Chapter XLIV: Introduction

The organization of the North German Confederation, and more recently of the German Empire, and the necessities of its position, have already led to the rapid development of a military marine, and the unity of the commercial interests of the different States will soon expand its navigation as well as its naval armament.

1. KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA.

Long before Prussia was largely interested in either a military or commercial marine, the government had provided for the systematic training of all concerned in the construction, equipment, and running of ships, whether destined for the defense of the country or to its commercial interests. After enjoying opportunities of studying the theory of their business, as well as the practical application of its principles, they must pass an examination to test their knowledge both of the theory and practice--with a provision that no one shall assume the responsibility of the life and property of others without holding a certificate of proficiency.

NAVIGATION SCHOOLS.

There are six schools, situated at Memul, Dantzic, Pollan, Grabow (near Stettin), and Stralsund, devoted to the education of young men who propose to become mariners and masters of merchant vessels. A single director, residing at Dantzic, has the superintendence of all these schools, which have each two professors, each in charge of a division of the school, and an assistant who devotes himself to drawing in connection with the construction of vessels, and of charts. The principal has charge of the higher division, in which navigation and geography, both of the sea, and of the natural productions and commercial facilities of different countries are taught. The lower division deals with subjects which concern pilots--their professional and legal duties.

Candidates must have mastered the subjects of elementary instruction, and are examined as to their ability to read, write, and compose in their native language, and to go through ordinary arithmetical problems with facility and accuracy. An examination of candidates takes place every year at each school, which is conducted by the head professor, in the presence of the director of this class of schools.

To be admitted to the examination the candidate must bring a certificate of good character, that he is over 14 and under 40 years of age. The school fee is ten thalers per quarter for the highest or navigation class, and six thalers for the lower or pilot’s class. There are 32 lessons per week in both divisions.

The subjects taught in the lowest division are:--arithmetic, plane geometry, carpentry, plane and spherical trigonometry, navigation, territorial and astronomical observations, drawing of sea charts and astronomical maps, and the English language.

In the highest division, in addition to the studies of the lower, in which the pupils are carried further on, rigging and other points of practical seamanship, drawing the different parts of a vessel, the commercial requirements respecting a ship’s papers, and the course of exchange at the principal commercial ports, are taught.

A final examination is held in which diplomas are awarded to those who have completed the whole course, and of proficiency in certain studies, either of which are of practical service in obtaining situations, and without which certain positions can not be obtained.

NAVAL ARCHITECTURE.

In the Trade or Polytechnic School in Berlin, provision is made for instruction in naval construction:

_First_--In the mathematical foundation of the most important physical laws; in physics, drawing, modeling, and the general principles of construction; in practical hydraulics; the theory of machinery, and the steam-engine.

_Second_--In the application of these principles to the business of ship-designing and construction, and particularly to designs for vessels, and the different parts of a ship in detail; to the art of ship-building; the general displacement of water and stability; hydrostatic calculations; general principles with regard to the form of vessels, and the theory of sailing and steam-ships; details of construction of wooden and iron vessels; practice; and planning and calculating the cost and capacity of vessels.

There are reviews of the ground gone over at the close of each term, which is obligatory only on those who enjoy free places, and each student receives a certificate at the end of his course, setting forth all his lectures and practical exercises, with an opinion as to his practical judgment.

II. AUSTRIA.

Under the new army organization of 1869, the military forces of the whole empire are divided into the Standing Army, under the control of the Imperial Minister of War; the Landwehr, whose duties are limited to the respective divisions from which it is drawn, under the control of the Austrian and Hungarian war ministers; and the Landstrum, or general levy, which is compulsory in the Tyrol and Military Frontier, and voluntary in the rest of the empire. The Emperor is supreme chief of the military and naval forces, and from him must emanate all concentrating movements of troops. In 1871 the Standing Army consisted of 278,470 men on the peace footing, and 838,700 on the war footing.

