Chapter XXX: Appendix: II (3)

[571] Cic. _Part. Orat._ 34, 118; _pro Cluent._ 63, etc. As, however, the master’s consent had to be obtained, the evidence and torture of slaves in the public courts were rare. In domestic jurisdiction the inquisition on slaves was held before a family _consilium_.

[572] Gaius iii. 210, 217, 222, 223.

[573] Cato _R.R._ 5; Dionys. vii. 69.

[574] Cic. _ad Fam._ iv. 12; Tac. _Ann._ xiv. 42.

[575] Liv. xliii. 16; Gell. xiii. 13. For _servi publici_ in the municipal towns see _Lex Coloniae Genetivae_ c. 62.

[576] _Actor publicus_, in Rome (Tac. _Ann._ ii 30); in the municipal towns (Plin. _Ep._ vii, 18, 2).

[577] _Libertinus_ describes the freedman’s political position, _libertus_ his relation to his master.

[578] Ulp. in _Dig._ 1, 16, 9, 3.

[579] Macer in _Dig._ 48. 2, 8; Paul. _Sent._ v. 15, 3.

[580] Ulp. in _Dig._ 2, 4, 4, 1 “Praetor ait ‘parentem, patronum, patronam, liberos parentes patroni patronae in jus sine permissu meo ne quis vocet.’”

[581] Gaius iii. 40-44.

[582] Ulp. in _Dig._ 38, 2, 1, 1. Mommsen (_Staatsr._ iii. p. 433) thinks that the author of the change was the famous P. Rutilius Rufus, consul 105 B.C.

[583] Suet. _Caes._ 48; Val. Max. 6, 1, 4. Willems (_Droit Public_ i. p. 125 n. 8) remarks that there is nothing to show that this power was exercised over _justi liberti_. The freedmen so punished may have been informally manumitted. For the relegation of a freedman by his _patronus_ see Tac. _Ann._ xiii 26.

[584] Cf. Plut. _Poplic._ 7. Plutarch, in this story of the imaginary freedman Vindicius, represents his class as having no voting rights at the beginning of the Republic. Appius Claudius (312 B.C.), he says, first gave them ἐξουσίαν ψήφου: but he does not state the assemblies in which this right was exercised.

[585] See the section on the censor (p. 223).

[586] Liv. ix. 46.

[587] ib.; Val. Max. ii. 2, 9. Nothing is said about their division into _classes_; according to the arrangement of the reformed _comitia centuriata_ (see the section on the _comitia_), this restriction to four tribes would have given them the command of only forty centuries.

[588] Liv. xlv. 15.

[589] _Auct. de Vir. Ill._ 72 (M. Aemilius Scaurus) “consul legem de sumptibus et libertinorum suffragiis tulit”; Willems _Droit Public Rom._ p. 123.

[590] Dio Cass. xxxvi. 25.

[591] Liv. _Ep._ 84.

[592] Exceptions due to the stress of times are mentioned for the years 296 (Liv. x. 21) and 217 (Liv. xxii. 11). Even in the social war they formed cohorts separate from the legions.

[593] First mentioned in 217 B.C. (Liv. xxii. 11).

[594] See the section on the magistracy (p. 184).

[595] e.g. the institution of the censor, praetor, curule aediles, and (although they are not a part of the developed constitution), the consular tribunes.

[596] p. 121.

[597] Cic. _ad Att._ ix. 9, 3 “in libris (i.e. the augural books) habemus non modo consules a praetore, sed ne praetores quidem creari jus esse.”

[598] p. 47.

[599] p. 47.

[600] See the section on the magistracy (p. 165).

[601] Cic. _de Leg._ iii. 3, 9 “ast quando consoles magisterve populi (i.e. dictator) nec escunt, auspicia patrum sunto, ollique ex se produnto qui comitiatu creare consules rite possint”; _ad Brut._ i. 5, 4 “dum unus erit patricius magistratus, auspicia ad patres redire non possunt.”

[602] In 43 B.C., on the deaths of Hirtius and Pansa, this communication could not be made in time. Hence the extraordinary measure of appointing two _privati_ with _consularis potestas_ to hold the election for the consulship (Dio Cass, xlvi. 45).

[603] The _senatus consultum_ containing this suggestion might be vetoed by one of the tribunes. Ascon, _in Milon._ p. 32 “dum ... Pompeius ... et T. Munatius tr. pl. referri ad senatum de patriciis convocandis qui interregem proderent non essent passi.”

[604] p. 47.

[605] Liv. v. 31, 8 “interrex creatur M. Furius Camillus.”

[606] The technical expression _prodere interregem_ refers in Republican times, not only to the appointment of the first interrex by election, but to the nomination of each of the other _interreges_ by his predecessor (Liv. vi. 41; v. 31).

[607] Liv. vi. 1; viii. 23.

[608] Cic. _pro Dom._ 14, 38, quoted p. 131.

[609] Willems _le Sénat_ ii. pp. 14, 16.

[610] p. 126.

[611] See Appendix on the _comitia tributa_.

[612] p. 89.

[613] The power of this body was much increased by the long wars waged in West and East; but its ascendency was assured before these wars began. See the section on the Senate.

[614] For an instance of its cumulative use see Cic. _in Verr._ act. i. 13, 37 “erit tunc consul Hortensius cum summo imperio et potestate”; for one of its disjunctive uses see _Dig._ 4, 6, 26, 2 “consulem praetorem ceterosque qui imperium potestatemve quam habent.”

[615] p. 79.

[616] Mommsen (_Staatsr._ i. p. 203) denies the right of the quaestor to issue edicts; but the absence of distinct mention of quaestorian edicts is no ground for denying him what appears to have been a common magisterial right.

[617] For the pro-magistrates see the sections on the consuls and the provinces.

[618] In the course of the Republic _imperium_ came to denote _par excellence_ command abroad, as was natural, since here alone the power was unshackled. Hence the phrase _cum imperio_ esse descriptive of a magistrate who can assert this latent power (Cic. _ad Fam._ viii. 8, 8 “qui praetores fuerunt neque in provincia cum imperio fuerunt”) and the opposition between _magistratus_ and _imperium_. _Lex Tab. Bant._ 1. 16 “quibus quisque eorum mag(istratum) imperiumve inierit”; _Lex Acilia Rep._ 1. 8 “dum magi(stratum) aut imperium habebunt.”

[619] Liv. iii. 42; xxviii. 45.

[620] Polyb. vi. 19, 21. The tenor of the oath was (c. 21) ἧ μὴν πειθαρχήσειν καὶ ποιήσειν τὸ προσταττόμενον ὑπὸ τῶν ἀρχόντων κατὰ δύναμιν.

[621] The soldier is said “jurare in verba consilium” (Liv. ii. 52).

[622] Liv. iii. 20.

[623] ib. viii. 34 “latrocinii modo caeca et fortuita pro sollemni et sacrata militia sit.”

[624] Dionys. xi. 43.

[625] p. 79.

[626] See the section on the _intercessio_.

[627] Liv. vii. 5.

[628] ib. xxvii. 36.

[629] _Lex Acilia_ 1. 2.

[630] They were called _Rufuli_ (Liv. vii. 5; Festus p. 260).

[631] Liv. xlii. 31 (171 B.C., commencement of war with Perseus) “consoles ex senatus consulto ad populum tulerunt, ne tribuni militum eo anno suffragiis crearentur, sed consulum praetorumque in iis faciendis judicium arbitriumque esset.” Cf. xliii. 12.

[632] Polyb. vi. 13.

[633] p. 117.

[634] See Greenidge, “The provocatio militiae and provincial jurisdiction” in _Classical Review_ x. p. 225.

[635] The fact that the delegates and sometimes the crimes were distinct in the two cases does not make the military jurisdiction of the _imperator_ differ from his ordinary criminal jurisdiction, as Mommsen seems to think (_Staatsr._ i. p. 123). For the proofs of unity in the conception of jurisdiction _militiae_ see the article cited in the last note.

[636] At the close of the Republic, however, custom dictated that the governor should send capital cases in which Romans were involved to Rome. See the section on the provinces.

