Chapter XXVI: Part II: Military System and Schools in Prussia (6)

The lectures on tactics furnish the student with the positive knowledge that is necessary as a general basis; but further care is particularly taken that by the application of the problems put before the students their knowledge is not made up of mere dead knowledge, but that throughout their understandings are exercised. It is, therefore, a special duty of the teacher to frame his lectures accordingly, and as well by a development of the basis upon which the organization, the elementary tactics, and the art of war is founded, as also by very frequent exercises given to the pupils on the lectures to press towards this end.

For the solution of the tactical problems, a number of plans of ground is necessary. They are obtained on the requisition of the teacher through the Director.

It is further necessary to illustrate the use of the different troops upon the ground itself, as well for attack as defense, and to have the examples and problems given by the teachers sketched by the scholars. For such exercises four days of two or three hours each will suffice.

Of the existing hand-books, none appears perfectly qualified to serve as a basis for instruction. The filling in, therefore, of a sketch of the lectures, and of a special plan of instruction, is indispensable to give the teacher a fixed basis, and the scholars an assistance in their repetitions.

VI. MATHEMATICS.

The mathematical lecture, besides its general tendency to sharpen the intellect, is to make the scholars acquainted with all those theories and laws which are indispensable to the Artillery and Engineer officer to enable him to solve with certainty and ease those problems which so often meet him in the service.

Since these problems in part require the application of rules of the higher branches of mathematics, lectures on these ought not to be wanting, and consequently the mathematical instruction for at least a portion of the pupils must embrace (with few exceptions) the entire field of this science.

In order, however, that this demand be accommodated to the time at disposal and the capabilities of the students, the following rules are to be observed:--

1. The students of the first cœtus having already passed their examination for _Portépée ensign_, and the Predicate _ziemlich gut_, in their mathematical examination, being requisite for entry into the School, it is to be presumed that they enter with a good or at least sufficient preparatory knowledge. Still, as it is not to be expected that the necessary requirement in arithmetic and algebra will be possessed throughout, the first part of the instruction must be considered as the most important, and be given thoroughly and fundamentally.

2. Such portions of mathematics as are less necessary for Artillerists and Engineers (for instance, astronomy and the higher geodesy,) are to be entirely omitted from the lectures.

3. As even in such portions as fall within the scope of the lectures, there is much that can not be exhausted, therefore all that belongs solely to speculative views, or possibly only serves to the rounding or perfecting a system, must be passed over. The instruction in mathematics stands in near and frequent connection with the lectures on artillery, architecture, mechanics, physics, theory of surveying, and with drawing lessons, as well as with practical mensuration.

These belong specially--

_a._ To Artillery: architecture, mechanics; the application of all those formulas which the mathematical lectures have to deduce and to prove.

_b._ To Physics: the theories of dioptrics, and catoptrics, which the students require to a perfect understanding of the construction of telescopes and reflecting instruments; what is necessary from aerometry and aerostatics.

_c._ To Drawing lessons: practical working out of the theory of perspection, and the construction of shadows.

_d._ To the theory of Surveying: a knowledge of all the instruments requisite for mensuration and leveling, and the principal theorems, with their application to cases occurring in mensuration.

The lectures on mathematics form of themselves a continuous, closely connected whole; consequently, the same teacher who gave instruction in the first cœtus is to retain his pupils in the second, so that each of the two teachers commence with the first cœtus in alternate years.

For the third cœtus there will be a selection made of those students who have made themselves noticed in the second cœtus by distinguished ability, special application, and peculiar talent for the study of mathematics, and have thus raised hopes that they may be conducted with success into the higher branches of the science.

They form a separate division, whose number should always be small if the selection be guided strictly by the contemplated purpose. All the other students of the third cœtus form a second division, in which the entire field of what they have already been taught in mathematics is again gone over, with a view to its application; and at the end of this course some other subjects necessary to the Artillerist and Engineer are to be treated, without, however, mere scientific speculations.

For each of these divisions a separate teacher is appointed.

A. THE LECTURES IN THE FIRST CŒTUS EMBRACE,--

I. _Arithmetic and Algebra._

1. Algebra, with sums, differences, products, quotients, whole numbers, roots, powers with real exponents and logarithms. The qualities of fixed numbers, fractions, decimal and continued fractions. Extraction of square and cubic roots in figures and letters, practical use of logarithms.

2. Algebra, equations of the first and second degree, with one or more unknown quantities, proportions, and the higher numerical equations.

3. Arithmetical and geometrical progression, calculation of interest, theory of combination, binomial theory for real exponents, series for powers and logarithms and analytic trigonometry.

4. Cubic and biquadratic equations, pure equation of the _n_th degree, reciprocal equations. (4½ months.)

II. _Plane Geometry._

Similarity of figures formed by straight lines, their contents. Theory of the circle; measurement of the circle and of its parts. Geometrical analysis and application of algebra to geometry. (2½ months.)

III. _Plane Trigonometry._

Trigonometrical functions and their logarithms. Calculation of triangles and polygons, certain parts being given. Application to the circle. (2 months.)

B. THE LECTURES IN THE SECOND CŒTUS COMPRISE,--

I. _Geometry._

1. Geometry of solids. Place of lines and superfices in space. Solid angles, solids, determination of their superfices and contents. Applications, with consideration of the weights of material bodies.

