Chapter XXVIII: Part III: Military System and Schools in Austria (1)

* * * * *

XV. MILITARY SYSTEM AND SCHOOLS IN AUSTRIA.

I. OUTLINE OF MILITARY SYSTEM.

The Austrian Army is recruited by conscription, the period of service being for eight years, with two years in addition for the reserve; but such soldiers as wish it may generally obtain leave after six years’ service. Those who serve eight years are understood to have a claim for employment on railways and in the custom-houses. Substitutes are allowed, but they are provided solely by the State, and the means used for supplying them is made an element towards securing good Non-Commissioned Officers for the Austrian Army, in the following manner.

The sum paid over by private individuals for avoiding service in the Army is £150 (1,500 florins,) and the Government, in providing a substitute, pays him the _interest_ of this sum during his period of service, and the _capital_ when it is completed. A good substitute is permitted to serve twice, and he may thus receive £300 (3,000 florins) when he quits the army. Generally speaking, the substitutes provided by the Government are good Non-Commissioned Officers, who by these means are induced to continue a length of time in the service.

The Officers are obtained during a state of peace, either from the Military Academies, or by direct entry as Cadets, after passing a slight examination, into the regiments of infantry and cavalry, in which capacity they perform the ordinary duties of soldiers, and no particular period of service is required in this grade. The entry as Cadets is by nomination, part by the Colonels, proprietors of Regiments; part consisting of those having claims on the Regiments; and part of those recommended from the ranks.

Those who join the Army from the Military Academies consist principally of the sons of military men, whose education is mainly provided for by the State, and of others who are placed there by means of funds provided by provinces, districts, municipalities, or private individuals.

Any Austrian subject has a _claim_ for admittance, on payment of the annual sum prescribed by the regulations.

There is no fixed proportion existing between the Infantry and Cavalry officers supplied from the Military Academies, and those entering regiments directly as cadets, but it is understood that the former do not amount to more than one-twentieth or one-thirtieth of the latter.

The Artillery and Engineers are now entirely supplied with officers from the Military Academies.

There is no difference in the pay of officers of the same rank in the various arms in Austria.

Officers when not required are placed on half-pay, which is rather less than the half of their actual pay whilst serving. When an officer dies, his widow is not entitled to a pension, but the state provides for the education of the children; and to prevent distress, an officer is not permitted to marry unless he has a certain income, independent of his pay, for the maintenance of his wife.

The promotion in the Infantry and Cavalry is regimental, and usually by seniority; but there is no doubt that promotion by selection also takes place, though not in the regiment itself, the officer selected being promoted into another regiment. The promotion in the Artillery and Engineers is also by seniority, and by corps, and, until the Hungarian war, was exceedingly slow.

Although not actually sanctioned by the authorities, cases have occurred in the Austrian service where officers have purchased steps from others serving in _different_ regiments to themselves in the following manner:--if any officer is about to retire from the service, the promotion in the regiment being by seniority, the officer whose turn it would be to obtain the promotion would frequently sell his right to a junior officer serving in another regiment, who would thus be promoted into the vacancy. We were informed that this system had formerly led to frequent duels between the officer obtaining the promotion, and those officers in the regiment whose prospects were directly injured, by the senior having sold his promotion, and thus stopped their advancement.

II. OUTLINE OF SYSTEM OF MILITARY EDUCATION.

Military education in Austria has been entirely remodeled since the Hungarian war, and is now conducted in a very regular and systematic manner under the sole control and supervision of the Fourth Section of the Supreme War Department, entitled “Military Schools.”

The establishment consists besides of--

2 Majors of Infantry.
1 Captain of Artillery.
2 Captains of Infantry.
2 Lieutenants of Infantry.
2 Employés belonging to the Administration.
6 Clerks.
6 Messengers.

To show the great importance of the Fourth Section, it will only be necessary to state that the disbursements of the government for Military Education in Austria for the current year are estimated at £281,440, (2,814,400 florins,) without taking into consideration the sums contributed for foundations by provinces, districts, and private individuals, or of those received for the education of paying students. This sum of 2,814,400 florins is apportioned in the following manner--

--------------------------------------------+-----------+-----------
| | Number of
| Florins.* | Students.
--------------------------------------------+-----------+-----------
Vienna Staff School, | 43,000 | 30
| | Officers.
ACADEMIES-- | |
Wiener Neustadt, for Infantry and Cavalry,| 256,000 | 400
| | Students.
Znaim, Engineers, | 157,000 | 200
Olmutz, Artillery, | 122,000 | 200
Trieste, Marine, | 73,000 | 100
4 Cadet Houses, at 87,000f., | 348,000 | 800
| |
SCHOOL COMPANIES-- | |
6 Infantry, at 33,000f., | 198,000 | 720
1 Cavalry, “ 39,000f., | 39,000 | 60
2 Frontier, “ 35,000f., | 70,000 | 240
| |
SCIENTIFIC SCHOOL COMPANIES-- | |
5 Artillery, at 35,000f., | 175,000 | 600
1 Engineer, “ 36,000f., | 36,000 | 120
1 Pioneer, “ 36,000f., | 36,000 | 120
1 Flotilla, “ 22,000f., | 22,000 | 60
1 Marine, “ 40,000f., | 40,000 | 150
| |
1 NON-COMMISSIONED OFFICERS’ or | |
TEACHERS’ SCHOOL, WIENER | |
NEUSTADT. | 17,000 | 60
12 UPPER HOUSES OF EDUCATION, | |
at 49,500f., | 594,000 | 2,400
12 UNDER HOUSES OF EDUCATION, | |
at 25,700f., | 308,000 | 1,200
+-----------+-----------
| 2,534,400 | 7,430
Bureau of the Fourth Section, | 280,000 |
+-----------+-----------
Total, | 2,814,400 |£281,440
| |
--------------------------------------------+-----------+-----------

[* A florin is equal to two shillings of English money.]