[637] Tac. _Ann._ iii. 74 “Tiberius ... Blaeso tribuit, ut imperator a legionibus salutaretur, prisco ergo duces honore, qui bene gesta republica gaudio et impetu victoris exercitus conclamabantur.” The earliest instance recorded is that of the elder Scipio Africanus (Liv. xxvii. 19). At the close of the Republic the title might be conferred by the Senate. Cic. _Phil._ xiv. 4, 11 (to emphasise the fact that Antonius was a public enemy Servilius had proposed _supplicationes_) “Sed hoc primum faciam, ut imperatores appellem eos, quorum virtute ... periculis ... liberati sumus.” For who, he asks, has not been called _imperator_ within the last twenty years “aut minimis rebus gestis, aut plerumque nullis”? (cf. Cic. _ad Att._ v. 20, 3).

[638] Dio Cass. xxxvii. 40.

[639] For the consular tribune see p. 114.

[640] An important exception is recorded in Liv. vii. 11 (360 B.C.). Here the consul triumphs after the abdication of the dictator, and the honour is clearly a concession of the latter.

[641] Liv. xxviii. 9 (207 B.C.).

[642] In this case the lesser honour of an “ovation” was sometimes granted (Liv. xxvi. 21; xxviii. 9).

[643] Liv. xxxix. 29 (185 B.C.).

[644] Gell. v. 6; Val. Max. ii. 8, 7. In this case, too, the ovation was sometimes granted, e.g. in the slave-wars of 99 and 71 B.C. (Cic. _de Orat._ ii. 47, 195; Gell. v. 6). For this reason Caesar’s triumph in 46 was over Gaul, Egypt, Pontus and Africa; that of Augustus in 29 over Dalmatia and Egypt. In neither case was it held over the citizens whom they had crushed.

[645] Val. Max. ii. 8, 1.

[646] Liv. xxxiii. 23; xlii. 21.

[647] Mommsen thinks the use of it as well (_Staatsr._ i p. 132), e.g. that it was in consequence of the absence of the _provocatio_ that the _cives Romani Campani_ were executed in 271 (Val. Max. ii. 7, 15).

[648] e.g. L. Postumius Megellus in 294 B.C. (Liv. x. 37), App. Claudius in 143 B.C. (Suet. _Tib._ 2).

[649] “Senatus consulto jussuque populi” (Liv. iv. 20).

[650] Polyb. vi. 15 τοὺς ... θριάμβους ... οὐ δύνανται χειρίζειν ὡς πρέπει, ποτὲ δὲ τὸ παράπαν οὐδὲ συντελεῖν, ἐὰν μὴ τὸ συνέδριον συγκατάθηται καὶ δῷ τὴν εἰς ταῦτα δαπάνην.

[651] Liv. xxvi. 21. Cf. Liv. xlv. 35, where the Senate’s request to the tribune is made through a praetor. One cannot say in this case that the _imperium_ is conferred for the day, since the Plebs had no power to confer the _imperium_.

[652] ib. xxviii. 38; cf. xxxi. 20.

[653] e.g. the two triumphs of Pompeius in 80 and 71 B.C. See Cic. _pro Lege Man._ 21, 62 “quid tam incredibile, quam ut iterum eques Romanus ex senatus consulto triumpharet?”

[654] A shortened form of _conventio_. Cf. _S. C. de Bacchanalibus_ (Bruns _Fontes_) l. 23 “haice uti in conventionid exdeicatis.”

[655] Gell. xiii. 16 “cum populo agere est rogare quid populum, quod suffragiis suis aut jubeat aut vetet, contionem autem habere est verba facere ad populum sine ulla rogatione.”

[656] It was, e.g., the mode in which the people were summoned to witness public executions outside the Pomerium (Cic. _pro Rab._ 4, 11; Tac. _Ann._ ii. 23).

[657] _S. C. de Bacch._ quoted p. 158.

[658] Liv. xxxix. 15 “contione advocata cum sollemne carmen precationis, quod praefari priusquam populum adloquantur magistratus solent, peregisset, consul ita coepit.”

[659] Messala ap. Gell. xiii. 16 includes the _magistratus minores_. Mommsen, guided by the (in this case probably false) analogy of the _jus cum populo agendi_, would exclude the aediles and quaestors (_Staatsr._ i. p. 200).

[660] Gell. l.c.

[661] Cic. _ad Att._ iv. 1, 6 “habui contionem, omnes magistratus praeter unum praetorem et duos tribunos pl. dederunt”; i. 14, 1 “Pisonis consulis impulsu levissimus tribunus pl. Fufius in contionem producit Pompeium”; ii. 24, 3 “Caesar is qui olim, praetor cum esset, Q. Catulum ex inferiore loco jusserat dicere, Vettium in rostra produxit.”

[662] Sall. _Jug._ 34 “ubi Memmius (a tribune) dicendi finem fecit et Jugurtha respondere jussus est, C. Baebius tribunus plebis ... regem tacere jubet.”

[663] See note 1.

[664] Cic. _de Leg._ iii. 4, 10 “cum populo patribusque agendi jus esto consuli praetori magistro populi equitumque eique quem patres produnt consulum rogandorum ergo.” For the question whether the praefect of the city had this right see p. 61; an argument for his possession of it in the Republic is his right of consulting the Senate.

[665] For the curule aediles see Cic. _in Verr._ i. 12, 36; Val. Max. viii. 1, 7.

[666] Liv. iii. 24; Dionys. viii. 77.

[667] Liv. xliii. 16 (169 B.C., P. Rutilius tr. pl.) “C. Claudio diem dixit ... et utrique censori perduellionem se judicare pronunciavit, diemque comitiis a C. Sulpicio praetore urbano petiit ... absoluto Claudio, tribunus plebis negavit se Gracchum morari.” Antias ap. Gell. vi. 9 “Licinius tribunus plebi perduellionem ei diem dixit et comitiis diem a M. Marcio praetore peposcit.”

[668] Whether the tribune presided over this assembly is uncertain. When the tribune in Livy (l.c.) breaks up such an assembly the act may simply refer to his retirement as a prosecutor (see last note).

[669] Liv. x. 23; xxv. 2; xxxiii. 42; Gell. x. 6.

[670] _De Leg._ iii. 4, 10, cited p. 160.

[671] Gell. xiv. 7 “(Varro ponit) per quos more majorum senatus haberi soleret eosque nominat ‘dictatorem, consules, praetores, tribunos plebi, interregem, praefectum urbi’ ... ‘deinde extraordinario jure tribunos quoque militares qui pro consulibus fuissent ... jus consulendi senatum habuisse.’”

[672] This right of the tribunes originated later than 304 B.C.; see p. 127.

[673] Liv. xxii. 30; xl. 52. Cf. Wilmanns n. 27 “L. Mummi. L. F. Cos. duct(u) auspicio imperioque ejus Achaia capt(a) Corinto deleto Romam redieit triumphans.”

[674] p. 39.

[675] Festus p. 261 “quinque genera signorum observant augures publici, ex coelo, ex avibus, ex tripudis, ex quadripedibus, ex diris.”

[676] _Silentium_ is defined negatively; see Cic. _de Div._ ii. 34, 71 “id enim silentium dicimus in auspiciis, quod omni vitio caret.” Cf. Festus p. 351.

[677] e.g. the fall of the cap from the head of the sacrificing priest (Val. Max. i. 1, 5). Cf. Festus p. 64.

[678] Val. Max. i. 1, 5 “occentusque soricis auditus Fabio Maximo dictaturam ... deponendi causam praebuit.”

[679] ib. 4, 2 (the omens that T. Gracchus encountered when seeking the tribunate).

[680] ib. 4, 7.

[681] Plut. _C. Gracch._ 11.

[682] Cic. _de Div._ ii. 34, 72 “Illi autem, qui in auspicium adhibetur, cum ita imperavit is, qui auspicatur ‘Dicito, si silentium esse videbitur’; nec suspicit nec circumspicit: statim respondet, ‘silentium esse videri.’”

[683] Plin. _H.N._ xxviii. 2, 11.

[684] Cic. _de Div._ ii. 35, 77.

[685] Liv. i. 36; Cic. _de Leg._ iii. 3, 9.

[686] Cic. _de Div._ ii. 33, 71 “haec certe quibus utimur, sive tripudio sive de coelo, simulacra sunt auspiciorum, auspicia nullo modo.”

[687] Liv. xxiii. 31 (215 B.C., Marcellus) “cui ineunti consulatum cum tonuisset, vocati augures vitio creatum videri pronunciaverunt.”