2. Solid trigonometry, with its application to the superfices of the earth.

3. The theories of projection and co-ordinates.

4. Conic sections. (4½ months.)

II. _Statics._-- _Geostatics and Hydrostatics._

With application to practical cases, namely, determination of center of gravity for ordnance and their parts, pressure upon supports, rafters, against walls, dikes and arches; stability, carrying power, strength as well as regulation and calculation of power of machines which are moved by animals. (4½ months.)

C. THE LECTURES IN THE FIRST SECTION OF THE THIRD CŒTUS COMPRISE,

1. Differential and integral calculation. (3 months.)

2. Higher geometry. (2½ months.)

3. Dynamics (mechanical,) and hydraulics, with application of the determination of the strength, direction, and distribution of the recoil upon the separate proportions of a piece of ordnance, of the science of projectiles, of the theory of carriages, of the rise of rockets. (3½ months.)

D. THE LECTURES IN THE SECOND DIVISION OF THE THIRD CŒTUS COMPRISE,

1. Repetition of the most important results of the instruction in the first cœtus in a series of exercises.

2. Repetition of the theory of statics and solution of numerous problems from real life. (3 months.)

3. Dynamics and hydraulics without higher analysis, with applications. (3 months.)

E. GENERAL APPROPRIATION OF TIME.

The number of lessons (hours) amounts, according to the prescribed plan for the first and second cœtus, to six hours, for each division of the third cœtus four hours, weekly; if the course be taken, after deducting the holidays and other interruptions, at thirty-five weeks, then there will be for the first and second cœtus, 210, and for each division of the third, 140 hours.

The number of hours to be devoted to each portion must, in the first instance, be determined by the teacher in his special lecture plan, as it in part depends upon his previous experience; at all events, all the above-named themes for the first cœtus must be treated in the stated time. Only in special cases, in the second and third cœtus, can the omission or transposition of one or the other, on reference to the higher authorities, be permitted.

It has been already remarked that the course of mathematics should impart to the students not only that amount of positive knowledge which he requires for his immediate sphere of action and needs as incitement and guide to further study, but also should fill the important purpose of forming the mind of the students generally. This purpose will be the more certainly gained the more the teacher is enabled to render the scholar self-trusting, and in each separate study to lead to the development of a few select principles simple and easily understood, but comprising in natural and logical connection the whole theory, so that the scholar fancies they are his own discovery, and therefore prizes them as his own. The teacher must, therefore, gradually propose a series of connected inquiries, and those naturally first on which the usual systems are based, as questions to which the students have to submit answers deduced from the above-named principles, with constant application of simple common sense. By these means the students are not only continually gaining single results, made ready to their hand by use, but what is principally desired, they acquire thereby great mental activity.

As regards instruction in the separate cœtus, the following rules are to be observed:--

At the commencement in the first cœtus, the teacher should endeavor, by frequent questions to form a full and correct judgment of the previous knowledge of each student, that he may determine how he should proceed with his lecture, slower or quicker, and to what subjects generally for the entire class special notice and exercise should be devoted.

The most complete exercise of the elementary rules, forming, as it does, the indispensable basis for all future progress is in this cœtus the principal aim of the teacher.

In the second cœtus, in the application of the theory of co-ordinates to the commonest curves, no investigation of the specialties of the theory of curves is necessary, because this is reserved for later lectures, and it would here abridge the time required for subjects of nearer interest. The development of these theories must, therefore, be confined to the simplest elementary use. The study, too, of the analysis of finite numbers is to be continued only so far as the student requires for immediate application, without any intention of going deeper into the science. On the other hand, a suitably increased time is to be given to statics and hydrostatics, because the student ought to be acquainted with them in the most complete manner.

As the first division of the third cœtus consists of but few and only the best scholars, it may be required of them to work out independently at home separate questions given by the teacher, and submit them to him for examination. The progress of the student is more surely gained and advanced, the oftener he has opportunity of personally discovering mathematical truths, or by applying them to examples to come to a clearer comprehension and use of them.

In the second division the teacher will not always be able to avoid giving a repetition of the reasons of propositions. This is necessary when he perceives from the work or expressions of the students, that the majority have not perfectly comprehended the proposition. Still the teacher will here content himself with bringing forward the most important points in the chain of deduction. The explanatory problems are solved by the teacher himself, who then sets similar ones for working out by the students at home.

For practical static problems, the teacher can use with great benefit objects often occurring in common life, and yet regarded so little; the numerous applications of the lever, of the inclined plane, &c., by artillerists and engineers, for their works, carriages, draught, &c., furnish sufficient material for such problems; as for instance, determination of the depth of a boat of given length and breadth when after putting into it a piece of ordnance a given height out of water is required; determination of the power requisite to overcome the resistance of a log lying in the track of a vessel; determination of the pressure of a laden beam on two or more supports with reference to the flexibility of the beam; determination of the center of gravity in an excentric hollow shot, both theoretically with given radius and known centers, as well as more practically when the centers and the radius of its interior are unknown, as by dipping the hollow shot into quicksilver; determination of the counterpoise of a drawbridge and examination of the best position for the axle ; investigation of the strength of metal and wood pipes which are to serve as water-pipes at given heights of pressure, &c.

