4: The _first_ diploma, which we suppose was a
manuscript certificate, was the one given to the then Cadet SWIFT,
and signed by Captains Barron and Mansfield.]

In the period of its history which we have now examined, the Military Academy was really only in the germ of its existence. Like most other useful or remarkable enterprises, it was first thought of as a thing needed; then began without any clear idea of what it would become, and was then improved upon, till it grew to be of magnitude and importance.

PERIOD II.--1812-1825.

The Academy, in its germinal existence, whose history we have briefly traced, was obviously inadequate to supply the army and country with young men instructed in the art of war. Congress authorized the appointment of a large number of cadets. But the President did not act upon it, because there were neither professors, nor books, nor quarters, nor material at West Point for their training. In 1808, Mr. Jefferson recommended an enlargement of the Academy. In 1810, Mr. Madison did the same. In vain, however, were these recommendations, till the nation was roused from its indolent repose by the sudden shock of war. In 1811, the battle of Tippecanoe electrified the people. The war-whoop sounded on the north-western frontier, and the aggressive conduct of Great Britain became insufferable. War was an imperious necessity. Then it was that the use if not necessity of an institution for military training became obvious to all reflecting minds. In April, 1812, the act was passed which erected the frame-work of the present Military Academy. As this legal outline has been little changed since, it is necessary that we should look to its provisions, for correct ideas of what the law intended, and what has been substantially carried out in its growth and development.

1st. It was provided, that the number of cadets might be increased to two hundred and fifty, and attached at the discretion of the President as students to the Military Academy at West Point, and be subject to the regulations thereof.

2d. That these cadets should be between the ages of fourteen and twenty-one, and previous to his appointment should be well versed in reading, writing, and arithmetic.

3d. That the Military Academy should consist of the Corps of Engineers, the Professors of Philosophy, of Mathematics, of Engineering, with their assistants, and the teachers of French and Drawing.

4th. That when any cadet shall receive a regular degree from the Academical Staff, he shall be considered a candidate for a commission in any corps for which he shall be deemed competent.

In addition to these provisions for education, money was appropriated for buildings and books, and for a band of music. The expenditure provided for was very small, compared with the need of the Academy; but it was enough for a beginning. It was far easier, as we shall see, to provide for all its material wants, than to bring it into that state of moral and intellectual discipline, which was essential to the attainment of great results. The institution, in its former period, was in an inchoate condition. A few young officers, raised up partly as teachers, and partly as pupils, without a course of studies, without regulations, and without discipline, could furnish no just ideas, from experience, of what a highly intellectual, well-ordered school of science should be; and accordingly the want of just ideas of education was precisely what first stood in the way of making West Point what it subsequently became.

