Chapter LXVI: Part II: SPECIAL MORAL THEOLOGY (Continued) (29)

(b) This is lawful but not obligatory when there is a prudent misgiving about a useful Sacrament (Confirmation, Matrimony, anointing of one who is conscious); also when there is a slight reason of law or fact for fear about a necessary or more important Sacrament (Baptism, Orders, absolution of a dying person, anointing of an unconscious person, consecration of the Eucharist). For the Sacraments are for men. But if only a small loss or an unlikely loss will be caused by their non-repetition, the duty of repeating them cannot be insisted on.

(c) This is gravely obligatory when there is a prudent fear about a necessary or more important Sacrament; it is gravely or lightly obligatory (to be determined in each case) when there is a well-founded fear about a useful Sacrament, if charity, justice or religion calls for repetition and the inconvenience will not be too great. In Matrimony the alternate methods of convalidation or sanation may be used as the case demands. Again, the Sacraments are for men, and hence, if man will likely be subjected to a notable loss by the minister’s neglect of repetition, the duty of repetition is clear.

2683. Reception of a Sacrament from an Unworthy Minister.--May a Sacrament be received from a minister who, to one’s certain knowledge, cannot give it without sin on account of unworthiness (such as a state of sin or censure)?

(a) _Per se_, this is unlawful, for it is cooperation with sacrilege and is often attended by scandal and danger of perversion to self.

(b) _Per accidens_, this is lawful, for material cooperation is justified when a proportionately grave reason exists (1515 sqq.). Moreover, often the minister can put himself in the state of grace before he gives the Sacrament, or can be excused from sacrilege on account of the necessity. The less the irreverence or danger of scandal, the less need be the reason for asking or taking a Sacrament from an unworthy person. If the minister is a sinner or is under ordinary suspension or other censure, a serious reason of spiritual advantage suffices (e.g., the opportunity to make the Easter duty); if the minister is under sentence (Canon 2261 n. 3), only danger of death suffices; if the minister is a heretic or schismatic, only extreme need suffices, and the danger of scandal and perversion must be avoided.

2684. Sacramentals.--The sacramentals are the sacred things (e.g., rosaries, scapulars, agnus deis) and actions (e.g., consecrations, blessings, exorcisms) used by the Church in imitation of the Sacraments to obtain through her intercession blessings chiefly of a spiritual sort (Canon 1144).

(a) Necessity.--Our Lord gave to the Church the power of instituting sacramentals, and certain of those used by the Church are but developments of the blessings and exorcisms that He used. Some of the sacramentals are commanded by the Church (viz, those that are used in the administration of the Sacraments or in other sacred services); others are recommended, but not commanded.

(b) Use.--The virtue of religion requires that the sacramentals be administered, received and treated with devotion and respect, the extremes of irreligion and superstition being avoided (see 2244). The laws of the Church on the ministers, recipients, and rites of the sacramentals are treated in works on Canon Law and liturgy.

Art. 2: BAPTISM; CONFIRMATION; THE EUCHARIST; THE SACRIFICE OF THE MASS

(_Summa Theologica_, III, qq. 66-83.)

2685. The general duties of the ministers and recipients of the Sacraments have been outlined in the previous Article. The principles therein given are the basis of the special duties that pertain to each of the seven Sacraments. In this and the remaining Articles, therefore, it will suffice to apply without explaining anew the rules already given and to add the special details proper to each Sacrament.

2686. The Sacrament of Baptism.--The first and most essential Sacrament is Baptism (Greek, washing), which may be defined: “The Sacrament of regeneration by water in the word” (Catechism of the Council of Trent, page 163). The internal grace of the Sacrament is expressed by regeneration, the external sign by water and the word.

(a) The effect of Baptism is regeneration, for it cleanses from sin and penalty, and makes him who was a child of wrath to be a child of God and a co-heir of Christ. Baptism also christens, since it seals one with the indelible character of Christian, or member of the Church. As all are under the original curse by birth from Adam, so all who would inherit blessing are in need of this new birth through Christ (see 2661): “Unless a man be born again of water and the Holy Ghost, he cannot enter into the kingdom of God” (John, iii. 5).

(b) The material element (remote matter) of Baptism is water, that is, any and every form of liquid which in common estimation is pure and unchanged water (e.g., water taken from the ocean, from streams, fountains, or wells; water melted from snow, ice or hail; water gathered from steam, dew, or mist; chemical and mineral water). But animal and plant fluids, though they contain water, are looked upon as distinct substances, and hence Baptism cannot be administered with milk, blood, spittle, sweat, oil, flower or fruit juices (e.g., wine, cider), or extracts of barks or roots. Doubtful matter are liquids that, while in large part composed of water, seem to be generally regarded as not water (e.g., thin soup, tea or coffee, light beer); and hence only in necessity can these be lawfully used for Baptism.

(c) The formal element of Baptism is the word or the formula appointed by Christ. In the Latin Church the words are: “I baptize thee in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost,” Almost every word in this form is necessary for the sense given by Christ, and hence almost any omission makes it necessary, or at least lawful, to repeat Baptism (see 2655, 2682). The declaration of the form demands that the application of the water (proximate matter) be made in the manner of an ablution (i.e., by sprinkling, pouring or immersion). If sprinkling or pouring is used, the body of the recipient (i.e., the skin of his head) must be washed (i.e., the water must touch the head and flow thereon) by the baptizer (i.e., the person who pronounces the words must pour or sprinkle the water). But in case of necessity one may use the opinion that Baptism is valid when the water touches only the hair or some part distinct from the head, or even the afterbirth of a fetus.