[688] Cic. _de Div._ ii. 35, 74 “Fulmen sinistrum auspicium optimum habemus ad omnes res, praeterquam ad comitia.”

[689] ib. i. 15, 27 “nam nostri quidem magistratus auspiciis utuntur coactis. Necesse est enim, offa objecta, cadere frustum ex pulli ore, cum pascitur. (28) Quod autem scriptum habetis, tripudium fieri, si ex ea quid in solidum ceciderit: hoc quoque, quod dixi, coactum, tripudium solistimum dicitis.” Cf. ii. 34, 72; 35, 73. For their use in camp see Cic. _de Div._ i. 35, 77; Val. Max. i. 4, 3. In the last passage the incident connected with P. Claudius Pulcher (249 B.C.) is described.

[690] Messala ap. Gell. xiii. 15 “Patriciorum auspicia in duas sunt divisa potestates. Maxima sunt consulum, praetorum censorum.... Reliquorum magistratuum minora sunt auspicia.”

[691] Gell. iii. 2.

[692] “Oriens de nocte silentio” (Liv. viii. 23).

[693] That in the camp, by means of the sacred chickens, had naturally to be exempted from these formalities.

[694] Cic. _de Nat. Deor._ ii. 4, 11; these tents were called _minora templa_ (Festus p. 157).

[695] The manipulation of auspices at the end of the Republic had caused the skilled assistant to be neglected (Cic. _de Div._ ii. 34, 71 “apud majores nostros adhibebatur peritus, nunc quilibet”).

[696] Liv. ix. 39, etc.

[697] See the section dealing with the powers of the people. The _vitium_ effected the elections even of tribunes of the Plebs—but purely as a result of _auspicia oblativa_. See Liv. x. 47 (293 B.C.) “exacto jam anno novi tribuni plebis magistratum inierant: hisque ipsis, quia vitio creati erant, quinque post dies alii subfecti.”

[698] ib. v. 31, etc.

[699] Mommsen thinks that the auspices of the consuls might have alternated, like their fasces, from month to month (_Staatsr._ i. p. 95).

[700] Thus before Cannae Varro takes the field in spite of the ill-omens which the observation of his colleague Paulus had revealed (Liv. xxii. 42).

[701] Val. Max. ii. 8, 2.

[702] Cic. _de Leg._ iii. 3, 6 “magistratus nec oboedientem et noxium civem multa, vinculis, verberibus coerceto, ni par majorve potestas populusve prohibessit, ad quos provocatio esto.” A _lex Porcia_ prohibited the scourging of a Roman citizen by a _gravis poena_ (Liv. x. 9); but that technically it merely submitted the threat of such _coercitio_ to appeal is shown by the fact that the law is classed amongst those regulating the _provocatio_ (Cic. _de Rep._ ii. 31, 54).

[703] pp. 79, 109.

[704] Liv. x. 9 “cum eum qui provocasset virgis caedi securique necari vetuisset, si quis adversus ea fecisset, nihil ultra quam improbe factum adjecit.” The meaning of this sanction has been much disputed: it may mean “incapable of making a will,” on the analogy of “improbus (i.e. qui probare non potest) intestabilisque esto.” Mommsen (_Strafrecht_ p. 632) takes the expression to mean that the act of the magistrate would be regarded as “unjustified,” i.e. as an ordinary criminal offence.

[705] Cic. _de Rep._ ii. 31, 54.

[706] p. 95.

[707] Dio Cass. liii. 17.

[708] Plin. _H.N._ vii 44; Liv. _Ep._ 59.

[709] Liv. ii 55; vii. 4.

[710] The _virgis caedi_ in the third _lex Valeria_ (note 2) probably refers to scourging as well as to death by the rod.

[711] Capito ap. Gell. iv. 10 “Caesar consul viatorem vocavit eumque (Catonem), cum finem non faceret (of speaking in the Senate) prendi loquentem et in carcerem duci jussit.” Cf. Suet. _Caes._ 17.

[712] The earliest recorded case is in Liv. _Ep._ xlviii. (Momms. _Staatsr._ i. p. 154). A typical instance belonging to the year 60 B.C. is described in Cic. _ad Att._ ii. 1, 8; Dio Cass. xxxvii. 50.

[713] It was thus that the imprisonment of M. Bibulus, consul in 59 (Cic. _in Vat._ 9, 21), and of M. Crassus, consul in 55 (Dio Cass. xxxix. 39), was prevented.

[714] The annals introduce bail as early as the trial of Kaeso Quinctius in 461 B.C. (Liv. iii. 13).

[715] Liv. xxv. 4 (212 B.C.).

[716] Mommsen (_Staatsr._ i. p. 143 n. 1) takes the view that the quaestor had no power of _coercitio_ through _multa_ and _pignus_. For an opposite opinion see Karlowa _Rechtsgesch._ i. p. 171 and Huschke _Multa_ p. 36.

[717] Dionys. x. 50 ἐπὶ τῆς λοχίτιδος ἐκκλησίας νόμον ἐκύρωσαν (the consuls Sp. Tarpeius and A. Aternius) ἵνα ταῖς ἀρχαῖς ἐξῇ πάσαις τοὺς ἀκοσμοῦντας ἤ παρανομοῦντας εἰς τὴν ἑαυτῶν ἐξουσίαν ζημιοῦν· τέως γὰρ οὐχ ἅπασιν ἐξῆν ἀλλὰ τοῖς ὑπάτοις μόνοις. Cf. Cic. _de Rep._ ii. 35, 60.

[718] Dionys. l.c.; Gell. xi. 1. Dionysius (probably by an error of the copyist) represents the fine as being two oxen or thirty sheep.

[719] Cic. _de Rep._ ii. 35, 60 “levis aestimatio pecudum in multa lege C. Julii, P. Papirii consulum constituta est”; Liv. iv. 30 “legem de multarum aestimatione pergratam populo ... ipsi (the consuls Julius and Papirius) praeoccupaverunt ferre”; Gell. xi. 1 “in oves singulas aeris deni, in boves aeris centeni ... Suprema multa est ejus numeri, ... ultra quem multam dicere in dies singulos jus non est.” Gellius, however, attributes the pecuniary estimate to the _lex Aternia_.

[720] The view has been sometimes held that the _multa suprema_ was one beyond which the magistrate could not under any circumstances go. In this case there is no known limit at which the appeal became possible. That there was one, however, is shown by the _provocatio ab omni judicio_ allowed by the Twelve Tables (Cic. _de Rep._ ii. 31, 54. See p. 106).

[721] p. 246.

[722] _Lex Tab. Bant._ 1. 12 “Sei quis mag(istratus) multam inrogare volet [_quei volet, dum minoris_] partus familias taxsat, liceto.”

[723] e.g. in case of continued resistance to the veto. See Liv. xliii. 16 (169 B.C., P. Rutilius) “Ti Gracchi primum bona consecravit, quod in multa pignoribusque ejus, qui tribunum adpellasset, intercessioni non parendo, se in ordinem coegisset”; or for a supposed stigma inflicted by a censor on a tribune (Plin. _H.N._ vii. 44). Cicero, _pro Domo_ 47, 123, mentions the consecration of the goods of L. Metellus by C. Atinius (131 B.C., Plin. l.c.) as an instance of “furor tribuni plebis, ductus ex nonnullis perveterum temporum exemplis.” P. Clodius (58 B.C.) consecrated the goods of Cicero and of Gabinius the consul (ib. § 124).

[724] _Lex Quinctia de aquaeductibus_ (Bruns _Fontes_) l. 20 “tum is praetor ... multa pignoribus cogito coerceto.”

[725] Cic. _de Orat._ iii. 1, 4, “pignora caedere” or “concidere”; the destruction was performed as an example “in conspectu populi Romani.”

[726] _Auct. de Vir. Illustr._ 72, 6. Cf. the procedure of the consul Servilius against the revolutionary praetor Caelius Rufus in 48 B.C. Dio Cass. xlii. 23 τόν τε δίφρον αὑτοῦ συνέτριψεν.

[727] Varro ap. Gell. xiii. 12 “vocationem (habent), ut consoles et caeteri, qui habent imperium; prensionem, ut tribuni plebis et alii, qui habent viatorem; neque vocationem neque prensionem, ut quaestores et ceteri, qui neque lictorem habent neque viatorem. Qui vocationem habent, idem prendere, tenere, abducere possunt.”