For more than five years there was a wrestling between old and new ideas. There was a positive ignorance of what high education should be. In fact, the country had no models for it. Then there were old habits to overcome. Lastly, there was a willfulness on the part of some in authority, opposed as long as opposition was possible, to any new idea of things. For people are aware, in this day of change and novelty, how strongly the _vis inertiæ_ of intellectual habits opposes intellectual improvement. This very _vis inertiæ_, at first, almost nullified the power of law itself to improve and enlarge the studies at West Point. How it acted we shall see. The first difficulty at West Point was, (after preparing the accommodations and material) in complying with the spirit of the law, and placing the _academic instruction on the high ground really intended_. To understand this we must here advert to some provisions of the law which were either overlooked or neglected. First, the law expressly recognized an _Academic Staff_, who should confer _degrees_. Secondly, that the cadets of West Point should be _students_, subject to the _regulations of the Academy_. All this evidently meant that these two hundred and fifty young men should be placed, like students in college, under regular academic instruction, and that the professors and teachers should constitute an academic faculty, with power to regulate the education of the cadets, and confer degrees according to merit. Ultimately this was accomplished; but it took much effort on the part of the Professors to bring the military authorities into a just conception of this scheme. During the years 1812 and 1813, little was done except in commencing buildings, buying apparatus, appointing the cadets, and getting ready for the real business of the institution. Here we must record the first academic faculty organized at West Point. The professorship of Natural and Experimental Philosophy, which was higher in rank and emoluments than the others, was instituted expressly for Col. JARED MANSFIELD, who, having retained his commission in the corps of engineers, while he was surveyor-general in the north-western states, was now (October, 1812,) appointed to the same professorship which he held ten years before. ANDREW ELLICOTT, who had been astronomer of the United States, and had a wide reputation for mathematical knowledge, was appointed professor of Mathematics, in September, 1813, at which time, also, ALDEN PARTRIDGE was appointed professor of Engineering. The teacher of drawing was CHRISTIAN E. ZOELLER, reappointed; and of French, FLORIMOND DE MASSON. This was the first academic faculty. Subsequently, the principal professors were allowed assistants, and other teachers were at still later periods provided in the departments of Ethics, Tactics, Artillery, Chemistry, &c., as the institution was enlarged, and its wants were better known. The gentlemen above named were, however, the first professors and the first faculty. They had the real _labor_ and responsibility of taking the initial steps, and to a large extent, of forming the Military Academy. At the very first step a difficulty occurred, which could not have been anticipated. Captain ALDEN PARTRIDGE, (who was professor of Engineering) was superintendent of West Point, from January, 1815, to November, 1816--nearly two years. He was a man of strong will; of independent and rather eccentric ideas, who quite naturally as a military man, long resident at the Point, wished to forget that the law required the education of the institution to be decided by an academic faculty, and governed by regulations. He chose rather to remember that it was a military post, governed by a military commandant, and sought to gratify his own ambition by grasping its sole direction. Professors Mansfield and Ellicott, who held no command in the army, took a different view of the subject. They justly thought, that the object of the institution was to give a thorough _scientific education_, especially adapted to the art of war; that this required discipline, and a course of studies systematic and complete; and that all this was evidently contemplated by the law, which said that the Academy should be governed by regulations, and hence an academic faculty. This difference of opinion was vital. It led to a controversy of two years, which belongs to the private rather than the public history of the Academy. Little of it was known to the public, and we are now concerned only in the issue. Had the views of Captain Partridge prevailed, the institution never could have become what it is.[5] Fortunately, the Professors had the law on their side, and also the good opinion of the administration, and eventually gave to the scientific college the cast and features which it now has. For three years, between 1814 and 1817, this internal controversy continued, gradually tending to give the Academy a systematic organization. General JOSEPH G. SWIFT, (head of the corps of engineers,) who was officially inspector of the Academy, took up his residence at West Point, in November, 1816, but remained only two months. While there, there could be no controversy, as to the government of the Academy, since the commander of engineers was legally its chief. After the removal of General Swift, Captain Partridge, as senior officer, again took command. It was determined, however, to remove him; and the Government most fortunately hit upon an officer, whose character, education, and accomplishments, most eminently fitted him for the post of governing, and disciplining the young men, who were in turn to become the _savans_ as well as the ornaments of their country. This officer was SYLVANUS THAYER, a native of Massachusetts, commissioner in 1808 from West Point to the engineer corps, and who had recently traveled in Europe, examining the military schools of France and Germany. The arrival of Colonel Thayer constitutes the most important epoch in the history of West Point. Why it is so will appear evident when we trace out the _scientific culture_ of the Academy, and the discipline which it furnishes. Up to 1813, we have seen that the Military Academy was merely a small company of officers and cadets, who, being stationed at one post, were required while there to pursue certain mathematical and military studies. It had no one element of organization. From 1814 to 1817, professors Mansfield and Ellicott were struggling with no more than partial success, to give it organization and systematic instruction. But, in 1817, Colonel Thayer, who had seen in France what such institutions required, and whose enlightened mind realized the necessity of adopting better methods, at once coöperated with the Professors, in making a permanent and successful reform.

[Footnote 5: Captain Partridge, who was a useful and energetic
man, had subsequently full opportunity of carrying out his popular
views in the military schools of Norwich and Middletown, which he
founded by his own efforts.]

At this point we should notice the additions made to the academic staff, between 1816 and 1819, and the steps taken by the war department toward carrying out the views of the Professors, and Colonel Thayer. CLAUDE CROZET was appointed professor of Engineering, in March, 1817; DAVID B. DOUGLAS was appointed assistant professor of Natural Philosophy, in January, 1815; CHARLES DAVIES was appointed assistant professor of Mathematics in December, 1816. Rev. THOMAS PICTON was appointed Chaplain, and professor of Ethics, in July, 1818. THOMAS GIMBREDE was appointed teacher of Drawing, in January, 1819. Major JOHN BLISS, instructor of Tactics, in April, 1818; Lieut. GEORGE W. GARDINER, instructor of Artillery, in September, 1817. CLAUDIUS BERARD succeeded Francis Masson, as teacher of French, in January, 1815; JOSEPH DU COMMUN was appointed second teacher of French, in March, 1818. Of the old professors, Captain Partridge and Francis Masson were gone; all the others remain. Thus, in 1817, when Colonel Thayer took charge of the Academy, the corps of teachers was composed of professors Mansfield, Ellicott, and Crozet; teachers Zoeller and Berard; and assistant professors Douglas and Davies, exclusive of the military teachers and of those appointed in 1818 and 1819. This was properly the Academic Staff, and Colonel Thayer was willing and pleased to have them take their proper part in organizing the institution, and raising it to that high standard of discipline and excellence to which it has since attained. In the meanwhile, the war department, under the enlightened administration of Mr. Crawford, had endeavored to supply some of the obvious defects of the Academy, by new regulations.