2687. Solemn and Private Baptism.--Though in essentials Baptism is but one, it is distinguished in reference to accidental ceremony into solemn and private.

(a) Solemn Baptism is that which is administered with all the rites prescribed by the Liturgy. It requires consecrated water, sponsors and special ceremonies; its minister is a clergyman (ordinarily the parish-priest or Ordinary, extraordinarily a delegated deacon); its place is the baptistery or church. In the Baptism of adults even greater solemnity may be used, for there is a special rite of administration, and the Church recommends that this Baptism be performed when possible by the Ordinary, or at least in cathedral churches, and on the vigil of Easter or Pentecost.

(b) Private Baptism is given in danger of death, or when an adult convert is rebaptized conditionally (Canon 759). It requires only true and natural water, though the water should be as clean and decent as possible, and baptismal or blessed water is preferable; generally the simple form without other rite suffices; sponsors are not necessary, unless they can be had without difficulty, but if possible at least one or two witnesses should be present; the Baptism may be given in the private home or the hospital or other place where the candidate is staying; anyone who has the use of reason and is able to perform the rite may act as minister. When several persons suitable to minister private Baptism are present, the order of preference to be followed is: priest, deacon, subdeacon, cleric, layman, woman; but a woman should be preferred to a man if modesty calls for this, or if the woman is better acquainted with the manner of baptizing. It is considered a serious sin needlessly to prefer a non-priest to a worthy priest, a non-Catholic to a Catholic, an outsider to the parish-priest. If possible, parents should not baptize their own children, since it is more becoming that the spiritual parent and the carnal parent be different persons.

2688. Duties of Parish-Priests as to Baptism.--(a) Before Baptism.--Baptismal water should be blessed, added to or renewed, as the ritual regulations of one’s place require; the faithful should be frequently admonished in sermons of the serious duty of having their infants baptized as soon as possible (Canon 770); the people should also be told (especially midwives, physicians and surgeons) how lay Baptism is to be given validly (Canon 743).

(b) At the Time of Baptism.--Converts preparing for Baptism should be well instructed in the principal religious truths (viz, those contained in the Creed), and precepts (viz., the laws of the Decalogue and of the Church, see 914 sqq.), and prayers (viz, the Our Father, the acts of faith, hope, charity, and contrition); and they should learn the nature and effects of Baptism. The parish-priest may delegate a deacon to baptize solemnly in his place, if there is a sufficient reason, as when he himself is impeded by sickness, absence, or occupation (Canon 741).

(c) After Baptism.--The pastor in virtue of his office has the responsibility of attending to the registration of baptisms in the proper book (Canon 777). The registration should be made without delay--that is, before the sponsors have departed, or immediately after the ceremony, or at least on the same day, if possible; the entry should be made accurately and legibly. The duty of keeping proper baptismal records is considered grave, since important evils would follow on their neglect.

2689. Duties of Parents and Guardians in Reference to Baptism.--(a) As to Administration of Baptism.--Parents are obliged under grave sin not to expose their children to the loss of salvation by undue delay of Baptism (see 2344, 2630). If there is danger of death, a child must be baptized at once; if there is no immediate danger of death, the child must nevertheless, on account of the absolute necessity of Baptism, be baptized as soon as possible. Some moralists consider a needless delay gravely sinful if it exceeds three or four days; others, if it exceeds ten or eleven days. Since infants can be baptized in the womb, a mother is not obliged to undergo the Caesarean operation to ensure Baptism; but she may permit the operation for the sake of a more certain Baptism, unless her obligations to husband or other children will suffer on account of the danger to her life. If a mother dies in pregnancy, the fetus should be extracted and baptized. The duty here rests with the relatives and the physician (Canon 746).

(b) As to Details of Baptism.--Parents should choose suitable names for their children, avoiding such as are obscene, ridiculous, or impious. It is advisable that the name of a Saint or of some other person distinguished for holiness be chosen, for this will be of a spiritual advantage to the child and an edification to others. Parents have the right to appoint the sponsors of their infant children, and should choose only those who are canonically admissible. If Baptism has been administered at home, the parents should, if the child survives, bring it as soon as possible to the church for conditional Baptism, or for the baptismal ceremonies (Canons 759, 760).

2690. Sponsors.--From early times the Church has required in Baptism the use of sponsors, and the reasons for this usage will appear from the duties of these god-parents. The present law (Canons 762 sqq.) retains the ancient tradition, and prescribes as a serious duty that in Solemn Baptism (even of adults, whenever possible) there shall be at least one sponsor (male or female), and that not more than two be used, one a male and the other a female.

(a) Requirements for Validity--Since the sponsor takes obligations, he must have the use of reason and give consent to the office; since he is charged with the duty of spiritual guidance, he must be baptized and not be a member of a heretical or schismatic sect; since he exercises an office of honor, he must not be under the displeasure of the Church by sentence of excommunication or the like; since he is to act as spiritual father, he must not be the parent or spouse of the baptized; since he is to stand for the baptized person, he must be designated by the latter or his parents or by the minister. The sponsor must also indicate (in person or by proxy) his acceptance of the care of the baptized person by physically touching him at the moment of Baptism (either by holding the infant over the font, or by placing a hand on the candidate), or immediately after the Baptism (by raising from the waters or receiving from the hands of the minister the one who has been immersed, or by taking from the font one who has been baptized by pouring). Non-Catholics, therefore, may not be sponsors, but to avoid great offense or other serious evil they may sometimes be admitted as witnesses or honorary sponsors (see 956 sqq.).