At the same time the teacher ought not to leave unnoticed the advantages which theory can offer to practice when rightly applied, by which is in no way meant that the practical man should enter every time into a prolix and anxious calculation, but from the improvement his mind and capacities have received, he may apply readily what he has learnt to the purposes of common life.

Dynamics and hydraulics will be rather treated in a physical and historical point of view; here, too, the application of known professional results is the principal object.

As the limited time will not allow separate mathematical repetitions, the teacher should therefore be the more careful to make his lectures as much as possible applicatory. To insure progress the students must, besides the usual writing out the lecture, have frequent themes given to them for work at home, and of which their own execution should be secured by proper means.

It is perfectly necessary that a hand-book should form the basis of the instruction, from which the teacher should lecture, and the students make repetitions.

The hand-books are to be proposed by the teacher to the Board of Studies, and must not be changed without permission.

These books, as well as the logarithm tables, every student must have a copy of, as he can not do without them in the school, and may frequently require them in future life.

Models of solids, to illustrate the projection theory, are in the collection of the models of the school.

VII. PRACTICAL ARTILLERY EXERCISES.

The practical artillery exercises are intended, in the first place, to furnish the students with a sight of that portion of the material of the artillery which they have had no previous opportunity of knowing, and of which the knowledge is indispensable for a complete understanding of the theoretical lecture. The exercises should follow the lecture as immediately as possible, and occur therefore during the continuance of the theoretical course.

The students are besides to become acquainted with the methods of execution of the most important artillery duties, in an extent compatible with their position, and the time at their disposition. For this portion of the exercises, the months of July, August and September are to be preferred.

In the major part of these exercises, the engineer students take part so as to gain a knowledge of such parts of the artillery service as seem to be of the greatest importance to them.

The artillery exercises separate into numerous subdivisions, of which the following may be particularly remarked:--

I. EXERCISES OF THE FIRST COETUS.

A. _Visits._

The visits happen, as already noted, at the period of the theoretical instruction. The students are to be divided into as many sections as is necessary, that each may gain the desired information. There belong to this part--

_a._ Visiting the foundry and the boring machine. All the students of the first coetus are to be taken by the artillery teacher of this coetus, on two afternoons, to the foundry, and to the new boring machine.

They will see the general construction of the foundry and the boring machine, and, in case such work is going on, the molding, boring, and turning, and receive the explanations necessary.

_b._ Examination of ordnance, gun-carriages, and ammunition wagons.

Those in the arsenal, as well as the exercising pieces of the regiment of artillery of the guard, are to be used for this purpose, to exhibit the construction of ordnance both in the Prussian and foreign artilleries, and also those of an earlier date, from the specimens kept there. In the same way as has been remarked for the ordnance, the gun-carriages and equipages of the guard artillery regiment in store will offer opportunity for a more exact scrutiny of these carriages, limbers, and wagons. For these visits four afternoons are to be taken.

_c._ Visit to the workshops of the artillery:--

The students will, in two afternoons, gain there a knowledge of the following objects:

1. The mode of work in general.

2. Processes in the manufacture of the most important objects of artillery material, as axles, wheels, carriages, mountings, sponges, harness, ropes, &c.

3. The raw material (wood, iron, leather.)

4. Objects furnished to field, siege, and fortress artillery.

_d._ Visit to the small-arms factory and powder-mills in Spandau:--

The scholars of the first coetus will be conducted into both manufactories, to obtain a general insight into the various works.

In order that the work of the manufactories may receive no interruption, the teacher of the first coetus is to communicate beforehand with their respective superintendents, and take the students in suitable small parties, and before entering the powder manufactory to insist, most carefully, on all the proper precautions being observed.

These visits are to take place during the theoretical course on the same day as is fixed for the first coetus to visit the fortress of Spandau to study its fortifications; and, therefore, an agreement should be made between the teacher of artillery and the teacher of general engineering.

_e._ Visit to the armory at the arsenal:--

The students are to be conducted on an afternoon to the armory of the arsenal, where the superintendent will explain to them the peculiarities of match and wheel locks, with the most remarkable projects for loading at the breech, and with the form of small arms amongst other nations.

B. _Exercises._

_a._ Examination of small arms:--

The students are to be taken by their teacher to the musket manufactory, where they will be shown the mode of proof of small arms in general, and with reference to the theoretical lecture then in progress.

Each student then receives a faulty musket, with direction to examine and note its defects. The teacher revises and corrects these notes.

_b._ The management of machines:

In the presence of the students the management of various machines, &c., as well as the repair of damaged carriages, will be undertaken. According to the means at disposal, such exercises will be selected as are most instructive, in exhibiting arrangement, strength, and care in their application.

The students will be permitted to lend a hand only in such cases as it is foreseen that their strength will be sufficient. For all other purposes where strength is necessary, workmen must be employed.

II. EXERCISES IN THE SECOND CŒTUS.

When the teacher judges proper, some of the previous visits are repeated on the afternoons disposable during the theoretical course.

A. _Marking out and Tracing Batteries._

The students undertake these exercises under inspection of their teacher of artillery on two days in the last three months of the course.