So that the annual cost to the state for the education of an officer student, cadet, non-commissioned officer, and boy in these various schools is as follows:--

£ _s._ _d._
Student Officer at the Staff School, 143 6 0
Student at the Engineer Academy, 78 10 0
“ “ Artillery Academy, 61 0 0
“ “ Infantry and Cavalry Academy, 64 0 0
“ “ Marine Academy, 48 6 0
Cadets at the four Cadet Houses, 43 10 0

SCHOOL COMPANIES--
An Infantry School Company Student, 27 10 0
A Cavalry “ “ “ 65 0 0
A Frontier “ “ “ 29 4 0
An Artillery “ “ “ 29 4 0
An Engineer “ “ “ 30 0 0
A Pioneer “ “ “ 30 0 0
A Flotilla “ “ “ 36 12 0
A Marine “ “ “ 26 12 0
A Non-Commissioned Officer at the
Teachers’ School, 28 6 0
A Boy at the Upper Houses of Education, 29 14 0
“ Lower “ “ 25 14 0

And thus, as the course of instruction is continued for four years in the Cadet Houses, four years in the Academies, and two years in the Staff School, the cost of training the Officers in the Austrian Army is--

£
For an Officer of Artillery, about 420
“ “ Engineers, 490
“ “ Infantry or Cavalry, 430
“ “ Marine, 370
“ “ the Staff, 710

From the Bureau of this Section at Vienna all orders for the management, maintenance, discipline, studies, and regulation of the various Schools and Academies are issued; and all details relating to the progress of the several students and the results of their examinations are periodically sent and regularly examined.

THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTIONS FOR MILITARY EDUCATION.[1]

[Footnote 1: The following account is translated from “_Die
Kaiserlich-Königlichen Militär-Bildungs-Anstalten, mit besonderer
Rücksicht auf die Vorschriften für den Eintritt in dieselben,
Zusammengestellt aus den allerhöchst sanctionirten Reglements der
Militär-Bildungs-Anstalten. Wien, 1854_.” (_The Imperial Military
Institutions for Education_, with special reference to the
conditions required for admission, compiled from the regulations
sanctioned by His Majesty. Vienna, 1854)]

The Imperial institutions for Military Education, are divided into Three Classes. They are--

A. Such Institutions as are immediately intended for the education of pupils as Non-commissioned Officers; namely,

(1.) The Lower Military Houses of Education.
(2.) The Upper Military Houses of Education.
(3.) The School Companies.

B. Institutions in which it is intended to educate pupils as Officers; namely,

(1.) The Cadet Institutions.
(2.) The Military Academies.

C. Such Institutions as partly give a special kind of instruction, and partly complete and carry out the previous education of Officers. These are--

(1.) The Institution for Military Teachers.
(2.) The Higher Course for the Artillery and Engineers.
(3.) The War School.

In the institutions of the first and second class, education as well as instruction is given, but those of the third class are limited to instruction; accordingly, all that is said in the following pages with regard to the admission of pupils, and with regard to beneficial foundations, has no reference to institutions of the third class.

Although each of the first-named classes forms a complete whole in itself, yet they stand in close mutual relation to each other, inasmuch as the most distinguished pupils of the Lower Houses of Education pass into the Cadet Institutions; and in the same way the most distinguished scholars of the Scientific[2] School Companies, viz., those of the Artillery, Engineers, Pioneers, Flotilla, and Marine Schools, may be transferred as attendant pupils[3] to the Academies; by this means they may obtain a right to a position in the Army as Officers.

[Footnote 2: _Techniche_ (technical) is the original word. Compare
its use in another matter; there are in the Artillery two
services, the ordinary Campaigning Artillery and the _Technical_
Artillery.]

[Footnote 3: _Frequentanten_, who frequent, attend, or visit the
school.]

So, on the other hand, insufficient progress may be a reason for scholars being removed from the Cadet Institutions and the Academies into the Upper Houses of Education and the School Companies.

By these regulations a road is opened for the advancement of any talent that may gradually develop itself; and at the same time the pupils of the Institutions for Higher Military Education are submitted to that process of elimination which is requisite for the success of these Institutions.

The pupils in the Institutions for Military Education are either foundation pupils,[4] or paying pupils; the first are divided into the military or treasury foundation pupils, and the provincial and private foundation pupils.

[Footnote 4: _Stiftlinge_, foundationers, and _Zahlende_, paying
pupils, the first, divided into, (1.) _Militär-Ararial_
foundationers, who are, as a rule, sons of Soldiers and Officers,
and are maintained at the expense of the Military Treasury, the
_Arar_, or _Ærarium_; (2.) Provincial foundationers, who are
maintained by the interest of lands or money granted in favor of
young men belonging to some particular province, Bohemia,
Gallicia, the Tyrol, Upper or Lower Austria, either by the Central
Government (the State,) or by the Estates or Parliament (_Stände_)
of the province; (3.) Private foundationers, under which name are
included not only those maintained by moneys left by private
individuals, but those also whose payments come from grants made
by municipal and local corporations.]

The military or treasury places belong to the army; the claim for these depends upon the nature of the institution and the position of the parents. As a general rule, it may be laid down that children of officers are expected to remain up to eleven years of age under the care of their parents, whereas those of common soldiers may in the eighth year of their age be taken under the protection of the State.

The provincial foundations are bestowed upon the sons of the nobility, or of distinguished _employés_ of the state belonging to the crown lands of the province. Private foundations are those established by private individuals or corporations, and the appointment to these depends upon the conditions laid down by the founder. The capital or property of these foundations is generally administered by the Supreme War Department.[5]

[Footnote 5: The _Ober-Militär Commando_, or
_Commandership-in-chief_, the Fourth Section of which has the
charge of Military Education. _Commando_ is the German word
corresponding to Commander, as _Ministry_ does to _Minister_, and
may signify one or more persons, a single Officer, or a Board of
Commissioners.]

Every Austrian subject may claim admission as a paying pupil, if the other conditions of admission are fulfilled in his case.

In the Lower Houses of Education there are only military or treasury places.

In the Upper Houses of Education there are 1,800 military places; the remaining 600 are filled up by pupils upon provincial or private foundations, and by paying pupils.