[728] p. 94.

[729] See Varro ap. Gell. l.c.

[730] Aediles were used in the trial of Coriolanus (Dionys. vii. 26, see p. 98); Gracchus sent one of his _viatores_ to drag his colleague Octavius from the Rostra (Plut. _Ti. Gracch._ 12). Cf. Liv. xxv. 4 (case of Postumius 212 B.C.) “tribuni ... ni vades daret ... prehendi a viatore ... jusserunt.”

[731] Varro, as an antiquarian, refused to obey such a summons on the ground of its illegality (Gell. xiii. 12.)

[732] Donatus _ad Ter. Ad._ iv. 2, 9 “qui malam rem nuntiat, obnuntiat, qui bonam adnuntiat; nam proprie obnuntiare dicuntur augures, qui aliquid mali ominis scaevumque viderint.” Cf. Cicero _Phil._ ii. 33, 83; _de Div._ i. 16, 29 (_dirarum obnuntiatio_).

[733] The plebeian magistrates sometimes watched for such signs, for purposes of obstruction, and were then improperly said _servare de coelo_ (Cic. _ad Att._ iv. 3, 3). The words are properly used only of the _spectio_. See Greenidge, “The Repeal of the Lex Aelia Fufia” in _Class. Rev._ vii. p. 158.

[734] p. 163.

[735] Cic. _pro Sest._ 36, 78; Dio Cass. xxxviii. 13. To discuss, as has been done, whether the patrician magistrates’ _obnuntiatio_ was valid against the tribunes is to raise rather an idle question. The _lex Aelia Fufia_ could not have artificially regulated religious belief, and the Plebs was as susceptible to _auspicia_ as the Populus (see p. 39).

[736] Gell. xiii. 15; _minor_ here simply means “inferior to the consul.”

[737] They regulated the precedence of the _comitia_ for elections and for laws (Cic. _ad Att._ i. 16, 13).

[738] Cic. _in Pis._ 4, 9; _de Prov. Con._ 19, 46; _in Vat._ 7, 18.

[739] Cic. _Phil._ ii. 32, 80 and 38, 99; _ad Att._ iv. 9, 1; 16, 7, etc. See _Class. Rev._ vii. p. 160.

[740] The exercise of the _coercitio_ might of course be vetoed, and in this case the prohibition was of no avail. See Liv. ix. 34 (n. 7).

[741] p. 159.

[742] Liv. xliii. 16 (169 B.C., P. Rutilius tr. pl.) “C. Claudio diem dixit, quod contionem ab se avocasset.”

[743] ib. xxvii. 5 (210 B.C.). The consul declined to question the people on the nomination of a dictator, “quod suae potestatis esset,” and forbade the praetor to do so.

[744] p. 172.

[745] Cf. the story in Suet. _Tib._ 2, “Etiam virgo vestalis fratrem (App. Claudius, consul 143 B.C.) injussu populi triumphantem, adscenso simul curru, usque in Capitolium prosecuta est, ne vetare aut intercedere fas cuiquam tribunorum esset.”

[746] Liv. ix. 33-34. P. Sempronius, tribune, attempted to compel App. Claudius, who was trying to prolong his censorship beyond eighteen months, to abdicate. He tried to imprison the censor but was resisted by the veto of three colleagues.

[747] _Auct. de vir. illustr._ 72, 6 (for the occasion see p. 171); the consul “ne quis ad eum (praetorem) in jus ire edixit.” Dio Cass. xlii. 23; amongst the other penalties imposed by Servilius Isauricus on Caelius Rufus (see p. 171) was the transference of his functions to another praetor, τά τε προσήκοντα τῇ ἀρχῇ αὐτοῦ ἄλλῳ τῳ τῶν στρατηγῶν προσέταξε.

[748] Cic. _in Verr._ iii. 58, 134 “quaestores, legates, praefectos, tribunos suos, multi missos fecerunt et de provincia decedere jusserunt, quod illorum culpa se minus commode audire arbitrarentur, aut quod peccare ipsos aliqua in re judicarent.”

[749] Liv. iii. 27; vii. 9.

[750] _C.I.L._ vi. n. 895.

[751] Liv. iii. 3; Cic. _Phil._ v. 12, 31.

[752] Liv. iii. 5; vi. 7; Cic. l.c.

[753] Mommsen conjectures that, on the occasion of every public funeral in the forum, a short _justitium_ was declared (_Staatsr._ i. p. 251 n. 4).

[754] Liv. x. 21.

[755] Cic. _de Har. Resp._ 26, 55 “justitium edici oportere, jurisdictionem intermitti, claudi aerarium, judicia tolli.” Cf. Plut. _Ti. Gracch._ 10; Cic. _pro Plancio_ 14, 33.

[756] Liv. vi 7.

[757] Cic. _Brut._ 89, 304 “exercebatur una lege judicium Varia, ceteris propter bellum intermissis.”

[758] p. 119.

[759] Plut. _Ti. Gracch._ 10.

[760] “(Feriae) imperativae sunt, quas consules vel praetores pro arbitrio potestatis indicunt” (Macrob. _Saturn._ i. 16, 6).

[761] e.g. by Livy (x. 37).

[762] No instance of such a veto being exercised at Rome is known; but it is recognised in the municipal law of Salpensa (Bruns _Fontes_) c. 27.

[763] Or _decretum_. The formal difference is slight; by the end of the Republic _edictum_ is a general, _decretum_ a more special (and generally judicial) command.

[764] Liv. iv. 55.

[765] Caes. _Bell. Civ._ iii. 20 (Caelius Rufus) “tribunal suum juxta C. Treboni praetoris urbani sellam collocavit, et si quis appellavisset ... fore auxilio pollicebatur.” For the consequent necessity of the presence of the tribunes in Rome see p. 94.

[766] Thus Verres, who was _praetor urbanus_, had his decisions vetoed by Piso, who was probably _praetor peregrinus_, in cases where Verres had decided contrary to his own edict. Cic. _in Verr._ i. 46, 119; cf. Caes. l.c.

[767] Of the four private-law speeches of Cicero, two, those for Quinctius and Tullius, show the request for tribunician interference with the praetor’s jurisdiction. Cf. Cic. _Acad. Prior._ ii. 30, 97 “postulant ut excipiantur haec inexplicabilia. Tribunum aliquem censeo adeant (_al._ videant); a me istam exceptionem nunquam impetrabunt.”

[768] Liv. xxxiii. 42.

[769] The tribunes promise “cognituros se de quo appellati essent” (Liv. xlii. 32).

[770] Liv. xlii. 33.

[771] Ascon. _in Milon._ p. 47.

[772] p. 174.

[773] Liv. iv. 50; xxv. 2.

[774] Cic. _de Leg. Agr._ ii. 12, 30.

[775] Plut. _Ti. Gracch._ 10.

[776] Cic. _ad Att._ iv. 16, 6; Ascon. _in Cornel._ p. 58.

[777] Liv. xlv. 21 “cum ita traditum esset, ne quis prius intercedat legi, quam privatis suadendi dissuadendique legem potestas facta esset.”

[778] Momms. _Staatsr._ i p. 285.

[779] Liv. xxvii. 6.

[780] Cic. _pro Sest._ 31, 68.

[781] ib. 34, 74.

[782] Cic. _ad Fam._ x. 12, 3 and 4.

[783] Liv. xxx. 43. Consular intercession against the praetor was unnecessary, since the praetor did not usually summon the Senate while the consul was at Rome.

[784] Val. Max. ii. 2, 7 “Illud quoque memoria repetendum est, quod tribunis plebis intrare curiam non licebat, ante valvas autem positis subselliis decreta patrum attentissima cura examinabant, ut, si qua ex eis improbassent, rata esse non sinerent. Itaque veteribus senatus consultis C. litera subscribi solebat, eaque nota significabatur illa tribunos quoque censuisse.” In _S.C.C._ translated into Greek it appears as ἔδοξεν (_S.C.C. de Thisbaeis_, Bruns _Fontes_). In those given in Cic. _ad Fam._ viii. 8, 6, the letters “i. n.” (sometimes interpreted “intercessit nemo”) are probably a corruption for _censuere_.

[785] Momms. _Staatsr._ i. p. 282 n. 7; combated by Willems _Le Sénat_ p. 200 n. 2.