The teacher instructs them then how to ascertain the prolongation of the enemy’s lines, and the mode of determining the line of fire of the first embrasure of the different batteries, as well as the other points to be marked out, both with the use of the usual instruments, and with simple measurement by pacing, and laying down right angles by the eye.

A complete construction of a battery is not possible on account of the shortness of time, paucity of means, and strength of the students. The exercise, therefore, is confined to an explanation of the formation of the material and tool depots; to marking out and tracing horizontal and sunk batteries on even, irregular, and sloping ground, and to the construction of the powder magazine.

B. _Practical Exemplification of the Rules for Placing Ordnance according to the Ground._

These exercises are to be carried out on two afternoons by all the students, under the inspection of their artillery teacher.

They have only reference to the ground, and leave out of consideration all tactical considerations. This object may be fully attained even without guns, and the necessary instruction may be given without them, as it would not be easy to form all the batteries in the desired number.

The teacher chooses the ground, explains it by means of a plan to the students, and goes with them to the place. He divides them into various sections, and lets each select positions for from two to eight pieces, both for attack and defence with different kinds of ordnance, giving only generally the direction and distance at which the enemy is operating.

Each position is inspected by the teacher, and the views and reasons for it received and discussed as regards effect, mode of firing, and covering and free movement, and where it is necessary, improved; and at the same time the requisite precautions taken for the limbers and wagons.

C. _Drawings of Ordnance Carriages and Wagons._

These exercises are to be undertaken by the artillerists of the second cœtus, under inspection of the teacher of artillery-drawing, on twelve afternoons in June.

The drawing of a piece of ordnance is to be clearly distinguished from the examination of it. For the first, taking the necessary measures is alone necessary, but not their comparison with given models.

The teacher will order these exercises, so that the students learn principally--

1. What scale they ought to take for a given object, so as to execute a drawing with the precision necessary for being afterwards worked from.

2. With what instruments and method of procedure they may most easily obtain their end.

3. How notices of improvements are to be taken and arranged.

4. How the rough draft is to be jotted down.

It must be here particularly remarked that our guns, carriages, &c., have no mathematically exact forms, and that therefore the number of measures to be taken must be often multiplied to have a true figure of the body.

A fair drawing from these measures in the above period is so much the less possible, as the number of objects is as much as possible multiplied. It is fully sufficient, however, for the purpose of this exercise, that the students learn to take complete and useful rough drafts.

On their entrance into the third cœtus, the complete drawings from these rough drafts take place.

In his selection of objects to be drawn, the teacher must, in having regard to variety, take care that the drawings by too great difficulty do not exceed the time and power of the students, nor by too great simplicity cease to be instructive.

Ordnance carriages, limbers, wagons, and the machines required in artillery, are the most suitable for choice, and are easiest obtainable in the arsenal.

The students must be divided into sub-sections, of at most three or four persons, and to each a separate task given.

The teacher is to be present at the drawings to see to their proper execution, and has delivered to him the notices and rough sketches to amend any errors that may be in them.

The relative section of the second edition of Burg’s “_Drawing of Artillery Material_” is to be taken as the basis for these exercises. In addition to them, the students receive guidance and suitable instruction in drawing artillery objects off-hand by the eye, without the use of instruments. The first two days are to be chosen for this, and the students by this use of off-hand drawing receive at the same time a useful preparation for the drawings subsequently required to be taken by the aid of instruments.

D. _Exercises necessary in regard to Sieges_--

Are to be conducted by the teacher of artillery and special engineering jointly, and are given more in detail under _exercises in fortification_.

III. EXERCISES IN COMMON OF THE FIRST AND SECOND CŒTUS.

A. _Proof of Powder._

This exercise is to be conducted by all the students of the first and second cœtus at the time of the gun-practice, and comprises--

1. Firing different sorts of powder from the proof mortar.

2. Firing different sorts of powder purposely brought into an abnormal state.

3. Instruction in weighing and measuring the powder.

B. _Artillery Practice._

All the students of the second and third cœtus take part in the practice under the inspection of the two teachers of artillery, for which fourteen days in August and September are fixed. If possible, it is to be undertaken in the morning, and only when the practice-ground is otherwise occupied is it to be deferred till the afternoons.

The practice comprises--

1. The necessary preparation for firing; namely, laying down the platform, marking the range, fixing the targets, preparing the lists to note the shots.

2. Firing from different kinds of ordnance and with different projectiles.

3. Instruction of the students in the service of the guns; selection of the charge and direction under given circumstances, and their correction; effects of distance; noting and jotting down the shots and the time of flight; calculation of the length of fuse, of ranges and averages from the different data, and remarks on the effects sought.

4. Burning a portion of prepared laboratory materials for observation of its action and effect.

The following are to be objects of practice:--

_a._ Rounds of six, twelve, and twenty-four lbs. shot and shell out of the short 24-pounders, to note--

_aa._ The grazes, distances, and deviations at different elevations, and as regards ricochet fire.

_bb._ Probability of hitting upright targets at various distances.

_cc._ As regards dismounting.

_dd._ As regards firing against heads of saps.

_b._ Seven, ten and twenty-five lb. shells, carcases, and light balls, to note--

_aa._ The grazes, distances, and deviations at different elevations and charges, also as regards ricochet firing.

_bb._ The probability of hitting upright targets at various distances.