In the School Companies the number of the foundation places and paying places is not fixed.

In the Cadet Institutions and the Academies there are 900 full and 200 half military places, and 520 places for pupils on provincial and private foundations, and for paying pupils.[6]

[Footnote 6: Making a total of 1,620, to which may be added about
80, reserved for _Frequentanten_ from the School Companies.]

A sum to cover the expenses is fixed in the case of the pupils on the provincial and private foundations, as also for the paying pupils, amounting in the Houses of Education and in the School Companies to 150 florins (15_l._) per annum; in the Cadet Houses to 400 florins (40_l._) per annum; in the Academies 600 florins (60_l._) for each of the three first years, and 800 florins (80_l._) for the last year. These payments will be subject to modifications, at considerable intervals of time, according to the price of articles of consumption, and will be drawn in the case of the pupils on the provincial foundations from the funds of the respective provinces, and in the case of the pupils of the private foundations, from the moneys belonging to the private foundations.

The capital for the provincial and private foundations must be duly secured and sufficient in amount to cover the fixed payments for the number of places determined upon. Supposing the sum contributed to be insufficient, the requisite sums must be obtained by deferring any further nominations.[7] The proper sums in discharge of these contributions must be paid in advance, half-yearly, on the 1st of October and the 1st of April. Those which belong to the provincial foundations, and such private ones as are administered by trustees, must be paid into the nearest Military Chest.[8] In the case of those pupils who pay for themselves, the money must be sent precisely on the above-mentioned days to the Commandant, or Director of the School, without reference to the day on which the pupil may have entered the school. On the other hand, in cases where a pupil either is removed from or otherwise quits the institution before the natural time, restitution will be made of the corresponding proportion of the sum paid in advance.

[Footnote 7: The interest, that is, will be allowed to accumulate,
until a sufficient sum is provided to pay for the maintenance of a
pupil.]

[Footnote 8: Such as exist in most large towns.]

For admission into a Military Educational Institution, the boy must first of all be of the age specified for the institution in question, and must further possess the proper bodily growth and strength corresponding to that age, and the prescribed amount of knowledge. Every boy who is to be offered as a candidate for a military place must first be registered, and this in the course of the same year for which his admission is desired. This registration must be made by the parents or guardians through the Commanding Officers of the Army,[9] or Army-Corps, or Military Government[10] within whose district they are domiciled, or in case of their living in foreign parts, through the Austrian Legation of the country.

[Footnote 9: There are four _Armies_; the First in the west, with
its head-quarters at Vienna; the Second in Italy, with its
head-quarters at Verona; and two others in the eastern provinces.
Each of these is divided into a certain number of Army Corps. The
particulars may be seen in Schematismus or Military Calendar, and
briefly in the Almanach de Gotha.]

[Footnote 10: In those parts of the Empire, namely, in the
so-called Military Frontiers, the old Turkish border, where the
government is simply military.]

Applications thus made must state what is the institution, admission into which is desired, and must be accompanied by the following certificates:--1. Baptismal certificate. 2. Certificate of vaccination. 3. Certificate of bodily health, by a Military Surgeon. 4. The school certificate for the last half-yearly examination: And 5. On the reverse the following declaration:--

“I hereby pledge myself to surrender up my son (_or_ ward) to the Imperial Military Service, in case of his being admitted into a Military Educational Institution; and I declare that I will under no pretext require his return.”

The object of this declaration is, on the one hand, to secure permanent elements for the Military Educational Institutions, and to create in the minds of the relations of the candidates the seriousness of purpose so essential in the choice of a profession. The declaration will also serve to retain the pupils to a course, which they have usefully commenced, and to protect them from the consequences of hasty decisions on the part of their friends. On the other hand, if it appears manifest that a pupil has not the requisite inclination or qualification for the military service, his removal from the institution ensues with or without the request of his friends, as will be more fully explained further on.

The applications will be examined by the Commanding Officers of the Army, or the Army Corps, or Military Government, and after their revision the candidates will be registered and the petitioners duly informed.

Any changes which occur in the case of the registered candidate, or in his family circumstances, between the time of registration and of actual admission, are to be made known to the authorities before whom the application was brought.

The registers are to be submitted to the Supreme War Department in the middle of June, so that applications can be received by the Commanding Officers of the Army, or Army Corps, or Military Government, at the utmost only up to the end of May.

Appointments to the military places in the Houses of Education and the School Companies are made by the Supreme War Department; His Majesty the Emperor reserves for himself those in the Cadet Institutions and the Academies.

Vacancies in the provincial foundation places are advertised, and applications called for, by the Governors or by the Standing Committees of the Estates of the respective provinces.[11]

[Footnote 11: The Governor or Lord Lieutenant (the _Statthalter_)
is the ordinary representative of the Emperor in the various
provinces composing the Empire. In his hands resides the usual
administration of the government. The provinces have also their
ancient Estates or Parliaments, Standing Committees of which
might, under certain circumstances, sit at times when the Estates
were not assembled.]

All proposals made in this manner are forwarded to the Minister of the Interior, and submitted by him for the sanction of His Majesty.

Appointments to the private foundations are made by the person specified by the founder; decisions of this kind are submitted on or before the 15th of June, to the Supreme War Department for their approval of the candidates and distribution of them into the various institutions.

If a candidate in whose case the prescribed conditions of admission are not fulfilled is nominated to a private foundation, and his nomination consequently not approved, a new nomination must be made.

Pupils who pay are appointed by the Supreme War Department.

The sanction of the appointments and the distribution of the candidates appointed in the various institutions, in the case of the military and the paying pupils, will be made known to them by the Commanding Officers of the Army, or Army Corps, or Military Government; in the case of the provincial foundations by the Minister of the Interior; and in the case of the private foundations by the trustees.

Candidates living in a foreign country will be informed by the Legation in that country.