(b) Requirements for Lawfulness.--The sponsor should have reached his fourteenth year (unless the minister sees fit for a just cause to admit a younger person), and should know the rudiments of faith; he must be a person of respectability among Catholics, and hence one who is notorious on account of certain penalties or on account of crime or of membership in the Freemasons is not acceptable; he must be free to act as sponsor, and hence religious and clerics in Major Orders must have permission of the superior qualified in each instance to grant this permission.

2691. Duties of Sponsors.--(a) They are obliged to look upon their spiritual children as their perpetual charges, to see to their Christian education and to the fulfillment of the baptismal promises for which they stood surety (Canon 769).

(b) These obligations are grave, since the matter is grave; but, as the care of children falls principally upon the parents, it is only when the parents neglect their duty that the sponsors are held to do what they can for the instruction and correction of their god-children (Catechism of Council of Trent, page 175).

2692. Duties of Adult Recipients of Baptism or of Those Who Have the Use of Reason.--(a) Before Baptism.--An unbaptized person who has faith and who sees the necessity of Baptism, is gravely obliged to ask for Baptism at once, if he is in danger of death, or as soon as he conveniently can, if he is not in danger of death; for since Baptism is the divinely appointed means of entering the Church and of sharing in its privileges, he who would delay it unduly would disobey an important command of God and would be seriously neglectful of his own salvation. For a sufficient reason, however (e.g., for the sake of instruction or probation, or to avoid persecution), Baptism may be delayed even for years; but the catechumen should then make at once an act of contrition or charity so as to obtain the benefit of Baptism of desire. Converts should prepare for Baptism by taking a course of instructions, or, when there is danger of death, a summary instruction (791 sqq.).

(b) At Baptism.--The internal dispositions include, besides intention, faith and repentance: “He that believeth and is baptized shall be saved” (Mark, xvi. 16); “Do penance and be baptized” (Acts, ii. 38). There must be an explicit faith in the four chief mysteries (see 789). In this country converts who are being baptized conditionally make an abjuration and profession of faith before Baptism, and go to confession and receive conditional absolution after Baptism. The Code recommends that those who are well receive Baptism fasting; and that, unless grave reason excuses, the neophyte assist at Mass and receive Communion after his Baptism (Canon 753).

(c) After Baptism.--Since Baptism makes one a member of the Church, those who receive it are subject to church laws. The promises made in Baptism are not strictly vows, but an engagement of loyalty to the faith and the commandments (see 2191).

2693. Duties of the Minister of Baptism.--(a) In Reference to the Parents.--If the parents insist on giving an unsuitable name to their child, the pastor should silently add a suitable name of some Saint chosen by himself, and should inscribe both names in the register (Canon 761). A child of non-Catholic parents should not be baptized by Catholics, unless this can be done without injury to the natural right of the parents of training their own children and without danger to the future perseverance of the child. Hence these children, if infants, should not be baptized against the will of their parents unless they are in danger of death and can be baptized without too great inconvenience; but if a child is able to judge for himself, or if there is no parental opposition (at least not of both parents), and there are good reasons to believe that the child will be brought up as a Catholic, he may be baptized (Canons 750, 751).

(b) In Reference to the Sponsors.--If a sponsor cannot be admitted, the pastor must use great kindness and prudence, so as not to give offense. If a non-Catholic has been appointed as sponsor, the difficulty may sometimes be overcome by naming a sacristan or servant as sponsor and permitting the non-Catholic to act as witness.

(c) In Reference to the Capacity of the Recipient.--The minister must give the Sacrament only to those who are capable. Hence, he cannot baptize what is not human (e.g., uterine growths which do not pertain to a fetus), or not living (e.g., a stillborn infant), or not unbaptized (e.g., a convert or an infant about whose valid Baptism there is no reasonable doubt). Speculatively there is some difficulty about Baptism of unborn fetuses, of abortive fetuses, and of monstrosities (e.g., an infant with two heads or two hearts). For, as to the first, it seems that the physically unborn are incapable of spiritual rebirth; as to the second, it seems that the soul of an undeveloped fetus may be sub-human; and, as to the third, it may be doubtful whether a monstrosity is one individual or several individuals. Practically, however, one should proceed on the principle that the Sacraments are for men, and give the benefit of a doubt to the infants by conditional Baptism. Intra-uterine Baptism should not be used except in case of urgent necessity, and it is then permissible to employ a mixture of one part of chloride of mercury with two parts of water to avoid infection. Midwives, nurses, mothers, and physicians should be especially careful to baptize abortive fetuses, and should know how this can be done (see Commentaries on Canons 746-748).

(d) In Reference to the Willingness of the Recipient.--An infant is not required to will the Sacrament, and hence the perpetually insane, who are unable to distinguish between right and wrong, may be baptized without any desire on their part. But an adult must intend to be baptized (see 2671 b). Hence, the minister must inquire about the wishes of an adult candidate, If an unbaptized person is now out of his mind (insane, afflicted with lethargy or sleeping sickness, delirious), but formerly had the use of reason, he is classed with adults, and his intention has to be considered. He should not be baptized, therefore, until he comes to himself, unless there is danger of death and signs of a desire to receive Baptism were given before (Canons 745, 754).