_c._ Shells, carcases, and light balls from mortars, to note--

_aa._ The probability of hitting upright targets at different distances.

_bb._ The calculation of the charge or elevation when one of these elements and the distance are given, or _vice versâ_.

_cc._ Calculation of lengths of fuse for given distances.

_d._ Throwing hand grenades, stones, 1-pound case shot, and 3-pound balls at various distances for comparison of the effects.

_e._ Firing from the hand and stock-mortars at differing distances.

_f._ Case shot from 6 or 12-pounders, also from short or long 24-pounders and 7 and 50-pound howitzers at different distances against planks, and both with case shot, and grape shot, for observing the effect:

_aa._ Of different charges.

_bb._ Of different weights of the entire case.

_cc._ Of the weight and size of balls used.

_dd._ There is also to be observed the scattering, the number of hits and wide balls, and determination of the best line.

_g._ Shrapnel shells from field-pieces against planking.

5. The number of the before-named rounds is not to be too great, partly not to increase expense, partly in regard to time, since the practice is intended for instruction, and therefore not to be hurried. Still for shot, shell, and grape shot, ten rounds is the _minimum_, if a result is to be drawn; for the small mortar five rounds are sufficient.

Notwithstanding this limit, it will not be possible to take the practice all in one year. It seems, therefore, expedient to divide the whole into two portions, so that the most important practice happens indeed in each year, generally however, in one year the practice is to take place with field-pieces, in the following year with siege-pieces, so that the student who is present once in the first year and once in the second can complete the necessary course.

The teachers have, therefore, to determine, in the proposed plans for these exercises, the sort and number of rounds they judge necessary for the following year.

C. _Practice in the Laboratory._

As the students of the artillery, by the present regulations of their education in the regiments, have not sufficient opportunity to learn the service of the laboratory perfectly, particular attention must be paid to this work in the school.

The students of the engineer corps also take part in it, in the second cœtus, not to become perfect proficients in the different operations, but so as to gain a general knowledge of ammunition, matches, and compositions, and the duties of the laboratory.

All the students of the first, and the artillery students of the second cœtus are therefore to be occupied by their teachers for twelve afternoons in the laboratory.

For the superintendence, so necessary in these works, and for variety of practice, the fireworkers employed as assistant teachers in the school, and others from the proof department of the artillery, and also five or six artillery officers of the third cœtus, are to be present at this practice, so that each of these students is present twice or thrice on the average.

The work embraces, first, the preparation of ammunition for the artillery practice, &c.

But as this would not suffice for the complete instruction of such a large number of students, it must receive an extension calculated for this purpose, and embrace not only the separate preparations, but also a large quantity of ammunition, which, as not required for the school, is therefore sent to the depót.

The following work is to be preferred:--

Pounding of saltpetre, grinding meal powder, pounding sulphur and charcoal, boiling paste, making mastic, composition, quick-match, fuses, tubes, port-fires, carcass composition, touchpaper, case and grape shot, loading shells for bursting, discharging empty shells in which a fuse only has been driven; carcasses, fire-balls, and light balls; infantry, cavalry, buck-shot, and percussion cartridges; ball, canister, howitzer, and paper cartridges. Fanal, signal rockets, pitch compounds, powder bags, and stink-pots. The teacher is to make a careful distribution of the students, (allowing for such as have missed any days by illness,) to be satisfied that each artillerist has made every article in the laboratory, if possible, or at least has carefully witnessed its preparation.

IV. EXERCISES IN THE THIRD CŒTUS.

All the exercises of this cœtus take place during the period of the theoretical course.

A. _Visit to the Workshops._

The student will have to learn the mode of proceeding, the construction, and the use of the machines employed. Examination and storing of the most important raw materials.

B. _Visit to the Iron Foundry._

All the students of the third cœtus are to be divided into two sections, and each section to be conducted on an afternoon under the care of the teacher of artillery concerned to the Royal Iron Foundry.

They will see there the molding, casting, and cleaning of case shot, cannon balls, and shells.

They will also have explained to them the construction of reverberatory and cupola furnaces, of steam engines, and of turning lathes, and planing benches.

C. _Visit to the Foundry and Boring Machine._

The students of the third cœtus are to be present at the actual manufacture of cannon, their molding, casting, and boring. But as the circumscribed room and other considerations will not allow all the students to be present at one time, different divisions are to be formed, to visit the foundry and boring house on different days. The teacher concerned, will, therefore, make the necessary inquiries as to the time when the above works are going on, and arrange the visits by communication with the director.

The casting and preparation of iron ordnance require particular attention. On this, too, the teacher has to obtain information, and proceed as above.

D. _Examination of Iron Ammunition._

The artillery officers of the third cœtus take these exercises in hand on two afternoons, under care of the artillery teacher in the same cœtus.

The purport of it is not so much a thorough instruction in this manufacture, as a completion of the theoretical lectures on the mode of conducting the processes by means of personal inspection and handling of the instruments. The teacher will pay particular attention to the errors that may occur in the measurements, &c.

E. _Examination of Cannon._

This exercise is to be undertaken by the artillery officers of the third cœtus, under the inspection of their artillery teacher, in six afternoons. The object of it is exactly the same as of the foregoing.

The exercise must commence with directions for proving the instruments, when the teacher will show the mode of their manipulation.