Upon the appointment made to an entirely gratuitous place in a military educational institution, all payments of allowances for the education of children cease.[12]

[Footnote 12: Small allowances, _e.g._ of 8_l._ for three years,
are very generally made to the widows of officers, and
occasionally to officers themselves, to assist them in securing a
decent education for their children.]

The conveyance of military foundation pupils to the school to which they are appointed will, if not provided for by the friends of the pupils, be made at the expense of the Military Treasury by the ordinary means of locomotion.

Trustworthy Non-commissioned Officers from the nearest detachment of troops should be selected by the military authorities for the conveyance and charge of the pupils; four or five being, according to the circumstances, committed to the care of a single superintendent.

The conveyance of all other pupils must be provided for by their friends.

Admission into the Military Educational Institutions takes place only at the commencement of the school year. Candidates admitted must present themselves in their respective institutions between the 15th and the 30th of September.

The Commanding Officers of the Army, or Army Corps, or Military Government have to take care that every candidate admitted to a military place shall, before leaving to join the institution, be a second time examined by an Army Surgeon, and shall only be allowed to proceed to the institution in case of his bodily qualifications being found perfectly sufficient.

Finally, the candidate upon presenting himself must be re-examined by the chief Medical Officer of the institution, and if he is hereby found to be unqualified for military education, will not be received.[13]

[Footnote 13: Thus, it will be seen, all candidates appointed to
the Military places in the schools are examined three times over
by a medical officer. Where the State does not pay, in the case of
provincial or private foundations, or of paying pupils, the same
amount of precaution is not thought necessary.]

Any Military Surgeon or Medical Officer who incurs the guilt of neglect of his duty in this particular will be held responsible.

Every candidate upon presenting himself will moreover undergo the prescribed examination in his previous studies, and if his previous education appears insufficient, his appointment will be cancelled.[14]

[Footnote 14: The difficulties of traveling appear to be
considered in Austria too great to allow of any examination
(competitive or otherwise) before the candidates provisionally
admitted actually arrive at the school to which they are
appointed; if ill qualified, they are dismissed with the Chance of
a second trial.]

Pupils admitted after a private education into a Military Institution are provided by this institution with new linen, and clothes. All clothes they bring with them are without exception to be returned to their friends, and an acknowledgment of the return given.

No pupil in any of the Military Institutions is allowed to possess any linen or clothes except what is provided; and the friends and relations are not to be called upon for any sort whatever of additional contribution. An amount of pocket-money, varying with the character of the institution, may be transmitted to the pupils through the hands of the authorities of the school; but this is entirely at the pleasure of the friends and relations; all necessaries being provided by the institution.

The pocket-money can only be paid to the pupil through the Commanding Officer of the Institution or of the Company.

The amount allowed must depend on the conduct of the pupil, but must not, even in the Academies, exceed three florins (six shillings) a month.

The course of instruction given in the Military Educational Institutions is fixed by special tables drawn up for each institution. Special text-books, to be followed in the courses, are also appointed.

The tables drawn up to regulate the course of instruction are subject to such modifications as may be called for by the requirements of science and by improvements in the methods of teaching.

The scholars will also receive in the course of the year, more particularly in summer, and after the close of the examination, practical instruction suitable to the arm of the service for which they are destined.

Every September the pupils pass into the next succeeding yearly course.

In the same month the scholars quit the institutions, and are either placed in the army or transferred to other institutions. The conditions under which this is done are given in detail in the account of each institution.

The expenses of the conveyance of the pupils from one institution to another are borne by the Treasury.

Pupils who make no progress in scientific studies will be required to enlist in the army[15] if old enough, and if not, will be removed to an inferior Military Educational Institution; or if they are already in one of the Houses of Education or School Companies, will be employed in learning some trade which will be of use in the army,[16] and when they have reached the proper age, will be enlisted.

[Footnote 15: Will be _assentirt_, will take the oath. They are
considered old enough for this at sixteen.]

[Footnote 16: Even clothes and shoes being made by soldiers; a
considerable number of soldiers were found thus employed, for
example, at the Artillery Academy at Olmütz, under the
superintendence of a master workman, bearing a non-commissioned
grade, that of a _prima-planist_, for whom, see a Note further
on.]

Pupils whose want of bodily qualification unfits them for the army will be sent back to their parents or guardians. Those holding military places in the Academies, if their parents are entirely unable to provide for them, will receive a yearly pension of 150 florins (15_l._) until they can be placed in some employment under the State at a salary at least equivalent to this sum.

Pupils out of the Military Houses of Education or School Companies, who are removed for want of bodily qualification, and whose parents are entirely unable to provide for them, will, according to their capacities, be placed either in the Accounts Department[17] or some similar Military Department, in the Geographical Institution, or as drummers or clerks in one of the higher Military Schools, or will be taught some trade for employment in the Outfit Department,[18] or will be made teachers. If, however, the pupil’s bodily disqualification be of a nature to incapacitate him for any of the above-mentioned employments, he will be removed at the expense of the Treasury into some Civil or Military Hospital.[19]

[Footnote 17: _Militär Rechnungs Branche._]

[Footnote 18: _Monturs Commission_, charged with the duty of
providing arms, clothing, &c., for the army. There are several
establishments in various parts of the Empire. One of the largest
is at Stockerau, near Vienna.]

[Footnote 19: Into a _Siechen-haus_, a hospital for incurable
cases; or an _Invaliden-haus_, for _Invalídes_.]

If in moral respects a pupil is found to be a mischievous member of the institution, he may at any time in the course of any year be removed.

Pupils who pay, in case of their removal being found, for whatever reason, necessary, will be sent home to their friends, the consent of the friends being required before they can be either engaged as soldiers or removed to one of the lower institutions. The expenses already incurred will be deducted from the payment made in advance, and the balance repaid to the parents or guardians.