(e) In Reference to the Worthiness of the Recipient.--The minister should remind the candidate of the duty of attrition. If the person who asks for Baptism wishes to retain certain habits (e.g., superstition, concubinage, or unlawful business) which cannot be reconciled with Christianity, he cannot be regarded as suited for Baptism. But in danger of death good faith should not be uselessly disturbed.

(f) In Reference to the Pastor.--Solemn Baptism either in or out of one’s territory may not be given without permission from the proper pastor who has jurisdiction (Canons 738-740). And a minister who is not the pastor of the baptized person must send notice of the Baptism to the pastor, as soon as possible, if the latter was not present (Canon 778).

(g) In Reference to Himself and the Sacrament.--The minister should inform himself, if necessary, about the existence or validity of a previous Baptism, and he should observe the ceremonies, essential and accidental, of his Rite. Foundlings should be baptized conditionally, unless it is certain that they have been already baptized validly (Canon 749). The internal dispositions of intention and state of grace are necessary, while for baptism of adults fasting is advisable (Canon 753).

2694. The Sacrament of Confirmation.--Next to Baptism, not in necessity or dignity but in likeness and in time, is Confirmation; for Confirmation completes the work begun in Baptism, and it is also frequently received immediately or next after Baptism. It may be defined as “the Sacrament in which through the anointing with chrism and the prayer of the bishop a baptized person is perfected and strengthened in the grace received and signed indelibly with the character of soldier of Jesus Christ.”

(a) The element of the Sacrament (remote matter) is chrism, that is, a mixture of olive oil and balsam specially blessed by the bishop and applied (proximate matter) by an anointing and the imposition of hands on the forehead of the recipient. The law of the Church requires that the chrism be new (i.e., made at the last previous consecration of oils), and that the anointing be made with the right thumb in the form of a cross.

(b) The form of Confirmation in the Latin Church is as follows: “I sign thee with the sign of the cross, and I confirm thee with the chrism of salvation in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Ghost.”

2695. The Minister of Confirmation.--(a) Qualifications.--The ordinary minister of this Sacrament is only the bishop; but a priest may act as extraordinary minister, either from the common law (viz., Cardinals, Abbots, etc.), or from special indult (Canon 782). The bishop may confirm outsiders in his own diocese, unless their own Ordinary forbids, and with permission he may confirm outside his diocese (Canon 783). Since January 1, 1947, by force of the decree of the Congregation of the Discipline of the Sacraments (_Spiritus Sanctus_) the following were established as extraordinary ministers within the limits of their territories and for subjects in danger of death.

1) “pastors having their own territories, therefore excluding personal and family pastors, unless they have also their own territory.” Under this heading are included secular and religious pastors. It is to be noted that, since national parishes in the United States are assigned a definite territory, pastors of such parishes enjoy the privilege of this decree. Pastors of Negro and Indian parishes, even if they are considered to be personal pastors, may be included, for the jurisdiction is both personal and territorial. Military chaplains can not confirm in virtue of this decree.

2) “the vicars spoken of in Canon 471, and also parochial administrators (_vicarii oeconomi_).” The first group are canonically innominate and authors adopt various titles for the personages involved. However, the reference is always to the priests placed in actual charge of _cura animarum_ in parishes which have been fully incorporated. The second group mentioned are the _vicarii oeconomi_, priests appointed canonically as administrators of vacant parishes (see Canons 472, n.1; 473,1). All other vicars lack the power, namely, the Diocesan Administrator (_vicarius capitularis_), Vicar General, _Vicarius Substitutus_ (priest who takes place of absent pastor), _Vicarius Adjutor_ (assists a disabled pastor), _Vicarius Cooperator_ (curate), those who according to Canon 472, n.2, take temporary charge of a vacant parish prior to appointment of a true administrator, chaplains of schools, hospitals, and other charitable institutions (by rescript of Nov. 18, 1948, the faculty was extended also to chaplains of maternity hospitals and foundling homes in the United States, and this faculty is renewable), the seminary rector, religious superiors even in exempt communities.

3) “priests to whom is entrusted exclusively and permanently within a definite territory, and with a definite church, the complete care of souls together with the rights and duties of pastors.” Such territorial arrangements are not common in the United States. The reference may be to priests established as quasi-pastors in Canon 216, Sec.3 (hence pastors in missionary territory and prefectures), episcopal delegates to the territories later to be erected as parishes or to maintain the status of a perpetual vicarage. Perhaps the reference is only to special arrangements made by particular diocesan laws.

(b) Duties.--The ordinary minister of this Sacrament should confer it when his subjects reasonably request it, and the Ordinary should see that the Sacrament is administered to his people, if possible, at least every five years (Canon 785). It would be unreasonable, however, to expect a bishop to go to every sick or dying person who desires Confirmation, as the Sacrament is not necessary for salvation and the task would be morally impossible, The Sacrament should be performed validly, worthily, and rubrically. When Confirmation is given, fasting is of counsel, not of precept. The use of a sponsor in Confirmation seems to be a grave obligation, when possible. A recipient can have but one sponsor, and a sponsor can act for only one or two confirmandi, unless it appear to the minister that there is sufficient reason to have a sponsor act for more (Canon 794). The pastor of the recipient, if he is unaware of the Confirmation, should be notified as soon as possible (Canon 799).