As the use of such instruments only can be reckoned on as the school, the depôt, and the artillery proof department possess, only three sections of the students can work each day simultaneously; the section consisting, at the utmost, of six persons, if individual handling of them is presumed necessary.

The teacher must, therefore, divide the students into sub-sections, and make such arrangement that each student, if possible, personally work every part of the exercise, or at least have a perfect sight of it.

That portion of the students which can not be immediately occupied on each exercise day, put their tables of dimensions in the order and forms required by the regulations.

F. _Examination of the Gun-Carriages and Wagons._

The exercise is to be conducted by the artillery officers of the third cœtus, exactly as the foregoing, in five afternoons.

G. _Practical Exposition of the Rules for the placing of Guns according to given Tactical Relations._

These exercises are to be performed by the artillery students of the third cœtus, under the direction of their teacher of artillery, on four afternoons.

The teacher makes known the ground by means of a plan; he then directs reconnaissances to be made, and receives the reports.

He selects a tactical problem, the nature of which offers opportunity to remark both on the placing of guns of different calibres, and also the reserve artillery at the decisive moment of a battle, as well as the more minute details of placing single divisions and guns, and the limbers, riding horses, and wagons.

Before he solves himself the problem completely, he gathers the opinions of the students in respect to single portions, and if necessary sets them right.

The principles to be followed refer so specially to the ground, that the object of illustrating the instructions can be attained without guns. The teacher may therefore content himself with marking by flags the situation of single guns and batteries, by which the advantage is obtained of an easier use of the ground.

H. _Exercises at Spandau in reference to a Siege._

These exercises are to be conducted by the teacher of artillery, in unison with analogous regulations of the teacher of engineering, and are more particularly mentioned in the practical exercises of fortification.

The limits of time and means render it impossible to gain for the above-named exercises that extent by which the full acquirement of the necessary mechanical readiness could be insured. It is sufficient if the student has made a perfect personal examination and performed as much manipulation as circumstances permit.

The separate practical exercises can only be made after the termination of the theoretical treatment of the subject. This rule is necessary, partly because this practice is only a continuance and completion of the lecture, partly because the shortness of time restricts the exercises considerably, and therefore the days devoted to them can not be applied to theoretical explanations, which will be more profitably given in the lectures.

Where the nature of the exercises permits, the officers and elder _portépée ensigns_ will take the superintendence, that having formerly learnt the execution, they may now make themselves acquainted with the duties of ordering and inspection.

The number of students engaged at one time in an exercise ought not to be so large that a portion of it remain unoccupied or not under the complete inspection of the teacher. The disturbances that occur too easily in such cases, being most injurious, must be most carefully avoided. The teacher will make the division above stated, and take all necessary measures for obtaining the requisite control.

If at any of the exercises, danger can arise to the students, the teacher is previously to instruct them specially in what is to be observed for the safety of the workmen; after that, the superintendence of the students must be conducted with increased care, and any departure from the given orders visited with redoubled severity.

The determination of the days for these exercises rests with the director, after consulting the teachers. Should unexpected hindrances prevent the carrying out an exercise, the teacher may determine concerning it, but must consult with the Direction as to the fetching it up on another disposable day.

The necessary workmen will be demanded by the Direction from the respective services, of which the teacher will give to the Direction due previous notice.

The guns necessary for practice are to be lent by the Artillery Regiment of the Guard and the Artillery Depot; all the other instruments, equipments, &c., are borrowed from the Depot. All materials are received by order of the war department or by purchase. It is therefore the business of the senior of the two Artillery teachers, in his yearly demand for the practice, to state the full requirement of tools and materials, that the Direction may take timely measures for their supply.

VIII. PRACTICAL EXERCISES IN FORTIFICATION.

Practical exercises in fortification stand in immediate relation to the lectures on fortification, sieges, and field engineering. They complete, as far as possible under given circumstances, the theoretical lectures by personal view; they also offer the students opportunity for solving fitly chosen problems, to apply what has been learnt, and to prepare by reflection for practical service.

The exercises are to be conducted in each cœtus by the teachers who lecture on Engineering. The presence of the Artillery teacher is elsewhere separately noted.

A. THE EXERCISES COMPRISE--

a. _For the First Cœtus._

1. In unison with the teacher of Artillery and of General Engineering, the examination of the fortress of Spandau, to make clear to the students the combination of the details of a complete fortress from an actual example.

2. Examination of the models of fortresses and their details in the Arsenal, to make clear the principles of a siege.

3. Visiting the exercising-ground of the Engineer division of the guard in all its details.

4. Marking out, tracing, profiling, calculation of the cubic measurements, of the time for building, of the number of workmen, and of the garrison for given fortifications on ground near Berlin.

5. Being present at the exercises of the Engineer division of the guard in sapping, mining, building redoubts, laying bridges, and their instructions.

b. _For the Second Cœtus._

1. Examining the models in the model-house, partly to illustrate the systems taught, partly to show the influence of ground on the situation, form, and contrivance of the works; and again to explain by the aid of the necessary notices of the sieges of these fortresses the choice of the fronts of attack, and other matters relating to sieges.

2. Problems on the ground for sieges, such as may happen, to a subaltern officer, as simple as possible, but to be solved clearly and exactly.