A pupil who for whatever reason has once been removed from a Military School can never be afterwards admitted into any one of them, and in case of his either then or afterwards enlisting in the army, he can not, under any pretext whatever, obtain the rank of Officer before the pupils of the year to which he belonged. This rule, in the case of pupils who have been transferred from a higher to a lower institution, even when they pass out of this latter in the regular course, must be observed in reference to the pupils of the year to which they belonged in the institution from which they were removed.[20]

[Footnote 20: A pupil who was removed from the Academy at Wiener
Neustadt might, for example, enter the army as a simple Cadet,
under the patronage of the Colonel of a regiment, and might, but
for this rule, receive rapid promotion, and become the senior in
rank of his comrades of the same year at the School. In like
manner, a pupil removed from a Cadet Institution and transferred
into a School Company, might, upon leaving that, under certain
circumstances, outstrip his late comrades at the Cadet
Institution.]

A. SCHOOLS FOR NON-COMMISIONED OFFICERS

1. _The Lower Military Houses of Education._

The twelve Lower Military Houses of Education contain, as has been said, only military places.[21] These appertain, in the first instance, to the legitimate sons of all soldiers bearing arms,[22] whether born in marriage of the first, or in marriage of the second degree.[23] Subordinately to these, a lawful claim exists in the following cases:--

1. Sons of soldiers serving in the Trabant Body Guard, the Court
Watch, the Outfit Commission, and other military bodies.[24]

2. Sons of fathers belonging to the Reserve,[25] without prejudice,
however, to sons of soldiers in actual service.

3. Sons of invalided soldiers,[26] not only in cases where the father has already married at the date of his reception as invalided, but also in those where marriage has been subsequently permitted.

4. Sons of those who have either as substitutes or otherwise served double time, and are now in the employment in connection with the Court or Government, even in cases where marriage has been contracted after quitting the service.

5. Sons of men belonging to the military service, not included in the above-mentioned cases, namely, the sons of Prima-planists,[27] Employés, and Officers.

[Footnote 21: That is, all the pupils are of military or
quasi-military birth, and the expense is borne by the State. Both
these and the Upper Military Houses are to be reduced, it is said,
to ten.]

[Footnote 22: The whole body (_Mannschaft_) of soldiers bearing
arms (_Feuergewehrstand_.)]

[Footnote 23: Marriage of the first degree is that entered into
with full permission. In this the wives live in the barracks,
receive a certain amount of rations, their children are
recognized, and in case of the father’s death are admitted into
the Orphan Schools. Soldiers are, however, occasionally allowed
to marry, on condition of surrendering every claim to the
above-mentioned privileges. This constitutes marriage of the
second degree.]

[Footnote 24: The _Trabanten-Leibgarde_ and the _Hofburgwache_ are
Court troops. For the _Monturs Commission_, see a previous Note.]

[Footnote 25: Soldiers enlist for eight years, and after this to
the end of the tenth year are on the Reserve.]

[Footnote 26: That is, belonging to the Hospitals or Hotels des
Invalides, the _Invaliden-häuser_, of which there are several.]

[Footnote 27: Prima-planists, a name derived from _prima plana_,
the first leaf of the list, is given to soldiers employed in
various special duties, especially perhaps those not of a strictly
military kind. The master tailors, master shoemakers, master
farriers, are all _prima-planisten_. The surgeon’s assistant ranks
as such. The grade is superior to that of sergeant, but those who
hold it are excluded from promotion to a commission.]

In any large number of candidates special regard should be had to the sons of fathers who have been killed or invalided on the field; after these, to those who are orphans on both sides; then to the sons of substitutes and other soldiers in actual services; and last follow in order the sons of fathers either belonging to the Reserve or received as Invalides, or otherwise connected with the Military Service.

As the sons of Officers serving with the sword[28] have a large number of places reserved for their benefit in the Cadet Institutions and the Academies, their admission into Military Houses of Education, more especially into the Lower House of Education, is only allowable when no prejudice is caused to the above-mentioned claimants, and as a general rule can only take place when they are orphans, or under special circumstances.

[Footnote 28: This is a frequent phrase (_mit dem Degen dienende_)
for active service.]

The age of admission is the completion of the seventh year. Children under this age who are orphans on both sides, or whose fathers being widowers, have to serve in the field, will be received into the Orphan House at Vienna, and be transferred on completing their seventh year to the Lower Houses of Education. Children who have passed the prescribed age for admission into the first class of the Lower Houses of Education can only be admitted, in case of their possessing the requisite amount of knowledge, into the classes corresponding to their age, and in case of there being places vacant in these classes; any addition to the prescribed numbers in the respective years is not allowable.

The number of pupils in each of the Lower Houses of Education is fixed at 100. These 100 pupils are divided into four years, each year being as nearly as possible of the same numerical strength.

The command is held by a Subaltern Officer, to whom are attached for the religious education, the medical care, the discipline, and the instruction--

1 House Chaplain,
1 Army Surgeon,
4 Sergeants and Instructors,
4 Honorary Sergeants[29] as Assistant Instructors,
1 Sergeant, as House Adjutant; and
6 Corporals, for the discipline.

[Footnote 29: _Feldwebel_, Sergeant; _qua Feldwebel_, Honorary
Sergeant, with the title and distinction in the uniform, but
without the pay.]

Additional assistance may be procured for managing the house and attending on the pupils.

To conduct the instruction (which will be almost entirely addressed immediately to the senses of the children) class-teachers will be provided for each yearly course; and these, with the house chaplain and the medical officer, aided by assistant teachers, will give the pupils instruction in the following subjects:--

1. Religious Knowledge. 2. German. 3. Natural History. 4. Geography. 5. Arithmetic, both ordinary and mental. 6. Writing. 7. Common Drawing. 8. First Notions of the Rules of Drill. 9. Gymnastic Exercises and Swimming.

2. _Upper Military Houses of Education._

These, twelve in number, form a continuation to the Lower Houses of Education, the pupils from which are admitted here at the close of their eleventh year.

At this age foundation pupils of every kind, as also paying pupils, may be admitted immediately from their parents’ homes, only, however, into the first year’s course, and after passing an examination in the subjects taught in the Lower Houses of Education, to the same extent up to which they are taught in the second class of the ordinary elementary school.

The claim to a military place in an Upper House of Education, is similar to that for a military place in a Lower House of Education.