(c) Various prescriptions, some of them subjects of special study, are attendant upon the grant of power to confirm to pastors and “equivalent pastors.” The major ones are summarily stated here. The pastor obtains this power when he acquires the office. It lasts as long as he holds office. The exercise of his power becomes unlawful if he falls under censure; in certain cases it may then even be invalid. Theologians disagree as to the precise nature of the power, whether it be of orders, of jurisdiction, of both, an intrinsic or extrinsic modification of orders, etc. The common opinion holds that it is solely a power of orders. Hence, Canon 209 may not be safely used here, and an ordinary assistant who attempts to confirm would not fall under any irregularity; a pastor, however, might, by misuse of his power, be not only deprived of it, but be placed under an irregularity. Use of the power is not dependent on the permission of the local Ordinary. It may be necessary to inquire however, whether the bishop wishes to confirm in particular cases. Episcopal instructions on this matter must be complied with.

(d) Subjects of the Extraordinary Minister. The decree, _Spiritus Sanctus_, in its second rule lays down a condition for the valid administration of Confirmation by the extraordinary minister and determines the proper subject. The new faculty is strictly personal (hence it may not be delegated to others) and strictly territorial (hence the administration must take place within the confines of the minister’s district and therein extends even to exempt places). The recipient must be “in real danger of death because of a serious illness from which it is foreseen that he will die.”

Before treating the illness established as a condition for validity, other conditions of the subject must be considered. The decree describes the proper recipient as _fidelis_ in two places. The question has been discussed whether this limits the subjects to Catholics and excludes validly baptized Protestants. Authors are not agreed. Perhaps, since the extraordinary minister can act only within the powers given him in the decree, he would have to interpret _fidelis_ as extending solely to Catholics. On May 1, 1948, the Congregation for the Oriental Church issued a grant of powers to the Latin extraordinary ministers to confer Confirmation under the same conditions to Catholics of the Oriental rite who live under the jurisdiction of a Latin Ordinary, who are in the territory of the Latin pastor and whose rite has no established parish or mission in the locality. (This grant of power was previously impossible by virtue of Canon 782, Sec.4.) In emergency cases there would be no need to await the arrival of the proper pastor. Since Ruthenian Catholics are not under the Latin Ordinaries in this country, it seems that the decree might not extend to them. The point is disputed, but it would be imprudent to act on the opinion that the Ruthenians are included until the question is officially settled. The recipient need not be a permanent resident in the territory by reason of domicile or quasi-domicile; physical presence suffices.

The final condition of dangerous sickness is similar to the one in Extreme Unction; it must arise from an intrinsic cause, not from an extrinsic cause. and includes not only sickness, but also wounds and accident cases. The decree speaks of the subject in “_vero mortis periculo_.” Some thought that the wording distinguished the sickness from mere “_periculo” mortis_, and hence must be certain, not doubtful or probable. In response to the Cardinal of Palermo, on March 6, 1947, the Congregation of the Sacraments favored the opinion that the norms for “_urgente mortis periculo_” (Canons 1043, 1044, 1046) are applicable. As a rule of thumb, many authors propose: if the sickness permits the administration of Extreme Unction, it also justifies the giving of Confirmation in accordance with the terms of the decree.

2696. The Recipient of Confirmation.--(a) Qualifications.--The subject of this Sacrament is only a baptized person, and in adults intention is necessary. The general custom in the Latin Church is not to confirm before the seventh year, or thereabout, has been attained; but the Sacrament may be given even earlier, if an infant is in danger of death, or if there seems to the minister to be a just and grave reason for confirming one under seven years of age (Canon 788). Those who have the use of reason should not be admitted to Confirmation without previous instruction on the nature of the Sacrament and the requirements for its proper reception.

(b) Duties.--There is an obligation to receive this Sacrament when one has the opportunity (Canon 787); but apart from scandal, contempt, or danger to salvation the obligation seems light. Hence, if a person advanced in years is ashamed to receive Confirmation with the children, he should be advised but not reproved; nor should he be denied absolution as if he were certainly guilty of serious fault. The recipient should be in the state of grace, and it is advisable that he go to confession beforehand if he have serious sin on his conscience. Though not necessary, it is more suitable that the recipient be fasting. A new name may be taken in Confirmation, and it is proper that those whose baptismal name is unsuitable should either have it changed at this time or add the name of a Saint. Those who are being confirmed should be present for the entire ceremony (Canon 789).

2697. The Sponsors in Confirmation.--(a) Qualifications.--The requirements for validity are, _mutatis mutandis_, practically the same as for baptismal sponsorship. Thus, the sponsor must be designated by the parents or the candidate, or, in default of them, by the pastor or minister; he must not be the parent or spouse of the confirmandus; he must physically touch the confirmandus at the moment of Confirmation. Further, it is required that the sponsor be already confirmed himself. The requirements for licitness are the same as for Baptism, and moreover, as a rule, the sponsor at Confirmation should be of the same sex as the recipient and be different from the baptismal sponsor (Canons 795, 796).

(b) Duties.--The godfather at Confirmation contracts a lifelong spiritual relationship with his godchild (which does not constitute a matrimonial impediment). The latter should have a special place in his prayers according to the order of charity, and, if necessity arises, should receive his protection and assistance in spiritual matters (Canon 797).

2698. Duties of the Pastor in Reference to Confirmation.--(a) The pastor should instruct his people on the nature and advantages of Confirmation and should see to it that they receive the Sacrament in due time (Canon 787). He should also instruct his parishioners about the terms of _Spiritus Sanctus_. His power as extraordinary minister imposes an obligation _per se_ grave to use it when the cases arise; excusing causes, however, are possible, and neglect in a single case would be only venial. At appointed times each year he should hold a continuous course of instructions over a period of several days in order to prepare the classes of children for the proper reception of Confirmation (Canon 1300).