These exercises refer principally to the marking out of parallels, zig-zags, and saps, as well as marking out and tracing siege batteries. They are to be undertaken under the united direction of the teachers of Special Engineering and of Artillery on the exercise ground of the Guard Engineer division.

3. Problems on field fortification, not too comprehensively drawn out, but of which the solution should be the more complete. Here belong, _e.g._, the fortifying of a house, a farmstead, a bridge, or other defile, covering of an advanced post, &c., &c.

c. _For the Third Cœtus._

1. For the Artillerists:--Exercises in reconnaissances of fortresses. Fixing the points for laying down batteries of attack. Statements of the arming of detached works against _coups de main_ and formal attacks. Sketches of instructions for subordinates in particular cases. Construction of ammunition and other depôts in and before a fortress. Under the guidance of the Artillery teacher of the third cœtus, with regard to the analogous regulations of the teacher of Exclusive Engineering.

2. For Engineers:--_a._ Reconnaissance of Spandau in reference to projects in permanent and field fortification, as well as military architecture and hydraulic works, under the guidance of the teacher of Exclusive Engineering, with the assistance of the teacher of Fortification-drawing.

_b._ In conjunction with the Artillerists, reconnaissance of Spandau for fixing a front of attack, securing its investment by field fortification adapted to the ground. Placing the depôts of material. Marking out the first parallel, with its communications, as well as the subsequent works of attack. Measures of the defenders, special discussion on arming the works on the spot. Under the guidance of the teacher of Exclusive Engineering, having regard to the analogous regulations of the Artillery teacher in the third cœtus.

B. FIXING AND APPORTIONING THE TIME.

a. _For the First Cœtus:_--

1. The visits prescribed in 1 and 2 for this cœtus are to be
made in spring, whilst the theoretical course is going on,
and for them are fixed, 2 days.
2. The further exercises under 3, 4, and 5, are to be taken
in the summer months; to them are allotted, for the visit
at 3, 1 “
To the exercises at 4, 5 “
To “ at 5, 6 “
--
Total, 14 “

b. _For the Second Cœtus:_--

The exercises under 1, 2, 3 for this cœtus, are to be held in the Summer, and are thus regulated:--

For the visit at 1, 2 days.
To the exercises at 2, 2 “
To at 3, 8 “
--
Total, 12 “

c. _For the Third Cœtus:_--

The exercises ordered for this class are to take place only in Spring, whilst the theoretical instruction is going on, and for it are fixed:--

1. For exercises by the Engineers alone, 2 days.
2. For those jointly by Engineers and Artillerists, 3 “
--
Total, 5 “

The days of the calendar for these exercises are to be proposed by the teachers when delivering in their annual sketch of exercises, and their propositions will be laid by the Direction before the authorities for their approval.

To engage the pupils to work they are to be divided for the visits and exercises into suitable sections. Each section receives its problem from the teacher, who also nominates the president of the section. This president distributes the sub-sections among the other students, and sees that the work to be written and drawn is finished in the required time, signed by the author, and is delivered by him to the teacher. Great care is to be taken that single students do not remain unoccupied; the disturbances thence only too likely to arise are always injurious to the instruction and the discipline. In giving out problems, their principal conditions only are to be designated by the teacher, and the development left entirely to the student, or with little aid from the teacher, in order that the student may gain early that confidence and independence necessary to the soldier in carrying out matters committed to his charge.

In the exercises the workmen demanded for marking out, are to be limited as much as possible, as the students must perform the greatest part of the work themselves. The number indispensably necessary will be demanded in time by the teacher from the Guard Engineer Division through the Direction.

The necessary material, if the Guard Engineer Division can not furnish it as a loan, may be purchased at the charge of the school.

THE WAR OR STAFF SCHOOL AT BERLIN.

BY GENERAL VON HOPENER.

I. OBJECT, PLAN AND STAFF OF THE INSTITUTION.

The War School (_Kriegs-Schule_) is intended to receive officers of all arms, who during three years of active service have given proof of ability and of particular capacity. They find there the means for acquiring the knowledge requisite for the higher ranks of the service, for the duties of officers of the staff, and for all other appointments which demand military and scientific studies of a higher and more general character than the common ones.

The course of study is for three years, and is divided amongst three classes. The courses begin on the 1st of October, and continue to the 1st of July. The number of officers who can be received is 120, neither room nor means of instruction sufficing for more. The three months of vacation in the summer are employed by the pupils in learning the service of those arms of the profession to which they do not belong.

The Special Direction of the War School consists,--

(_a_) Of the Military Direction.
(_b_) Of the Direction of Studies.

The Military Direction consists of a director, a field officer connected with the direction as inspector, and an adjutant, who directs the accounts of the Institution.

The military director is supreme, both over the military officers who are members of direction, and of the military officers who are studying in the school. The police, the discipline, and all the administration of the Institution are under his control. All the subordinate officers in the house are under his orders. The field officer attached to him is charged to look carefully to the discipline and to the due attendance at the lectures. The adjutant directs the correspondence and accounts of the establishment. The whole of the staff and the military directors are lodged in the school.

The Direction of Studies is in the hands of three field officers of literary and scientific attainments, and of two other persons, civilians of Berlin, of high literary reputation. Its president is the senior officer, who is generally also the military director. It has also a secretary attached to it.