[786] Liv. xxvi. 26; xxx. 40; cf. xlii. 10 “Popillius ... prae se ferens si quid decernerent, intercessurum, collegam deterruit.”

[787] Val. Max. ii. 2, 7.

[788] Cic. _ad Fam._ x. 12, 3.

[789] Liv. xxxvi. 40.

[790] Cic. _ad Fam._ viii. 8, 6 “qui impedierit prohibuerit, eum senatum existimare contra rem publicam fecisse.”

[791] Cic. _de Prov. Con._ 8, 17; _pro Domo_ 9, 24. Intercession in jurisdiction and administration is sometimes forbidden in municipal laws: _Lex Rubria_ i. 50; _Lex Ursonensis_ c. 72 (Bruns _Fontes_).

[792] Varro ap. Gell. xiii. 13 “Qui potestatem neque vocationis populi viritim habent neque prensionis, eos magistratus a privato in jus quoque vocari est potestas.” The context shows that they were practically as exempt as the higher magistrates.

[793] Nothing is known of the early history of _peculatus_. The word itself, “the misappropriation of cattle,” which had been collected as fines, shows the antiquity of the offence described by Varro (_L.L._ v. 95) as _peculatus publicus_. For the early procedure see Mommsen _Strafrecht_ p. 768.

[794] In Polybius’ time bribery was a capital offence at Rome (Polyb. vi 56).

[795] Polyb. vi. 14. The people are often judges of money penalties, when the offence can be valued in money, καὶ μάλιστα τοὺς τὰς ἐπιφανεῖς ἐσχηκότας ἀρχάς, θανάτου δὲ κρίνει μόνος. Cf. c. 15. The greatest source of the power of the people is that ἀποτιθεμένους τὴν ἀρχὴν ἐν τούτῳ δεῖ τὰς εὐθύνας ὑπέχειν τῶν πεπραγμένων.

[796] Liv. xxiv. 43 (214 B.C., the tribune Metellus prosecutes the censors Furius and Atilius) “Sed novem tribunorum auxilio vetiti causam in magistratu dicere dimissique fuerant”; Suet. _Caes._ 23 (Caesar on leaving for Gaul) “a L. Antistio, tr. pl., postulatus, appellato demum collegio, obtinuit, cum reipublicae causa abesset, reus ne fieret.” In the case of the trial of the censors of 169 B.C. (Liv. xliii 16) the accused agree to be put on their trial during their tenure of office.

[797] Liv. xxix. 22 (204 B.C.). Pleminius and his colleagues were “producti ad populum ab tribunis.”

[798] ib. vi. 1 “Q. Fabio ... ab Cn. Marcio tribuno plebis dicta dies est, quod legatus in Gallos, ad quos missus erat orator, contra jus gentium pugnasset.”

[799] ib. _Ep._ 69 “L. Appuleius Saturninus ... Metello Numidico, eo quod in eam (the agrarian law) non juraverat, diem dixit.”

[800] ib. xxv. 3 (Postumius a _publicanus_, for shipwrecking and false reports of shipwreck).

[801] e.g. waging war without authorisation (Ascon. _in Cornelian_. p. 80, 104 B.C.), disgraceful flight imperilling the safety of others (Liv. xxvi. 2, 211 B.C.).

[802] Exceeding the legal duration of a magistracy, in this case the dictatorship (Cic. _de Off._ iii. 31, 112). The instance, though typical, is not historic.

[803] Liv. xliii. 7, 8 (170 B.C.).

[804] Tac. _Ann._ xi. 22 “apud majores ... cunctis civium, si bonis artibus fiderent, licitum petere magistratus.”

[805] Festus p. 231 “plebeium magistratum neminem capere licet, nisi qui ex plebe est.” Cf. Suet. _Aug._ 10.

[806] This seems shown by Suet. _Claud._ 24 (see p. 135).

[807] Momms. _Staatsr._ i. p. 488. Exceptional elections of the sons of freedmen are found in 304 B.C. (Liv. ix. 46, Cn. Flavius (see p. 185) as aedile) and in the year 100 B.C. (App. B.C. i. 33).

[808] _Lex Julia Municipalis_ (Bruns _Fontes_) l. 92 “in castreis inve provincia.”

[809] Plut. _C. Gracch._ 2.

[810] There is also evidence for this as the minimum age at a period earlier than Cicero’s political career; see Cic. _in Verr._ ii. 49, 122.

[811] In Caesar’s municipal law (45 B.C.) the qualification for a municipal magistracy is either thirty years of age or a certain length of service—six years on foot or three on horseback (_L.J.M._ l. 89).

[812] Liv. ix. 46 (of the election of Cn. Flavius to the curule aedileship) “Invenio in quibusdam annalibus, cum adpareret aedilibus ... neque accipi nomen, quia scriptum faceret, tabulam posuisse et jurasse, se scriptum non facturum.”

[813] Cic. _de Off._ i. 42, 150; in later Roman law spoken of as _vilitas_; see Greenidge _Infamia in Roman Law_ pp. 12, 193.

[814] Cic. _pro Cluent._ 42, 119; Schol. Bob. in Cic. _pro Sulla_ 5, 17, p. 361 Orell.; Cic. _pro Rosc. Com._ 6, 16; Tertull. _de Spect._ 22; Ascon. _in orat. in Tog. Cand._ p. 115; _Lex Julia Munic._ l. 104; _Dig._ 48, 7, 1. All these passages are discussed in Greenidge _Infamia in Roman Law_ pp. 18-40 and 187.

[815] Liv. iii. 35 “Ars haec erat, ne semet ipse creare posset; quod praeter tribunos plebi (et id ipsum pessimo exemplo) nemo unquam fecisset.” The revolutionary period shows Cinna and Carbo nominating themselves consuls for two successive years (Liv. _Ep._ 83) and Caesar as dictator presiding over his own election to the consulship (Caes. B.C. iii. 1, 1).

[816] Cic. _de Leg. Agr._ ii. 8, 21 “Licinia est lex atque altera Aebutia, quae non modo eum, qui tulerit de aliqua curatione ac potestate, sed etiam collegas ejus, cognatos, affines excipit, ne eis ea potestas curatiove mandetur.”

[817] Liv. vii. 42 “aliis plebiscitis cautum ne quis eundem magistratum intra decem annos caperet; neu duos magistratus uno anno gereret.” Cf. x. 13.

[818] Cic. _de Leg. Agr._ ii. 9, 24 “ne in iis quidem magistratibus quorum certus ordo est.”

[819] Liv. xl. 44 “eo anno rogatio primum lata est ab L. Villio tr. pl., quot annos nati quemque magistratum peterent caperentque.” It probably accepted the age of twenty-eight for the quaestorship; the minimum age for the consulship in the time of Cicero was forty-three (_Phil._ v. 17, 48); that for the praetorship is quite unknown; thirty-five and forty have been conjectured.

[820] Cic. _ad Fam._ x. 25, 2 “non est annus hic tibi destinatus, ut, si aedilis fuisses, post biennium tuus annus esset” (i.e. for election to the praetorship). To be elected in the earliest year, when one is qualified by the interval, is to attain a magistracy “anno sibi destinato” (l.c.) or “suo anno” (Cic. _pro Mil._ 9, 24). Momms. _Staatsr._ i. pp. 527, 529. The principle of at least one year’s interval seems to have applied to the transition from plebeian to patrician magistracies in the form that candidature during the holding of any office was forbidden (Momms. _Staatsr._ i. p. 533).

[821] App. B.C. i. 100 καὶ στρατηγεῖν ἀπεῖπε πρὶν ταμιεῦσαι καὶ ὑπατεύειν πρὶν στρατηγῆσαι, καὶ τὴν ἀρχὴν τὴν αὐτὴν αὖθις ἄρχειν ἐκώλυσε πρὶν ἒτη δέκα διαγενέσθαι.

[822] Cic. _ad Fam._ xvi. 12, 3 “se praesentem trinum nundinum petiturum”; Sallust, _Cat._ 18 “post paulo Catilina pecuniarum repetundarum reus prohibitus erat consulatum petere, quod intra legitimos dies profiteri nequiverit.” The interval was probably twenty-four days. See the section on the _comitia_.

[823] Plut. _Aem. Paul._ 3; _Sull._ 5.