The number of pupils is fixed at 200 in each Upper House of Education, divided in like manner into four yearly courses.

The command is intrusted to a Captain, who is aided, for purposes of instruction and superintendence, by--

2 Subaltern Officers.
1 House Chaplain.
1 Army Surgeon.
1 Surgeon’s Assistant.
4 Sergeants as Teachers.
2 Honorary Sergeants as Assistant Teachers.
1 Sergeant as House Adjutant.
8 Corporals, for discipline.

Additional assistance may be procured for managing the house and for attendance, upon the same scale as in the Lower Houses.

The instruction, as in all the Military Schools to be noticed henceforward, will be given by teachers specially assigned to each subject, and will include here the following subjects:--

1. Religious Knowledge. 2. German, with written compositions. 3. One of the other Languages of the Empire. 4. Natural History. 5. Geography. 6. History. 7. Arithmetic. 8. Military Rules and Regulations. 9. Rules of Drill, and first notions of the Rules of Military Exercise. 10. Writing. 11. Common Drawing. 12. Gymnastic Exercises, Single-stick,[30] Swimming.

[Footnote 30: _Stock-fechten_, or staff-fencing; a sort of
military single-stick, the staff used resembling a musket and
bayonet in one piece, all of wood.]

After completing their fourth year course, the pupils are transferred, according to their qualifications and their own wishes, into the School Company.

Entrance into the Marine School Company takes place at the end of the second year’s course.

3. _The School Companies._

The School Companies have the object of furnishing the different arms of the service with Non-commissioned Officers well educated, both practically and theoretically, and likely in the course of time to prove useful Commissioned Officers[31] in charge of the troops.

[Footnote 31: _Truppen-Officiere_.]

They are in all twenty in number:--

6 for the Infantry.
3 “ Cavalry.
2 for the Frontier Troops.
5 “ Artillery.
1 “ Engineers.
1 “ Pioneers.
1 “ Flotilla.[32]
1 “ the Marine Service.[33]

[Footnote 32: For service on the Lower Danube, the Po, and the
Italian Lakes and Lagoons.]

[Footnote 33: Both for service in the Fleet and in the Coast
Defenses.]

Under the general term of School Companies the School Squadrons (for the Cavalry) are included. The term Scientific[34] School Companies applies only to those of the Artillery, Engineers, Pioneers, Flotilla, and Marine.

[Footnote 34: _Technische_, Technical or Artificer Companies.]

The scholars in the School Companies are either pupils or attendants[35] The pupils are taken, as already described, from the Upper Houses of Education, after the close of their fourth year’s course, (or, in the case of the Marine School Company, after that of the second,) or they come direct from places of private education.

[Footnote 35: _Zöglinge_ and _Frequentanten_.]

The conditions for gratuitous admission from private educational institutions into the School Companies are similar to those for admission into the Houses of Education, with the difference, that in the School Companies the sons of officials in the civil service, who have served long and meritoriously, and are ill-provided for, may also claim military places.

The candidates must be not under fifteen and not above eighteen years of age; in the Marine School Company not under thirteen and not above fourteen.

The Attendant pupils (_frequentanten_) come from the soldiers of the Standing Army.[36] They exist only in the School Companies of the Artillery, Engineers, Pioneers, and Flotilla; to be admissible, they must, as a rule, have passed with credit through the Non-commissioned Officer Schools of the Artillery or Engineer regiments, or of the Pioneer Corps or Flotilla Corps; they must have been not more than two years in the service; and not at the utmost be above the rank of an Upper Cannoneer, an Exempt, or an Upper Pioneer.[37]

[Footnote 36: The _Mannschaft-stand_ is a term used to mean the
whole body of Private Soldiers and Non-commissioned Officers.]

[Footnote 37: The Non-commissioned Officers in the Austrian
service rank as follows:--

In the Infantry, Corporal, and Sergeant (_Feldwebel_:)
In the Cavalry, Corporal, and _Wachtmeister_:
In the Artillery, Corporal, and _Feuerwerker_:

But there are distinctions in addition. A private soldier who is
exempted from certain duties, e.g. from standing sentry, bears the
name of _Gefreite_, or Exempt, in the Infantry and in the
Engineers; the corresponding rank to which in the Artillery is an
Upper Cannoneer (_Ober-Canonier_,) and in the Pioneers, an Upper
Pioneer (_Ober-Pionier_.) These are in no case Non-commissioned
Officers, though in the way to become so. There are also
Vice-Corporals (Lance Corporals,) with the badge but without the
pay of Sergeants, and _qua Feldwebels_ or Honorary Sergeants, with
the badge but without the pay of Sergeants.]

The admission of Attendants (_frequentanten_) can only be allowed without prejudice to the claims of candidates from the Upper Military Houses of Education and from places of private education.

Pupils who come direct from private education must, if they propose to enter one of the Scientific School Companies, be at least 4 feet 10 inches;[38] if one of the other School Companies, at least 4 feet 8 inches high. And these and the Attendant pupils alike must at their entrance into the School Companies pass an examination in the subjects of instruction taught in the Upper Houses of Education.

[Footnote 38: The Austrian foot or shoe (_schuh_) of 12 inches
(_zoll_) is a little longer than the English: 80 Austrian make 83
English.]

A perfect knowledge of German is accordingly an indispensable condition for reception into the School Companies, and can only in the single case of the Marine School Company be under certain circumstances overlooked.

At his entrance into the School Company every pupil takes the military oath, and is from this day bound to eight years’ service in the Standing Army, and two years’ service in the Reserve.

Each School Company is commanded by a Captain; each School Squadron by a Captain of Cavalry.

They have attached to them for purposes of instruction and discipline,--

In each Infantry School Company, 3 Subaltern Officers
“ School Squadron, 3 “
“ Frontier School Company, 6 “
“ Artillery “ 6 “
In the Engineer “ 6 “
“ Pioneer “ 6 “
“ Flotilla “ 4 “
“ Naval “ 4 “

Each institution is provided also with four Sergeants as teachers, together with a requisite number of additional persons required for management, discipline, and service.