The Direction or Board of Studies is exclusively intrusted with the care of everything affecting the teaching of the Institution, and its members are bound to be frequently present at the lectures. It has also under its inspection all the means and objects required for teaching, such as the library, the collection of maps and models, the collections for physical science, and the laboratory.

The Director of Studies selects the professors of the Institution, recommends them to the superior authorities, and in case of their appointment gives them their instructions.

At the beginning of each course the direction fixes the plan of the lectures, and if any alterations in them are required, proposes them to the superior authorities for their sanction.

The Direction of Studies regulates the examinations which the officers who are candidates for admission into the school are to undergo. With this view it draws up a certain number of subjects and questions suited for the purpose, which it sends, in the spring of each year, to the chiefs of the staff of the different Corps d’Armée, in whose presence the candidates do their work. Those of the candidates whose work is satisfactory are entered at once in the school.

In order to take account of the progress of the students the board of studies makes them pass an examination in writing at the end of every three months; makes a revision of the judgment of the professors upon the papers, and conjointly with the military board of direction, gives certificates at the end of the triennial course to the officers who have gone through it completely. In these studies it is the part of the board of studies to give a judgment on the scientific merit, and that of the military board to judge the moral conduct of the officers.

The two boards make a report yearly on the progress and the conduct of the officers of the school. This report is submitted to the king by the minister of war. Particular mention is made of those officers who by extraordinary success have deserved his majesty’s favor.

II. SUBJECTS AND AIDS OF INSTRUCTION.

Attendance on the different courses is partly obligatory, partly compulsory, with this restriction, however, that every student must attend twenty lectures a week, given before 12 o’clock, including the obligatory courses. These last are those of the purely military sciences, and for the first class those of mathematics. As it is impossible for most of the pupils to give sufficient attention to all the courses to be examined in them at the end of each three months, they are allowed to select those of the courses which they may choose to follow. But this choice once made must be adhered to.

The instruction is divided into theoretical courses and practical exercises.

The theoretical courses comprehend all the subjects which come within the object of the Institution. They are the following:--

1. Mathematics, a course of three years, six lectures a week, half
employed in statement of the theory, half in the practical application.

2. The Higher Geodesy, in the third class, three lectures a week.

3. Physical Geography, in the first class, two lectures a week.

4. General Geography, in the first class, four lectures a week.

5. Special Geography, particularly that of the probable theaters of
War for Prussia, in the second class, four lectures a week.

6. Universal History, in the first and second class, four lectures a
week in each.

7. General History of Literature, in the third class, four lectures a
week.

8. Logic, in the second class, four lectures a week.

9. Physical Science, in the second class, four lectures a week.

10. Chemistry, in the third class, four lectures a week.

11. Physiology of the Horse, in the second class, two lectures a week.

12. Tactics, in the first and second classes, four lectures a week in
each.

13. Artillery, in the first class, three lectures a week.

14. Fortification, a course of three years in the three classes. In the first class, Field Fortification; in the second, Permanent Fortification; in the third, the Conduct of Sieges; two lectures a week in each class.

15. Military Administration, in the first class, two lectures a week.

16. Military History, in the third class, seven lectures a week.

17. Duties of the Staff, in the third class, three lectures a week.

18. Military Law, in the third class, one lecture a week.

All these lectures are given in the morning, between eight and one
o’clock.

19. The French Language, a course of three years in different classes; into each of which the pupils enter according to the knowledge they possess of the language; six lectures a week for each class.

20. The Russian Language, four lectures a week.

The above two courses are in the afternoon.

The practical work is done after the end of the courses of the second and third classes. They consist in making the officers draw plans for military objects, make sketches of ground.

These exercises are completed by a journey of fifteen days under the conduct of an officer of the staff, in order to teach the service of an officer of the staff in the country.

The instruments of teaching consist of--

1. A library for the use of professors and students, and a collection of maps and plans, all under the charge of a librarian living within the school.

2. A collection of models for the courses of artillery and fortification, under the care of a commissary of the school.

3. A cabinet of physical science, under the direction of a professor lodged in the house.

4. A laboratory and chemical apparatus, under the direction of a professor of chemistry.

There are no manuals specially used for the instruction.

For the courses of geography and of the history of war, the direction furnishes the pupils with the plans and maps required, as far as the means of the Institution allow it, or it procures them at moderate prices, to be repaid by instalments.

PROFESSORS AND STUDENTS.

The officers acting as professors in the school are officers of mature age, and high education, chosen from the garrison of Berlin. The teacher of the duties of the staff, must always belong to this corps. They are appointed to their work in the school for an indefinite time, without prejudice to their other duties.

The civil professors are generally chosen from those of the Royal University at Berlin.

With regard to discipline, all the professors are subject to the board of military direction; with regard to teaching, to the board of direction of studies.

Every professor is bound upon entering on his functions to lay before the board of direction of studies a programme stating the bearing, the successive subjects, and the arrangement of his course. This programme must be approved by the direction.

The payment of professors is fixed according to the number of their weekly lectures. It is less for the professors of Language, as they require less time to prepare their lectures.

The students of the school are under the immediate authority of the military direction; but they are ordered to look upon the professors, whilst engaged in their duties, as their superiors, so that offences against them are subject to military law.