[824] Cic. _de Leg. Agr._ ii. 9, 24 (63 B.C.) “praesentem profiteri jubet, quod nulla alia in lege unquam fuit, ne in iis quidem magistratibus quorum certus ordo est”; Suet. _Caes._ 18 (60 B.C.) “cum edictis jam comitiis ratio ejus haberi non posset ... et ambienti ut legibus solveretur multi contradicerent, coactus est triumphum, ne consulatu excluderetur, dimittere.” Cf. Plut. _Caes._ 13.

[825] Dio Cass. xl. 56 (Pompeius) τὸν περὶ τῶν ἀρχαιρεσιῶν νόμον τὸν κελεύοντα τοὺς ἀρχήν τινα ἐπαγγέλλοντας ἐς τὴν ἐκκλησίαν πάντως ἁπαντᾷν, ὥστε μηδένα ἀπόντα αἱρεῖσθαι, παρημελημένον πῶς ἀνενεώσατο.

[826] Hence their association with _sequestres_—the agents in whose hands the candidate deposited money. Cic. _pro Planc._ 18, 19; Q. Cic. _de Pet. Cons._ 14, 57.

[827] _Lex Jul. Munic._ l. 132 “neve quis ejus rationem comitieis conciliove [habeto, neive quis quem, sei adversus ea comitieis conciliove] creatum est, renuntiato.” In 67 B.C. the consul Piso, questioned “Palicanum num suffragiis populi consulem creatum renuntiaturus esset,” answered “non renuntiabo” (Val. Max. iii. 8, 3).

[828] p. 47.

[829] Mommsen (_Staatsr._ i. p. 599) places this change in 222 B.C. Liv. xxxi. 5, etc.

[830] _Fasti Praenestini_ (_C.I.L._ i. p. 364) “[ann]us nov[us incipit], quia eo die mag[istratus] ineunt: quod coepit [p. R.] c. a. DCI.”

[831] Quaestors (Cic. _in Verr._ Act. i. 10, 30; _Lex de XX. quaest._ in Bruns _Fontes_ l. 15); tribunes (Dionys. vi 89).

[832] Dio Cass. xl. 66; Cic. _in Verr._ i. 41, 105; Liv. xxi. 63.

[833] The _execratio_ is given by Pliny (_Paneg._ 64), “explanavit verba quibus caput suum, domum suam, si sciens fefellisset, deorum (Jupiter and the Dii Penates) irae consecraret.”

[834] Cic. _ad Att._ ii. 18, 2 “habet ... Campana Lex (of the consul Caesar in 59 B.C.) execrationem in contione candidatorum.”

[835] Liv. xxxi. 50; if we may argue from municipal law (_Lex Salpens._ c. 26), omission to take it due to mere neglect was visited in the first instance by a fine.

[836] Liv. l.c.

[837] Cic. _ad Fam._ v. 2, 7; _pro Sulla_ 11, 34; _in Pison._ 3, 6; _pro Domo_ 35, 94. Cicero, at the close of 63, varied the oath by swearing that he had saved the state.

[838] p. 45.

[839] Liv. v. 41.

[840] The dagger is mentioned more frequently than the sword (_gladius_) as the distinctive sign of military power. Momms. _Staatsr._ i. p. 434 n. 1.

[841] Hence such phrases as _decedere via_, _descendere equo_, _adsurgere sella_, _caput aperire_. The senators were in the habit of rising from their seats when the consul entered the Curia (Cic. _in Pis._ 12, 26).

[842] A decree of the augurs in 426 B.C. declared the consular tribunes capable of this nomination (Liv. iv. 31).

[843] p. 165.

[844] Liv. viii. 12 “Aemilius, cujus tum fasces erant, collegam dictatorem dixit”; iv. 26 “Sors, ut dictatorem diceret (nam ne id quidem inter collegas convenerat) T. Quinctio evenit”; iv. 21 “Verginius, dum collegam consuleret, moratus, permittente eo, nocte dictatorem dixit.”

[845] Liv. iv. 17 “senatus ... dictatorem dici Mam. Aemilium jussit”; vii. 12 “dictatorem dici C. Sulpicium placuit. Consul ad id adcitus C. Plautius dixit.”

[846] ib. xxii. 57 (216 B.C.) “dictator ex auctoritate patrum dictus M. Junius.”

[847] ib. _Ep._ 19; Suet. _Tib._ 2 (the enforced abdication of Claudius Glicia, nominated by Claudius Pulcher). In Liv. iv. 26 the _coercitio_ of the tribune is represented as employed against the consuls who disobey.

[848] Mommsen in _C.I.L._ i. p. 557.

[849] Liv. xxvii 5 (210 B.C., on the proposal of the consul to nominate a dictator in Sicily) “patres extra Romanum agrum (eum autem in Italia terminari) negabant dictatorem dici posse.”

[850] ib. ix. 38-39.

[851] Polyb. iii. 87; but, as a rule, he was preceded by only twelve within the walls (Liv. _Ep._ 89 “Sulla, dictator factus, quod nemo umquam fecerat, cum fascibus viginti quatuor processit”).

[852] Liv. ii. 18 “Creato dictatore primum Romae, postquam praeferri secures viderunt, magnus plebem metus incessit.”

[853] p. 85.

[854] e.g. the dictator named by Livy (ix. 26) as “quaestionibus exercendis” (314) is mentioned in the _Fast. Capitol._ as “rei gerundae causa” (Momms. _Staatsr._ ii. p. 157 n. 2); a dictator “seditionis sedandae et rei gerundae causa” is found in the _Fasti_ for 368.

[855] Liv. vii. 24 “qui aegris consulibus comitia haberet.” Cf. c. 26 (absence of consuls in the field) and ix. 7.

[856] ib. xxiii. 22. In 216 B.C. M. Fabius Buteo was appointed dictator “qui senatum legeret.”

[857] ib. viii. 40.

[858] ib. vii. 28 (for establishment of _feriae_ on the occasion of a _prodigium_); “dictator Latinarum feriarum causa” in _Fast. Cap._ (_C.I.L._ i. p. 434) for the year 257 B.C.

[859] The first instance was on the occasion of the great pestilence in 363 B.C. (Liv. vii. 3 “Lex vetusta est ... ut, qui praetor maximus sit, Idibus Septembribus clavum pangat”). Cf. Fest. p. 56.

[860] Cic. _de Off._ iii. 31, 112 (see p. 183); cf. Liv. vii. 3. L. Manlius, appointed “clavi figendi causa,” acted “perinde ac reipublicae gerendae ... gratia creatus esset,” and was forced to abdicate.

[861] p. 84.

[862] This is Mommsen’s interpretation (_Staatsr._ ii. p. 160 n. 4) of Liv. xxx. 39. C. Servilius Geminus had been appointed dictator _comitiorum causa_—“Saepe comitia indicta perfici tempestates prohibuerunt. Itaque, cum prid. Id. Mart. veteres magistratus abissent, novi subfecti non essent, respublica sine curulibus magistratibus erat.”

[863] Liv. iv. 41. The consul is here said “auspicio dictatoris res gerere.”

[864] ib. ii. 32 “quamquam per dictatorem dilectus habitus esset, tamen, quoniam in consulum verba jurassent, sacramento teneri militem rati.”

[865] This view has led to the exaggerated statement of Polybius (iii. 87) that, on the establishment of a dictator, παραχρῆμα διαλύεσθαι συμβαίνει πάσας τὰς ἀρχὰς ἐν τῇ Ῥώμῃ πλὴν τῶν δημάρχων: which has been copied by later Greek writers.

[866] This is clearly shown by the attitude of the dictator L. Papirius Cursor when pursuing his disobedient master of the horse (Liv. viii. 34). The dictator hopes that the veto will not be employed (“optare ne potestas tribunicia, inviolata ipsa, violet intercessione sua Romanum imperium”). Zonaras expresses the fact and not the law (vii. 13 οὔτ’ ἐγκαλέσαι τις αὐτῷ οὔτ’ ἐναντίον τι διαπράξασθαι ἴσχυεν οὐδὲ οἱ δήμαρχοι).

[867] Zonar. vii. 13 οὔτε ἐκ τῶν δημοσίων χρημάτων ἀναλῶσαι τι ἐξῆν αὐτῷ, εἰ μὴ ἐψηφίσθη.