So far we have pursued the history of the Academy, as it progressed from a germinal idea to actual being and life. It is now necessary to trace that system of _scientific culture_ which is its essential element and peculiar character. In this the student of education may be more interested, and as we trace it still further, in its _fruits_, the education and services of more than two thousand young men, who have held the most important positions in all the departments of life, we shall be better able to pronounce a just judgment upon its merits and services.

Mr. CRAWFORD, one of the most enlightened men who have appeared in public affairs, was, we believe, the first to understand and attempt to remedy the defects and irregularities which Professors Mansfield and Ellicott had pointed out.[6] In March, 1816, “Rules and Regulations” were drawn up by Mr. Crawford. The main points in them were--

1. There shall be a Board of Visitors, to consist of five suitable gentlemen, who shall attend each annual examination.

2. There shall be a General Examination twice in each year; in July and December, and an annual vacation in July and August.

3. Cadets shall be admitted in September, and examined in spelling, reading, writing, and arithmetic.

4. A course of studies, embracing definitely all branches of science and instruction to be procured, and rules for classification shall be drawn up, and comprise a complete course of education at the institution.

[Footnote 6: These defects and irregularities arose from not
obeying the law, and not pursuing the ideas it pointed out. The
great effort of Professors Mansfield and Ellicott, was to get the
spirit of the law followed practically.]

According to the last regulation, a course of studies was drawn up by the Academic Faculty, and approved by Mr. Crawford, in July, 1816. This course comprised four years, and was substantially the same (although largely increased,) which has been pursued since.

The _first year_ studies were English Grammar, French, Algebra, Geometry, and Logarithms.

The _second year_ comprised French, Geometrical Construction, Application of Algebra, Mensuration, Plain and Spheric Trigonometry, the Conic Sections, and Drawing.

The _third year_, Natural and Experimental Philosophy, Astronomy, and Drawing.

The _fourth year_, Engineering, Geography, History, and Ethics.

In the first draft, Engineering was put in the third year; but since 1817, has been placed in the fourth. In a year or two afterwards was added the Calculus; and in a few years, Chemistry, Mineralogy, and Natural Law. This course of studies is exclusive of the purely military part, which under the heads of Tactics, Practical Artillery and Gunnery, occupied several hours each day.

Thus, in July, 1816, the Academy had for the first time arrived at a course of studies, and a preparation for discipline. In the fall and winter of 1816, began an attempt to carry this course of studies into practical effect. We do not say there had been no studies and no attempt at classification before that, for there were, but that nothing had really been perfected in either, till after the “regulations” of 1816. If we could carry the reader back to the year 1815, and see the difficulties under which the professor of that day labored, the small material provided, and the undisciplined condition of the young men under their charge, we should give better views of the merits and services of its pioneer teachers. One or two reminiscences may possibly throw some light on the subject. Colonel Mansfield arrived at West Point in 1814, and immediately sought for his pupils. He was not like the professors of whom Gibbon speaks, remembering that he had a salary to receive, but forgetting he had duties to perform. On the contrary, he immediately asked for pupils to teach. What was he to teach? Philosophy and Astronomy. But these required prior training, and it was not till the winter of 1814-’15, that he could find any pupils. Then he found _five_ young men who thought that they could go on in such studies. For want of any recitation rooms at the Point, he taught them in the parlor of his own house. As we shall refer specifically to the subject of text-books, we merely add, that the only work to be found at all suitable, was _Enfield’s Philosophy_. There was no classification, and in a few months these five cadets were commissioned. They made the first class in Philosophy, taught at West Point.

Again, there are some who will recollect Professor Ellicott, sitting at his desk at the end of a long room, in the second story of what was called the Mess Hall, teaching Geometry or Algebra, looking and acting precisely like the old-fashioned schoolmaster, of whom it was written,

“And still they gazed, and still the wonder grew,
That one small head could carry all he knew.”

The cadets were all “boys” to him, and his kind face was long remembered. In the other end of this room, or in the next, was seen his acting assistant, Stephen H. Long, then a young lieutenant of engineers; since distinguished as a traveler, an engineer, and a man of science. The text-book used was “Hutton’s Mathematics,” and at that time the best to be had. Mr. Hutton had been a professor at Woolwich, England, and his treatises were plain, simple, easily understood, and therefore well adapted to beginners. It was, however, very deficient both in extent and analysis. It was a good text-book then, for there were no cadets trained to pursue deeper or more analytical works. With Hutton’s Mathematics, Enfield’s Philosophy, and plain right-lined drawing, and nothing which could be called engineering, did the cadets of the Academy get along, without roll, classification, or graduation, till the close of 1816.