Religious superintendence and instruction is intrusted to a local Ecclesiastic, and the medical duties to an Army Surgeon.

Scholars in the School Companies are to receive a practical as well as a theoretical training. This is to be regulated according to the branch of the service for which they are detained.

Each of the Infantry School Companies consists of 120 pupils, divided into two years, the subjects of instruction being--

1. Religious Knowledge. 2. One of the National Languages. 3. Geography and History of the Austrian State. 4. Arithmetic. 5. Elements of Geometry. 6. Military Correspondence and Management of the Internal Affairs of a Company.[39] 7. Pioneer Service.[40] 8. Knowledge of the Arms of the Infantry. 9. Rules and Regulations. 10. Rules of Drill, Exercise, and Manœuvring. 11. Calligraphy. 12. Military Drawing. 13. Gymnastics, Fencing, and Swimming.

[Footnote 39: _Manipulation._ See the account of the visits to the
School Companies.]

[Footnote 40: This includes pontooning.]

After the close of the course the pupils who have done remarkably well enter the Infantry as Corporals, the pupils who have done well as Exempts, with the corporal’s badge; those who have done moderately, as Exempts; and those who have done either remarkably well, or well, will be, without further examination, named as Cadets[41] as soon as they pay down the sum required for outfit, or prove their legitimate claim to exemption from this outlay, they themselves being consenting parties.

[Footnote 41: Cadets in a regiment, _i.e._ candidates for a
commission, like those appointed on the nomination of the
colonels.]

The arrangements of the School Squadrons, with a number of 60 pupils in each, are analogous to those of the School Companies, special attention only being given to instruction in riding and practical exercise in the Cavalry service; for which purpose each Squadron is provided with 71 horses.

The first of the School Squadrons forms a Regiment of Dragoons, the second one of Lancers, and the third one of Hussars.

The subjects taught are as follows:--

1. Religious Knowledge. 2. One of the National Languages. 3. Arithmetic. 4. Elements of Geometry. 5. Geography and History of Austria. 6. Military Correspondence, and Management of the Internal Affairs of a Squadron. 7. Knowledge of Cavalry Arms. 8. Rules and Regulations. 9. Rules of Cavalry Drill, Exercise, and Manœuvring. 10. Knowledge of Horses and Grooming, of Bridling, Saddling, and Shoeing. 11. Calligraphy. 12. Military Drawing. 13. Riding. 14. Gymnastics, Fencing, and Swimming.

On leaving, the pupils enter the Cavalry in the grades corresponding to those mentioned above for the Infantry.

The Frontier School Companies, each of 120 pupils, give three yearly courses.

In all essential points, these institutions are organized on the same plan with the Infantry School Companies. As, however, Officers and Non-commissioned Officers on the Military Frontiers are also intrusted with the general administration, and accordingly require of necessity a knowledge of political administration, of jurisprudence, and agriculture, the range of the plan of study in the Frontier School Companies is more extensive.

The following subjects are taught:--

1. Religious Knowledge. 2. The Wallachian or Illyrian Language. 3. Austrian Geography and History. 4. Arithmetic and Algebra. 5. Geometry, Plane Trigonometry, and Practical Mensuration. 6. Military Correspondence and Management of the Internal Affairs of a Company. 7. Arms and Munitions. 8. Pioneer Service, Road and Bridge Making. 9. Elements of Civil Architecture. 10. Agriculture. 11. Frontier Law and Administration. 12. Rules and Regulations. 13. Rules of Drill, Exercise, and Manœuvring. 14. Calligraphy. 15. Military Drawing. 16. Gymnastics, Fencing, Swimming.

The pupils of the Frontier School Companies, at the close of their third year, enter the Frontier Troops, under the conditions already stated in the case of the Infantry School Companies.

The Artillery School Companies have a course of three years, and consist each of 120 scholars (pupils and attendant pupils.)

The subjects of study are--

1. Religious Knowledge. 2. The Bohemian Language.[42] 3. Austrian Geography and History. 4. Arithmetic and Algebra. 5. Geometry, Plane Trigonometry, and Practical Mensuration. 6. Popular Mechanics, First Elements of Natural Philosophy and Chemistry. 7. Military Correspondence and Management of the Internal Affairs of a Battery or Company; Computation of Estimates. 8. Artillery. 9. Field Fortification. 10. Elements of Permanent Fortification; Attack and Defense of Fortresses. 11. Rules and Regulations. 12. Rules of Drill and Exercise. 13. Calligraphy. 14. Military Drawing. 15. Elements of Descriptive Geometry. 16. Grooming, Stable Duty, Harnessing. 17. Gymnastics, Fencing, Swimming.

[Footnote 42: Because of the large number of Bohemians in the
Artillery.]

After the close of the complete course, pupils who have done remarkably well enter the Artillery as Corporals, those who do well as Bombardiers, the others as Upper Cannoneers.

The most distinguished scholars, however, pass at the close of their second year into the Artillery Academy free of cost, as Attendant Pupils (_frequentanten_,) with the rank of Lance-Corporals, to receive there the education which will fit them for the rank of officers.

The Engineer School Company contains 120 scholars, distributed in three yearly courses. The subjects taught are--

1. Religious Knowledge. 2. Austrian History and Geography. 3. Arithmetic and Algebra. 4. Geometry, Plane Trigonometry, Practical Mensuration. 5. Military Correspondence and Management of the Internal Affairs of a Company. 6. Pioneer Service. 7. Sapping and Mining. 8. Elements of Permanent Fortification. 9. Civil Architecture. 10. Arms and Munitions. 11. Rules and Regulations. 12. Rules of Drill, Exercise, and Manœuvring. 13. Calligraphy. 14. Military Drawing. 15. Architectural Drawing. 16. Gymnastics, Fencing, Swimming.

The scholars enter the Corps of Engineers in the same way as has been described in the case of the other School Companies; the most distinguished passing as Attendant Pupils with the rank of Lance-Corporals, free of cost, into the Academy of Engineers.