[868] Liv. _Ep._ 19 (249 B.C.) “Atilius Calatinus primus dictator extra Italiam exercitum duxit”; Dio Cass. xxxvi. 17 (the dictatorship was limited to Italy) καὶ οὐκ ἂν εὑρεθείη δικτάτωρ οὐδεὶς ἄλλοσε, πλὴν ἑνὸς ἐς Σικελίαν, καὶ ταῦτα μηδὲν πράξαντος, αἱρεθείς.

[869] Festus p. 198 “optima lex in magistro populi faciendo, qui vulgo Dictator appellator, quam plenissimum posset jus ejus esse significabatur ... postquam vero provocatio ab eo magistratu ad populum data est, quae ante non erat, desitum est adici ‘ut optima lege,’ ut pote imminuto jure priorum magistrorum.”

[870] p. 168. It could not have been a consequence of the Valerio-Horatian laws of 449 B.C. (see p. 109).

[871] Liv. xxii. 8.

[872] Livy (xxii. 25) describes it as a _rogatio_ “de aequando magistri equitum et dictatoris jure.” Cf. c. 26 “de aequato imperio.”

[873] Liv. xxii. 57, M. Junius Pera.

[874] _Fast. Capitol._

[875] Sulla was nominated by an interrex (though his powers were conferred by law), Caesar by a praetor. Plutarch (_Marc._ 24) says that the praetor could nominate the dictator, a proceeding which is declared by Cicero to be wholly unconstitutional, _ad Att._ ix. 15, 2 (49 B.C.) “volet (Caesar) ... vel ut consules roget praetor vel dictatorem dicat, quorum neutrum jus est. Etsi si Sulla potuit efficere, ab interrege ut dictator diceretur, cur hic non possit?” The nomination of Caesar was regular in so far as a special _lex_ was passed which empowered the praetor to nominate (Caes. B.C. ii. 21; Dio Cass. xli. 36).

[876] An exception is found in 216 B.C. M. Fab. Buteo was appointed “dictator sine mag. eq. senatus legendi causa” (see p. 193).

[877] In the single case of the election of a dictator, the _magister equitum_ was also elected (Liv. xxii. 8).

[878] Dio Cass. xlii. 27; Antonius, as Caesar’s _magister equitum_, had six lictors.

[879] Cic. _de Leg._ iii. 3, 9 “equitatumque qui regat, habeto pari jure cum eo, quicumque erit juris disceptator.”

[880] Pompon. in _Dig._ 1, 2, 2, 19 “et his dictatoribus magistri equitum injungebantur sic, quo modo regibus tribuni celerum: ... magistratus tamen habebantur legitimi.”

[881] Liv. iv. 34 “jussoque magistro equitum abdicare se magistratu, ipse deinde abdicat.”

[882] Liv. ix. 38 “Papirius C. Junium Bubulcum magistrum equitum dixit: atque ei, legem curiatam de imperio ferenti, triste omen diem diffidit.”

[883] Cic. _de Leg._ iii. 4, 10; see p. 160.

[884] Liv. viii. 32 sq.; cf. xxii. 27 “in ... civitate, in qua magistri equitum virgas ac secures dictatoris tremere atque horrere soliti sint.”

[885] ib. iv. 27 “relictoque (at Rome) L. Julio magistro equitum ad subita belli ministeria.”

[886] ib. ii. 18; Dio Cass. xlii. 21 (Caesar τὸν Ἀντώνιον, μηδ’ ἐστρατηγηκότα, ἵππαρχον προσελόμενος).

[887] Dionys. ii. 6 τῶν δὲ παρόντων τινὲς ὀρνιθοσκόπων μισθὸν ἐκ τοῦ δημοσίου φερόμενοι.

[888] Cic. _post Red. ad Quir._ 5, 11. The first meeting of the Senate was in early times held by the elder of the two consuls (ὁ πρεσβύτερος τῶν ὑπάτων Dionys. vi. 57).

[889] Cic. _pro Planc._ 25, 60 “honorum populi finis est consulatus.”

[890] App. _B.C._ ii. 19. In formal dating the names of the two chief praetors were added. See the _Senatus Consultum de Asclepiade_ (Bruns _Fontes_).

[891] Suet. _Tib._ 31; see p. 191.

[892] Liv. xliv. 17 (169 B.C.) “designatos extemplo sortiri placuit provincias.”

[893] ib. ii. 33 “consul alter Romae mansit, alter ad Volscum bellum missus”; cf. Dionys. vi. 91; Liv. ix. 42.

[894] Cic. _de Rep._ ii. 31, 55.

[895] Festus p. 161 “majorem consulem L. Caesar putat dici, vel eum penes quem fasces sint, vel eum, qui prior factus sit.” The first explanation is doubtless the correct one.

[896] Suet. _Caes._ 20.

[897] Polyb. vi. 12 πασῶν εἰσι κύριοι τῶν δημοσίων πράξεων.

[898] Cicero furnishes an instance for the year 54 B.C., _ad Att._ iv. 15, 5 “Reatini me ad sua Τέμπη duxerunt, ut agerem causam contra Interamnates apud consulem et decem legatos, quod lacus Velinus ... in Nar defluit.”

[899] p. 167.

[900] Selection of a consul, Cic. _de Fin._ ii. 16, 54, in 141 B.C., “decreta a senatu est consuli quaestio”; of a praetor, Liv. xlii. 21, in 172 B.C., “C. Licinius praetor consuluit senatum quem quaerere ea rogatione vellet. Patres ipsum eum quaerere jusserunt.”

[901] Cic. _de Rep._ iii. 18, 28 (of the year 136 B.C.) “Consul ego quaesivi, cum vos mihi essetis in consilio, de Numantino foedere.” Mommsen (_Staatsr._ ii. p. 112 n. 3) thinks that the _consilium_ was formed by the Fetiales (cf. Cic. _de Leg._ ii. 9, 21).

[902] For the question whether the _pomerium_ or the first milestone was the limit of the full _imperium_ see p. 79.

[903] For the rotation of the _imperium_ before Cannae (216 B.C.) see Polyb. iii. 110, Liv. xxii. 41.

[904] Liv. xxii. 27 “Ita (Fabius, after the appointment of Minucius as his colleague in 217 B.C.) obtinuit uti legiones, sicut consulibus mos esset, inter se dividerent.”

[905] ib. xxx. 1 (203 B.C.) “censuerunt patres, ut consules inter se compararent sortirenturve, uter Bruttios adversus Hannibalem, uter Etruriam ac Ligures provinciam haberet.”

[906] Italy and Macedonia (ib. xxxii. 8, xlii. 31, xliii. 12), Italy and Greece (xxxvii. 1).

[907] Italia and some foreign country are still consular _provinciae_ in 112 and 111 B.C. (Sall. _Jug._ 27, 43). When a consul was appointed to one of the old praetorian provinces, he did not supplant the praetor but commanded with and over him.

[908] Liv. xxx. 1 “ut consules inter se compararent sortirenturve.” Cf. ib. xxxii. 8, xxxvii. 1, and the other passages cited in note 3.

[909] ib. viii. 16; cf. Cic. _pro Domo_ 9, 24. In 205 B.C. Scipio was given Sicilia _extra sortem_ because his colleague was _pontifex maximus_ (Liv. xxviii. 38).

[910] Liv. xxi. 17 (218 B.C.) “nominatae jam antea consulibus provinciae erant; tum sortiri jussi.” Cf. ib. xxviii. 38.

[911] Sall. _Jug._ 27; Cic. _pro Domo_ 9, 24.

[912] Cic. _ad Att._ viii. 15, 3 “consules quibus more majorum concessum est vel omnes adire provincias.” Lucullus went as consul to Asia in 74 B.C.

[913] p. 153.

[914] That staunch conservative Q. Catulus was wont to reflect with pleasure “non saepe unum consulem improbum, duos vero nunquam, excepto illo Cinnano tempore, fuisse” (Cic. _post Red. in Sen._ 4, 9). By _improbi_ Catulus meant “radicals.”

[915] The consul was the “legitimus tutor” of the state (Cic. _post Red. ad Quir._ 5, 11) and “quasi parens bonus aut tutor fidelis” (_de Or._ iii. 1, 3).

[916] p. 120.

[917] Two praetors for Sicily and Sardinia (Liv. _Ep._ xx.), two more for the Spanish provinces (Liv. xxxii. 27). For the _lex Baebia_ see Liv. xl. 44. For the restoration of the number six see Vell. ii. 16. Pomponius says that four were added by Sulla (_Dig._ 1, 2, 2, 32), but eight are found in 47 B.C. (Dio Cass. xlii. 51).