(b) The pastor should see that the Confirmations of his parishioners are entered in a special book of record, and should also note in the baptismal register the fact of Confirmation (Canons 798, 470, n. 2).

2699. The Sacrament of the Eucharist.--This is the chief Sacrament, for, while the other Sacraments produce the grace or the grace and the character of Christ, this one contains Christ Himself; and, while the other Sacraments are means that prepare man to consecrate or to receive the Eucharist or at least symbolize it, the Eucharist is the end of them all. The Eucharist may be defined as follows: “The body and blood of our Lord Jesus Christ present through the words of consecration under the appearances of bread and wine to be offered to God and to be received by man.” Thus, we may distinguish various aspects of the Eucharist.

(a) It is a sacrifice, since the Mass is the supreme act of worship and is one with the sacrifice of the cross (see 2178 sqq.).

(b) It is a permanent Sacrament, since unlike the other Sacraments it does not consist in the passing application of a sacred sign to a recipient, but in the abiding presence of a thing absolutely sacred contained under sensible forms.

(c) It may be considered in its passing phases of beginning, in which it is consecrated by the priest (performance of the Sacrament), and termination, in which it is received by the communicant (application, dispensation of the Sacrament).

2700. The Matter and Form of the Eucharist.--Since the essence of a Sacrament is found in the outward sign, it is commonly held that the Sacrament of the Eucharist consists in the species of bread and wine as signifying the body and blood of the Saviour, which is really, truly and substantially contained under them.

(a) The matter of the first consecration is that which Christ used, namely, bread. The bread must be true bread in the strict and usual Scriptural sense of the word. Hence, for validity it is necessary that it be made from wheat flour (bread made from beans, peas or other legumes, bread made from non-wheaten cereals such as corn, oats, and probably also rye and barley, is not valid matter); that the flour be mixed with water (bread made from a notable quantity, i.e., about one-third of other liquid, such as milk, oil, wine, is invalid matter); further, that the mixture be sufficiently baked (dough or half-baked cakes are invalid matter). The bread must be entire and not substantially adulterated or changed; hence, bread from which all the gluten has been abstracted, bread to which a notable amount of foreign substance (such as sugar or non-wheaten flour) has been added, bread so old that it has corrupted, cannot be consecrated. Accidental qualities do not affect validity, and hence any kind of wheat may be used (hard, soft, red, or white). But the church law strictly requires that a priest observe the tradition of his own Church (i.e., among Latins the bread must be unleavened and the host round), and that all consecrated matter be new (i.e., not baked more than fourteen days, or, according to others, twenty or forty days), clean, and unbroken. The small particles for the laity should be about one inch in diameter, the large hosts about two or three inches; and all altar breads should be of moderate thickness.

(b) The matter of the second consecration is likewise that appointed by Christ at the Last Supper, namely, wine. Only wine strictly so called according to Scriptural and common usage is valid matter. Hence, the Eucharistic wine must be made from grapes, and consequently cherry wine, currant wine, peach wine, blackberry wine, cider, wild grape wine, artificial wine, etc., are insufficient; the grapes must be ripe, and verjuice is therefore invalid matter. The wine must also be entire, unadulterated, and uncorrupted; and hence wine from which all the alcohol has been removed, brandy or cognac (i.e., spirits distilled from wine), wine to which a notable quantity of water, tartaric acid, sugar, alcohol or other substance has been added, and wine which has become vinegar, are not fit matter for the Sacrament. Accidental qualities are of no importance to validity, and hence the wine may be red or white, dry or sweet; it may be made either from ripe or dry grapes (raisin wine); and the Church permits the fortification of weak wine by a process of heating that does not prevent fermentation, or by the addition when fermentation has begun to subside of grape or wine alcohol on condition that the final alcoholic strength does not exceed 12%, or in some cases, if the wine possessed so much, 17% or 18%. But the church law strictly requires for licit matter that wine be fermented, though must or new wine is permissible in case of necessity, if it have about 5% alcohol; that it be neither souring nor frozen, nor mixed with substances added for the sake of aroma, color or sweetness, nor with water poured in before Mass. The tradition and law of the Church, based on the example of Christ, make it a grave obligation that a few drops of water be added to the wine at the altar, but, if the water equals a third part of the wine, the matter becomes of doubtful sufficiency.

(c) The form is contained essentially in the words of consecration used by Christ at the institution of the Eucharist, namely, “_Hoc est corpus meum_” over the bread, and “_Hic est calix sanguinis mei_” over the wine. But a grave precept of the Church requires that all the other principal words of the consecration be pronounced (i.e., the “_novi et aeterni testamenti_, etc.,” the “_Haec quotiescumque_, etc.,” the “_Qui pridie_,” the “_Simili modo_”). The omission of the particle “_enim_” would be only venially sinful.

2701. The Minister of Consecration.--(a) Qualifications.--Every priest and only a priest can consecrate validly, for only to the Apostles and their successors in the priesthood were spoken the words of Christ: “Do this in commemoration of Me.” But only those priests can consecrate lawfully who have the faculty of celebrating Mass (see 2709).

(b) Duties as regards Valid Consecration.--Internally, there must be the intention (actual or virtual) of acting in the name of Christ, and of effecting what the words of consecration signify; and hence a merely narrative recitation of the form is insufficient. This actual or virtual intention must also determine the individual matter to be consecrated, and hence a host placed on the corporal is not consecrated if the priest neither saw it nor took it up for consecration. Small crumbs in the ciborium and small drops of wine on the inner side of the chalice are consecrated, unless excluded by the priest’s intention; but drops of wine on the outside of the chalice should be considered unconsecrated, since it is unlawful to consecrate what is not contained in the chalice.