The Pioneer School Company also contains 120 scholars, similarly divided into three yearly courses.

The instruction given is similar to that of the Engineer School Company, special attention being paid to pioneering duties.

1. Religious Knowledge. 2. The Bohemian Language. 3. Austrian History and Geography. 4. Arithmetic and Algebra. 5. Geometry, Plane Trigonometry, and Practical Mensuration. 6. Popular Mechanics. 7. Military Correspondence and Management of the Internal Affairs of a Company. 8. Land Pioneering. 9. Water Pioneering.[43] 10. Arms and Munitions. 11. Rules and Regulations. 12. Rules of Drill, Exercise, and Manœvring. 13. Calligraphy. 14. Elements of Descriptive Geometry. 15. Gymnastics, Fencing, Swimming.

[Footnote 43: Pontooning being included in the duties of the
Pioneers.]

After the close of the third year, the scholars enter the Corps of Pioneers, under the various conditions already described. Scholars who specially distinguish themselves will at the close of the second year be received, free of cost, as Attendant Pupils (_frequentanten_) in the Academy of Engineers; and after completing the four years’ course there, be distributed as Officers in the Corps of Pioneers.

The number of scholars in the Flotilla School Company is 60; and the course of instruction three years in length. The subjects are--

1. Religious Knowledge. 2. Italian. 3. Austrian History and Geography. 4. Arithmetic and Algebra. 5. Geometry, Plane Trigonometry, Practical Mensuration. 6. Popular Mechanics. 7. Military Correspondence, and Management of the Internal Affairs of a Company. 8, 9, 10. Flotilla Navigation, Artillery, and Pioneering. 11. Rules and Regulations. 12. Rules of Drill, Exercise, and Manœuvring. 13. Calligraphy. 14. Military Drawing. 15. Elements of Descriptive Geometry. 16. Gymnastics, Fencing, Swimming, and Boating.

The most distinguished scholars are sent, free of charge, at the end of the second year, to the Artillery Academy, and after completing the four years there, enter the Flotilla Corps as Officers. The others leave at the end of three years under conditions similar to those already described.

The Marine School Company contains 150 pupils, and its course of instruction lasts four years.

The subjects are--

1. Religious Knowledge. 2. German. 3. Italian. 4. Illyrian. 5. Natural History. 6. Geography and History. 7. Arithmetic. 8. Algebra. 9. Geometry and Plane Trigonometry. 10. Popular Mechanics. 11. Military Correspondence and Management of the Affairs of a Company. 12. Artillery, Arms, and Munitions. 13. Rules and Regulations, by Land and Sea. 14. Rules of Drill, Exercise, and Manœuvring. 15. Calligraphy. 16. Common Drawing and Machine Drawing. 17. Military Drawing. 18. Gymnastics, Fencing, Swimming.

The pupils will also be thoroughly exercised in boat manœuvring, in the use of sails, and of cannons, and after the end of each year’s examination, will pass some weeks on board a sailing vessel for practice.

Pupils who either through want of capacity or of diligence fall behind in the theoretical instruction, will at the end of the second year be sent on board ship as ship’s boys (_Schiffs-junge_.)

The other scholars go through the courses of the third and fourth year, and then pass, on the same plan as in the Infantry School Companies, into the Marine Infantry, or as Marine Artillerymen or as Engineering pupils[44] of the first class, into the Navy, or into the Arsenal Works Company, to devote themselves to Naval Architecture.

[Footnote 44: The Marine Infantry do not serve like our Marines on
board ship, but only on the coast. The Marine Artillery and the
Engineering pupils (_Maschinen-lehrlinge_) serve on board.]

The best scholars enter after four years instruction as Attendant Pupils in the Artillery Academy, and after completing their time there are admitted as Second Lieutenants of the second class into the Marine Artillery.

B. SCHOOLS FOR OFFICERS.

1. _The Cadet Institutions._

The object of these is to prepare pupils for the instruction in military science given in the Academies.

They are four in number, with 200 pupils in each.

They contain military or treasury places, either wholly or half gratuitous; places on provincial and private foundations; and finally places for paying pupils.

The exact number of places open to pupils on provincial and private foundations, and to paying pupils, can not be determined, as in this respect the Cadet Schools form a single whole with the Academies, and the amount can only be fixed as a total for these institutions taken together. There are altogether 1,100 of these military places, which may be distributed in varying proportions amongst the Cadet Schools and the Academies; the number in any one of them can not be stated as a rule.

The military foundations are reserved for the sons of Officers serving or having served with the sword; the entirely gratuitous places for the sons of Officers in want, and the half gratuitous places for those of Officers provided with means of their own, or serving in higher positions.

Officers employed in the Outfit Department, Remounting[45] Department, the Department of Military Law and Jurisdiction[46] are thus excluded, unless they have previously served with the sword. But for the sons of these Officers, of the Military Judges, the Military Surgeons, and other Officials, having attained the eleventh or any higher allowance class,[47] there will be reserved eight entirely and eight half gratuitous places in the Cadet Schools and the Academies.

[Footnote 45: For the Outfit Department (_Monturs Commission_,)
see a previous Note. The business of the Remounting Department or
Remounting Establishments (_Remontirungs Anstalten_) is to supply
the cavalry with horses. There are several of these great
establishments for buying and breeding horses; the largest of all
is in Gallicia.]

[Footnote 46: _Auditoriat._--There is an _Auditor_ or Military
Judge in each regiment. He has passed through his course as a law
student, and declared for this branch. In every province there is
a central department. These law officials rise through all the
grades from Lieutenant up to General.]

[Footnote 47: One of the marks of superior rank is the amount
granted for _allowances_, for which there is a carefully graduated
scale.]

Appointments to the military and provincial foundations are granted by His Majesty, the former on the recommendation of the Supreme War Department, the latter on that of the Minister of the Interior. Among the former are included, as already stated, the most distinguished pupils of the Lower Houses of Education, for whose transfer to the Cadet Schools the rules are laid down, the recommendation being annually submitted for His Majesty’s approval.