The naval forces of Austria consisted in 1871, of 46 steamers and 10 sailing vessels, viz.:

Horse-power. Guns. Tonnage.
2 Iron-clad Line-of-battle Ships, 1,800 22 11,138
7 Iron-clad Frigates, 4,550 88 25,452
4 Screw Frigates, 1,500 149 9,407
3 Screw Corvettes, 860 50 4,703
7 First class Gunboats, 1,610 30 4,311
3 Second class Gunboats, 270 9 999
16 Paddle Steamers, 2,381 51 9,442
10 Sailing Ves’ls, viz.: 2 Frigates, .... 35 3,032
2 Corvettes, .... 30 1,416
4 Brigs, .... 40 1,176
2 Transp’ts, .... 4 283

The navy is officered and manned by 2 vice-admirals, 4 rear-admirals, 24 captains of steamers and frigates, 14 captains of corvettes, 106 lieutenants, 343 ensigns and cadets, and 3,803 sailors, besides 875 officers and men in the marine corps. On the war footing the sailors number 3,743, and the marines 1,410. The men are recruited by conscription from the seafaring population, although the voluntary enlistments in the province of Dalmatia renders its enforcement unnecessary.

The total commerce of Austria, comprising imports and exports, exceeded $400,000,000. The commercial marine includes 7,830 vessels, of 324,415 tonnage, and 27,979 seamen. The Austrian Lloyd, a trading society established in Trieste in 1833, owns a fleet of 70 steamers, of 12,500 horse-power.

To provide officials, well instructed and trained in the administration of each department of the public service, military and civil--war by land and sea--both for military and commercial purposes, the government establishes schools, with studies and practical exercises adapted to each branch.

SCHOOLS FOR THE MILITARY AND COMMERCIAL MARINE.

1. _Military Marine._

There are in Austria several kinds of naval schools, as follows: One each for sailor boys, for marines, for quartermasters, for naval pupils of the first class, for naval pupils of the second class, a theoretical school for naval cadets, and a superior establishment for naval officers.

1. The school for sailor boys is intended to train, as petty officers for the navy, young men from the Slave and German provinces, admitted between 12 and 14 years of age into the naval service. The instruction lasts until the pupil has attained the age for the conscription; he is then entered as a sailor and becomes a petty officer as soon as he gets sufficiently used to the sea. The highest post he can attain is that of upper boatswain (_Hochbootsmann_.)

2. The schools for marines (_Zeugscorps_) receive men drawn from different corps of the army. They are trained as petty officers, and a part receive the uniform. Those who are fit to become officers receive their promotion when they leave their corps to enter the school.

3. The school for naval cadets of the first class is kept on board a war vessel selected for the purpose. The object is to prepare for the naval service youths of 16 or 18 years of age, who, on entering the school have already received a complete civil technical education. The teaching here consists, therefore, chiefly of practical seamanship, and also of the application of previously acquired scientific knowledge to navigation and nautical astronomy. The course occupies a year; on leaving, the pupil is received as a naval cadet. After passing two or three years at sea these cadets enter the theoretical school for naval cadets.

4. The school for naval cadets of the second class is intended solely to prepare them to become officers. In this school, beside the pupils placed there at the cost of the State, there are others maintained by endowments, and also others who pay for their instruction. The sons of officers and State functionaries are entitled to enter this school at the public expense, and any Austrian subject who has the necessary qualifications is admitted on payment. Foreigners are also admissible as paying pupils, provided they can obtain authorization from their own government to enter the Austrian service. To be admitted, candidates must be between 12 and 14 years of age, of sound health without bodily defect, and able to pass a previous examination. The instruction is given in accordance with a determined plan, on board a vessel prepared expressly to receive the pupils. After three years’ instruction the pupils leave the school as naval cadets and are sent to sea. At the end of two or three years’ active service the cadets are admitted to the theoretical school. This school receives from 40 to 50 pupils. The chaplain on board is charged with the religious instruction; the other teaching is given by professors from the hydrographic schools. The naval officers of the school-ship give the instruction in practical seamanship.

5. The theoretical school for naval cadets is on shore, and its course occupies a year, after which the pupil undergoes the examination prescribed for his commission as an officer. On leaving this theoretical school the pupils are still naval cadets, but become officers when appointed to a ship.

6. The superior school for naval officers is intended for the further improvement in mathematical and hydrographic studies, of such young men as have shown decided talent and taste for those sciences.

III. GERMAN EMPIRE.

The jurisdiction of the German Empire, by treaty concluded at Versailles, and ratified by the Diet of North Germany Dec. 10, 1870, embraces among other national interests, the Army and Navy, and the protection of German navigation.

The war-fleet of the Empire, which embraces all that had been constructed by Prussia since 1848, consisted in June, 1870, of 38 steamers and 7 sailing vessels, with 42,415 tonnage, and 480 guns.