[918] The praetor had a right to six lictors (στρατηγὸς ἑξαπέλεκυς, App. _Syr._ 15; cf. Polyb. iii. 40) and appears with the full number in the province (Cic. _in Verr._ v. 54, 142 “sex lictores circumsistunt”); but, in the exercise of his jurisdiction within the city, he employed, or was allowed, only two (Censorinus _de Die Nat._ 24, 3; cf. Cic. _de Leg. Agr._ ii. 34, 93).

[919] _Praetor urbanus_ (_S. C. de Bacch._ ll. 5, 8, 17, 21), _praetor qui inter cives jus dicet_ (_lex Agraria_ of 111 B.C.), _provincia_ or _sors urbana_ (Liv. xxiv. 9, xxv. 3, xxvii. 7, xxviii. 10, xxix. 13), jurisdictio urbana (ib. xxxii. 28, xlii. 31)—_praetor qui inter peregrinos jus dicet_ (_lex Acil._ ll. 12 and 89; _lex Jul. Munic._ ll. 8 and 12), _jurisdictio inter peregrinos_ (Liv. xl. 1), _provincia peregrina_ (ib. xxvii. 7, xxviii. 10). Both these praetors, as distinct from those in foreign command, are said to have _urbanae provinciae_ (ib. xliii. 11), _provincia urbana_ (xxxii. 1), _jurisdictio urbana_ (xxv. 41, xxx. 1).

[920] p. 197.

[921] App. _B. C._ ii. 112.

[922] Cic. _Phil._ ii. 13, 31.

[923] p. 174.

[924] Liv. xlii. 21.

[925] ib. xxvii. 5.

[926] ib. xliii. 14.

[927] ib. xlii. 21; see p. 199.

[928] e.g. in the _dilectus_ (ib. xxv. 22, xxxix. 20, xlii. 35).

[929] After Cannae the two urban praetors summoned the Senate (ib. xxii. 55). In 197 B.C., on the news of troubles in Spain, “decreverunt patres ut, comitiis praetorum perfectis, cui praetori provincia Hispania obvenisset, is primo quoque tempore de bello Hispaniae ad senatum referret” (ib. xxxiii. 21).

[930] The _provinciae_ assigned to the four praetors are _urbana_, _peregrina_, Sicilia, Sardinia (ib. xxviii. 10), to the six praetors the same with the addition of the two Spains (ib. xxxii. 28, xl. 1).

[931] ib. xxv. 3 (212 B.C.) “Et praetores provincias sortiti sunt; P. Cornelius Sulla urbanam et peregrinam, quae duorum ante sors fuerat.” Cf. ib. xxxvii. 50 (189 B.C.).

[932] ib. xxix. 13 (204 B.C.) “M. Marcio urbana, L. Scribonio Liboni peregrina et eidem Gallia.”

[933] ib. xxiv. 9 (215 B.C.) “comitiis praetorum perfectis, senatus consultum factum ut Q. Fulvio extra ordinem urbana provincia esset.”

[934] Gaius _Inst._ iv. 30 “per legem Aebutiam et duas Julias sublatae sunt istae legis actiones; effectumque est ut per concepta verba, id est, per formulas, litigaremus”; Gell. xvi. 10, 8 “cum ... omnis ... illa duodecim tabularum antiquitas nisi in legis actionibus centumviralium causarum lege Aebutia lata consopita sit.”

[935] Marcian in _Dig._ 1, 1, 8 “nam et ipsum jus honorarium viva vox est juris civilis.”

[936] Cic. _de Leg._ i. 5, 17 “Non ergo a praetoris edicto, ut plerique nunc, neque a XII Tabulis, ut superiores ... hauriendam juris disciplinam putas.” Cf. _de Leg._ ii. 23, 59 “discebamus enim pueri XII, ut carmen necessarium: quas jam nemo discit.”

[937] Papinian in _Dig._ 1, 1, 7, 1 “jus praetorium est, quod praetores introduxerunt adjuvandi vel supplendi vel corrigendi juris civilis gratia propter utilitatem publicam.”

[938] For the edict as the expression of customary law see Cic. _de Invent._ ii. 22, 67 “Consuetudine autem jus esse putatur id, quod voluntate omnium sine lege vetustas comprobarit.... Quo in genere et alia sunt multa et eorum multo maxima pars, quae praetores edicere consuerunt.”

[939] Cic. _in Verr._ i. 42, 109 “qui plurimum tribuunt edicto, praetoris edictum legem annuam dicunt esse.”

[940] Ascon. _in Cornel._ p. 58; Cic. _in Verr._ i. 44, 114. _Perpetuum_ means “continuous,” _tralaticium_ “transmitted.”

[941] Cic. _in Verr._ i. 46, 119. Cf. p. 178.

[942] Ascon. _in Cornel._ p. 58 “Aliam deinde legem Cornelius, ... tulit, ut praetores ex edictis suis perpetuis jus dicerent, quae res ... gratiam ambitiosis praetoribus, qui varie jus dicere assueverant, sustulit.” Cf. Dio Cass. xxxvi. 23.

[943] p. 202.

[944] Cic. _in Verr._ Act. i. 8, 21; _pro Mur._ 20, 42. The fullest account that we possess of the distribution of such functions amongst the members of the college refers to the year 66 B.C. (ib. _pro Cluent._ 53, 147; Ascon. _in Cornel._ p. 59).

[945] e.g. the _lex Cornelia de sicariis et veneficis_ took cognisance of murder, poisoning, and arson, that _de falsis_ of the forgery of documents and of wills as well as of coining.

[946] After the _sortitio_ for 62 B.C. the praetor Q. Metellus Celer was given the province of Cisalpine Gaul (Cic. _ad Fam._ v. 2, 3, and 4). During his praetorship (63 B.C.) he had been summoned to a command in northern Italy.

[947] Cic. _de Leg._ iii. 3, 7 “Suntoque aediles, curatores urbis, annonae ludorumque sollemnium: ollisque ad honoris amplioris gradum is primus ascensus esto.” Cf. _lex Jul. Munic._ l. 24.

[948] p. 122.

[949] Cic. _in Verr._ v. 14, 36.

[950] Livy (iii. 55), in stating the ineffectiveness of the _sacrosanctitas_ granted by law and not by oath, says “itaque aedilem prendi ducique a majoribus magistratibus, etc.” Cf. Gell. xiii. 13.

[951] Cic. _de Leg._ iii. 3, 7, cited p. 208.

[952] p. 98.

[953] Dio Cass. liv. 36.

[954] _Lex Jul. Munic._ ll. 20, 32-45, 29, 46.

[955] Suet. _Vesp._ 5; _lex Jul. Munic._ l. 68.

[956] Cic. _ad Fam._ viii. 6, 4 (Caelius Rufus, curule aedile in 50 B.C., says) “nisi ego cum tabernariis et aquariis pugnarem, veternus civitatem occupasset.”

[957] ib. _in Verr._ v. 14, 36 “mihi sacrarum aedium procurationem, mihi totam urbem tuendam esse commissam.”

[958] Liv. xxv. 1 (on the spread of foreign superstitions in Rome in 213 B.C.) “incusati graviter ab senatu aediles triumvirique capitales, quod non prohiberent.” Cf. Cic. _de Har. Resp._ 13, 27.

[959] Macrob. _Sat._ ii. 6 “lapidatus a populo Vatinius cum gladiatorium munus ederet, obtinuerat ut aediles edicerent ne quis in arenam nisi pomum misisse vellet.”

[960] Seneca _Ep._ 86, 10 “hoc quoque nobilissimi aediles fungebantur officio intrandi ea loca quae populum receptabant exigendique munditias et utilem ac salubrem temperaturam.” Cf. Suet. _Claud._ 38; Tac. _Ann._ ii. 85.

[961] Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 28 (56 A.D.) “cohibita artius et aedilium potestas statutumque quantum curules, quantum plebei pignoris caperent vel poenae inrogarent.”

[962] _Dig._ 21, 1, 40-42 (from the edict of the curule aediles) “ne quis canem, verrem vel minorem aprum, lupum, ursum, pantheram, leonem ... qua vulgo iter fiet, ita habuisse velit, ut cuiquam nocere damnumve dare possit.”

[963] p. 208 n. 4.