Externally, bread and wine must be physically present to the priest, that is, so within his reach or range that according to human usage they can be correctly designated by the demonstrative pronoun “this” used in the form. Accordingly, they must be near the minister; how near cannot be mathematically defined, and authors variously assign about ten, twenty, thirty, forty and fifty paces as the extreme limit. Again, the bread and wine must not be separated from the minister by any dividing partition, such as a wall, or the altar, or perhaps even the closed door of the tabernacle, though a closed container (such as a covered ciborium or chalice) would not put the matter away from the minister’s presence. Finally, they must not be behind the minister’s back, and, even if they are before him but hidden (e.g., hosts under the corporal or chalice), the consecration is doubtful.

(c) Duties as regards Lawful Consecration.--Internally, there must be the state of grace, which the divine law prescribes, Further, one who is conscious of grave sin certainly committed and certainly unconfessed (unless inculpably omitted in confession) must go to confession beforehand, unless there be need to celebrate at once (e.g., because otherwise there will be no parochial Mass on a day of precept, or because grave scandal or defamation will result, or a dying person will be deprived of the Viaticum) and confession is impossible (i.e., there is no confessor present who has jurisdiction, or who can be resorted to without a serious inconvenience extrinsic to confession, and moreover it is very difficult on account of distance, health, weather, or other like reasons to go elsewhere to confession). Under these circumstances, he may make an act of perfect contrition and then proceed to celebrate. But one who has consecrated without confession because of such necessity must go to confession as soon as possible--i.e., within three days, or, if circumstances so require, earlier than that (e.g., if a confessor can be had the same day, but not again for a week) or later (e.g., if a confessor cannot be had for a week). These rules about confession are of grave obligation, from Church law at least (Canon 807). On account of disrespect, it seems that grave sin is committed when the celebrant is voluntarily and advertently distracted during consecration, but he should not repeat the form unless it is certain or very probable that something essential has been omitted. Externally, consecration must be made only during Mass, both species must be consecrated, a larger quantity must not be consecrated than can be conveniently used, the matter at the moment of consecration must rest on the corporal and above the stone of the altar, and a ciborium must be uncovered while its bread is being consecrated.

2702. Inadvertent Neglect of Grave Liturgical Precept.--Is the consecration valid when the minister inadvertently neglects some grave liturgical precept as to the matter or manner of consecration?

(a) Some authors reply in the negative, because they feel that no priest has the will to consecrate in a way forbidden by the Church under pain of grave sin. According to this opinion, then, if accidentally no water were placed in the chalice, or if the chalice were unconsecrated, or if the ciborium were left off the corporal, the consecration would be invalid.

(b) Other authors distinguish as follows: if the celebrant intended not to consecrate with a material breach of grave liturgical prescription, the consecration would be null; if the celebrant had only the intention to consecrate all valid matter before him, the consecration would be valid. This latter intention, it seems, should be formed by all priests once for all, since it ensures the validity of their consecrations and is not sinful, as it does not aim to violate the rubrics, but only to provide for exceptional cases when a rubric is unintentionally violated.

2703. The Minister of Communion.--(a) Qualifications.--The ordinary minister of Communion is a priest, the extraordinary minister a deacon. Pastors and other priests to whose custody the Blessed Sacrament is entrusted have the right to give Communion, and others also who have express or presumed permission. The celebrant of Mass may give Communion during his Mass, and, if Mass is private, just before and just after it. A sick priest who is unable to say Mass may communicate himself, at least when there is no other minister at hand; and even a layman may, in the absence of a major cleric, give himself the Viaticum, or consume the Host to save it from profanation (Canons 845-850).

(b) Duties.--Internally, the minister is bound _sub levi_ to be in the state of grace, and _sub gravi_ to be free from censures (such as suspension) which forbid him the exercise of the ministry. Externally, he must observe the church laws on the manner, time and place for distribution of the Sacrament (Canons 851, 852, 867-869), and also the liturgical rules for Communion during and outside of Mass, for Communion of the sick and the dying, and for the avoidance of defects in giving Communion (Rituale Rom., Tit. IV; Missale Rom., de defectibus Missae).

2704. The Recipient of the Eucharist.--(a) Those Who May Receive Communion.--According to divine law, every living person who has received Baptism of water is capable of receiving the Eucharist, infants and the insane not excluded. Ecclesiastical law requires other conditions, which are justified by considerations of respect for the Blessed Sacrament or other good reason. Communion may not be given, first, to those who have not the use of reason (i.e., to infants and the perpetually insane), nor to those who are unable to understand the essential truths of religion and morality (i.e., to those who have always been deaf and dumb or blind, and who are uninstructed); for, on the one hand, the Sacrament is not necessary for these persons, and, on the other hand, there is great danger of irreverence if it be given them. Secondly, Communion may not be given to those who cannot receive without grave peril of unbecoming treatment of the Sacrament, as in the case of those who cough or vomit continually or frequently, or of those who are delirious, or unconscious, or insane, But if the danger is certainly slight (e.g., if the person can swallow an unconsecrated host without spitting it out), Communion may be given, at least the Viaticum or Easter Communion. Next those persons are denied Communion who cannot receive without scandal (e.g., those who are infamous, such as prostitutes or defamers, persons intoxicated or insufficiently dressed). Finally, no one may receive Communion who has already received it that day, lest the Sacrament become common and be taken without due preparation; but exception is made when it is necessary to communicate a second time in order to comply with the divine law of receiving Viaticum or of saving the Host from profanation (Canons 853-858).