Horse-power. Guns. Tonnage.
5 Iron-clads, 3,700 62 15,846
9 Steam Frigates and Corvettes, 3,200 200 14,210
8 “ First class Gunboats, 640 24 5,858
14 “ Second “ “ 840 28 5,858
1 “ Yacht, 160 2 445
2 Paddle-Steamer Corvettes, 600 13 1,750
3 Frigates (sailing vessels), ... 114 3,736
4 Brigs, “ ... 46 1,927

The German navy was officered and manned by 1 admiral, 1 vice-admiral, 1 rear-admiral, 27 captains and 217 lieutenants, and 3,283 seamen and boys, besides 2,760 in the marine corps. The sailors of the fleet and the marine corps are recruited by conscription, from the seafaring population, which numbers 80,000.

The provision for naval expenditure in 1870, was for--

Ministry of Marine, 81,250 _thalers_.
Administration officers, 65,557 “
Pay of seamen and marines, 1,086,990 “
Repairs of ships, 890,000 “
Marine hospitals, 71,820 “
War material, 1,221,317 “
Miscellaneous, 179,796 “
---------
Total ordinary expenses, 3,596,730 “
Extraordinary expenditure, 4,403,460 “
---------
Grand total, 8,000,190 “

The artificial harbor and dry-docks at Wilhelmshaven, in the Bay of Jade, on the North Sea, which was opened by the King of Prussia in June, 1869, have cost over $10,000,000.

The system of professional training for officers of the Imperial Navy is not yet matured. The Naval School at Kiel is still recognized. Aspirants enter as naval cadets after passing an examination equivalent to the requirements of a gymnasial maturity certificate, which in general education is superior to the requirements of graduation of either our Naval or Military Academy. Before entering on their professional studies, the cadet is first sent on a cruise to test his aptitude for sea-service. He then studies eight months at school and one year at sea, to pass as midshipman; and one year more at school, and three years at sea, to become sub-lieutenant.

MARINE ACADEMY AT KIEL.

The German Marine Academy established in 1872, at Kiel, is designed not for the education of cadets, but for the professional training and improvement of officers already in the naval service of the empire--and is of the same character as the Staff School of Berlin for officers of the army. Those only will be received as pupils, whose conduct and talents seem to qualify them for superior scientific attainments, and, hereafter, for the filling of the most important posts. These officer-pupils will be required to give proofs of their diligence and progress by the production, from time to time, of theses and dissertations on scientific subjects given to them by the professors. At the same time, all naval officers will be permitted to attend the courses of instruction when their professional duties do not call them away.

The course of study is to occupy two terms, each of twelve months’ duration, with a vacation of three months for practical exercises.

The subjects for the first term are:--Mathematics, natural philosophy, chemistry, the theory of naval war in all its branches, military tactics in as far as disembarkations are concerned, coast surveying, the theory of the formation of coasts, coastal defenses, field fortification, the constitution of military courts, the principles of international, military, and naval law, the system of administration, sanitary science, especially with reference to life aboard ship and in different climates, the elements of logic, ethics, &c.

The following subjects will be included in the second term:--Nautical astronomy, geodesy, theory of maps and charts, the history of war, with especial reference to naval war, artillery, ship-building, the construction of steam-engines (with practical exercises), the position and construction of naval ports, physical geography, the elements of geology, marine botany and zoölogy, and the general history of modern literature and civilization, &c.

[Errata for Part VIII (England and Naval Schools):
Oxford Blues, the Royal Scots, and the Second Queen’s Royals.[1]
Royals.”[1]
[Footnote 1]
The latter is the only body that has the privilege
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“to place themselves under the orders of a director of studies
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feel the effects of the change which has been made in it.”
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practical trial in their work. ... appointments and promotion.
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will be regulated at the following rates, as heretofore:
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elsewhere than at Eton
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The use of meteorological instruments
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and to lay them underground,
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Facing B.L. guns. / Practical examination, etc.
etc,
the Royal Warrant for Pay, Promotion,” etc.,
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[Footnote 5]
and an examination of persons to act as pilots and mariners.
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[Footnote 6]
Hollanders, 1,(3);
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and give a great deal of trouble; we want men.”
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a physical and military education, which developes their strength
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averages a little more than £6 per boy per annum.
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But such was not the case.
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and the studies were pursued with greater vigor.
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[The following table, giving the statistics of the school at Toulon]
|251|235|181|97|67|58|
_last row of table has 225 for 235_
The requirements for admission are a knowledge of arithmetic,
knowlege]

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