(b) Those Who Must Receive Communion.--There is a divine precept that adults receive the Eucharist worthily (John, vi. 54). It obliges _per se_, when one is certainly or almost certainly in proximate danger of death, unless one has recently (that is, according to some, within a week’s time) received Communion; for this Sacrament is the wayfarer’s provision for his journey to eternity. It obliges also now and then during life, since the Eucharist is man’s spiritual nourishment for the journey of life. It obliges _per accidens_, when Communion is necessary to avoid grave sin, for charity to self obliges one to use the means without which serious spiritual harm cannot be escaped. The church law determines the details for the fulfillment of the divine precept. All the faithful who have reached the age of reason, even though they be under seven years, must fulfill the yearly Easter duty (see 2592, 2593). In reference to First Communion, the Church requires that children who are not in danger of death must have a mental and moral fitness, consisting in a knowledge of the chief mysteries of faith and a devotion towards the Eucharist such as is possible at their time of life. In reference to the last Communion, or Viaticum, the Code declares that it is obligatory, no matter what be the cause of the danger of death; it reminds us that the duty should not be put off too long; it recommends that the Viaticum be administered even to those who had communicated the same day before the danger of death arose, and that it be given on distinct days during the danger. For children who are in danger of death it suffices that they are able to distinguish the Eucharist from ordinary food and to adore it reverently (Canons 859-865, 854).

2705. Dispositions for Worthy Communion.--(a) Dispositions of Soul.--The divine law requires the state of grace (I Cor., xi. 27 sqq.), and probably also the previous sacramental confession which the Church prescribes _sub gravi_ for one who is conscious of serious sin not yet remitted through absolution. But he is excused from the duty of previous confession who cannot omit Communion now (e.g., because while at the rails he remembers a grave sin and cannot leave without being disgraced) and who is unable to go to confession (see 2701 c). The recipient must also have a knowledge of the Sacrament suited to his mental capacity, and he must desire it, at least habitually. Since the Sacraments are fruitful in proportion to the cooperation given them, and since the presence and visit of Christ deserves honor and recognition, Communion should be received devoutly, and should be preceded by a preparation and followed by a thanksgiving (Canons 856, 731). The faithful may receive in any Rite, but their own Rite is advised for Easter Communion and strongly urged for the Viaticum (Canon 866).

(b) Dispositions of Body.--The communicant must observe the Eucharistic fast and must conduct himself with external reverence.

By ecclesiastical law a person is bound to the fasting from midnight to receive the Holy Eucharist lawfully (Canons 808, 858). Despite the changes made by the Apostolic Constitution, _Christus Dominus_ (Jan. 16, 1953) and the _Motu Proprio, “Sacram Communionem_” (Mar. 19, 1957), priests and the faithful who are able to do so are exhorted to observe this venerable and ancient form of Eucharistic fast before Mass or Holy Communion. The legislation of these two papal documents, intended to increase devotion to the Blessed Sacrament by fostering frequent Communion, decrees:

1) that natural water does not break the fast;

2) that the period for observing the Eucharist fast before Mass, at whatever hour it may be said (morning, afternoon, midnight), is three hours from solid food and alcoholic beverages, and one hour from non-alcoholic beverages. The priest who is to celebrate computes his time from the beginning of Mass; the faithful, from the time of Communion;

3) that the sick, although not confined to bed, may consume non-alcoholic beverages and real and appropriate medicines, liquid or solid, without any restriction of time.

The Eucharistic fast is based on primitive tradition and is enjoined by the Church as a grave obligation that admits of no lightness of matter. The fast is violated by the smallest portion of food or alcoholic drink. Food is any solid which the physician considers digestible or alterable by the stomach, and hence the fast is not broken if wood, string, paper, hairs or fingernails are swallowed. But the food or drink must be eaten or drunk, that is, it must come from outside the mouth and be taken into the stomach in the way of consumption, and hence the fast is not broken by what comes from within the mouth (e.g., blood from the gums, food remaining in the teeth from the previous day) or by what is taken into the stomach in the way of saliva (e.g., the accidental remnants of a mouth wash or of a throat gargle, or spray, or of a chew of tobacco or gum, when one has spit out the contents as much as possible), or in the way of breathing (e.g., snuff, tobacco smoke inhaled, an insect or a raindrop blown into the mouth). A solid, like a caramel, however, which is dissolved in the mouth before it is swallowed, can not be considered as a liquid. The liquid of the _Sacram Communionem_ must be a liquid before it enters the mouth. (See “Some Further Elucidations on Sacram Communionem” by Cardinal Ottaviani, _American Ecclesiastical Review_, Vol. CXXXXVII, No, 2, August 1957, p. 74.)

The reasons that excuse from the Eucharist fast, in regard to solids or alcoholic beverages, in lay Communion, are, in case of the well, the good of the Sacrament (i.e., its preservation from profanation), or the good of self (e.g., avoidance of serious disgrace, as when one who is at the altar rail remembers only then that he is not fasting); in the case of the ill, the danger of death (the Viaticum may be received even daily after nourishment). The salt taken in Baptism does not break the fast, and one who has a papal indult, which is granted for sufficient reasons, may receive Communion when not fasting.