Chapter LXXXI: Part 81

Georgia
The region of present-day Georgia contained the ancient
kingdoms of Colchis and Kartli-Iberia. The area came under Roman
influence in the first centuries A.D. and Christianity became the
state religion in the 330s. Domination by Persians, Arabs, and Turks
was followed by a Georgian golden age (11th-13th centuries) that was
cut short by the Mongol invasion of 1236. Subsequently, the Ottoman
and Persian empires competed for influence in the region. Georgia
was absorbed into the Russian Empire in the 19th century.
Independent for three years (1918-1921) following the Russian
revolution, it was forcibly incorporated into the USSR until the
Soviet Union dissolved in 1991. An attempt by the incumbent Georgian
government to manipulate national legislative elections in November
2003 touched off widespread protests that led to the resignation of
Eduard SHEVARDNADZE, president since 1995. New elections in early
2004 swept Mikheil SAAKASHVILI into power along with his National
Movement party. Progress on market reforms and democratization has
been made in the years since independence, but this progress has
been complicated by Russian assistance and support to the breakaway
regions of Abkhazia and South Ossetia. Georgian military action in
South Ossetia in early August 2008 led to a Russian military
response that not only occupied the breakaway areas, but large
portions of Georgia proper as well. Russian troops pulled back from
most occupied Georgian territory, but in late August 2008 Russia
unilaterally recognized the independence of Abkhazia and South
Ossetia. This action was strongly condemned by most of the world's
nations and international organizations.

Germany
As Europe's largest economy and second most populous nation,
Germany is a key member of the continent's economic, political, and
defense organizations. European power struggles immersed Germany in
two devastating World Wars in the first half of the 20th century and
left the country occupied by the victorious Allied powers of the US,
UK, France, and the Soviet Union in 1945. With the advent of the
Cold War, two German states were formed in 1949: the western Federal
Republic of Germany (FRG) and the eastern German Democratic Republic
(GDR). The democratic FRG embedded itself in key Western economic
and security organizations, the EC, which became the EU, and NATO,
while the Communist GDR was on the front line of the Soviet-led
Warsaw Pact. The decline of the USSR and the end of the Cold War
allowed for German unification in 1990. Since then, Germany has
expended considerable funds to bring Eastern productivity and wages
up to Western standards. In January 1999, Germany and 10 other EU
countries introduced a common European exchange currency, the euro.

Ghana
Formed from the merger of the British colony of the Gold Coast
and the Togoland trust territory, Ghana in 1957 became the first
sub-Saharan country in colonial Africa to gain its independence.
Ghana endured a long series of coups before Lt. Jerry RAWLINGS took
power in 1981 and banned political parties. After approving a new
constitution and restoring multiparty politics in 1992, RAWLINGS won
presidential elections in 1992 and 1996, but was constitutionally
prevented from running for a third term in 2000. John KUFUOR
succeeded him and was reelected in 2004. Kufuor is constitutionally
barred from running for a third term in upcoming Presidential
elections, which are scheduled for December 2008.

Gibraltar
Strategically important, Gibraltar was reluctantly ceded
to Great Britain by Spain in the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht; the British
garrison was formally declared a colony in 1830. In a referendum
held in 1967, Gibraltarians voted overwhelmingly to remain a British
dependency. The subsequent granting of autonomy in 1969 by the UK
led to Spain closing the border and severing all communication
links. A series of talks were held by the UK and Spain between 1997
and 2002 on establishing temporary joint sovereignty over Gibraltar.
In response to these talks, the Gibraltar Government called a
referendum in late 2002 in which the majority of citizens voted
overwhelmingly against any sharing of sovereignty with Spain. Since
the referendum, tripartite talks on other issues have been held with
Spain, the UK, and Gibraltar, and in September 2006 a three-way
agreement was signed. Spain agreed to remove restrictions on air
movements, to speed up customs procedures, to implement
international telephone dialing, and to allow mobile roaming
agreements. Britain agreed to pay increased pensions to Spaniards
who had been employed in Gibraltar before the border closed. Spain
will be allowed to open a cultural institute from which the Spanish
flag will fly. A new noncolonial constitution came into effect in
2007, but the UK retains responsibility for defense, foreign
relations, internal security, and financial stability.

Greece
Greece achieved independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1829.
During the second half of the 19th century and the first half of the
20th century, it gradually added neighboring islands and
territories, most with Greek-speaking populations. In World War II,
Greece was first invaded by Italy (1940) and subsequently occupied
by Germany (1941-44); fighting endured in a protracted civil war
between supporters of the king and Communist rebels. Following the
latter's defeat in 1949, Greece joined NATO in 1952. A military
dictatorship, which in 1967 suspended many political liberties and
forced the king to flee the country, lasted seven years. The 1974
democratic elections and a referendum created a parliamentary
republic and abolished the monarchy. In 1981, Greece joined the EC
(now the EU); it became the 12th member of the European Economic and
Monetary Union in 2001.

Greenland
Greenland, the world's largest island, is about 81%
ice-capped. Vikings reached the island in the 10th century from
Iceland; Danish colonization began in the 18th century, and
Greenland was made an integral part of Denmark in 1953. It joined
the European Community (now the EU) with Denmark in 1973, but
withdrew in 1985 over a dispute centered on stringent fishing
quotas. Greenland was granted self-government in 1979 by the Danish
parliament; the law went into effect the following year. Denmark
continues to exercise control of Greenland's foreign affairs in
consultation with Greenland's Home Rule Government.

Grenada
Carib Indians inhabited Grenada when COLUMBUS discovered the
island in 1498, but it remained uncolonized for more than a century.
The French settled Grenada in the 17th century, established sugar
estates, and imported large numbers of African slaves. Britain took
the island in 1762 and vigorously expanded sugar production. In the
19th century, cacao eventually surpassed sugar as the main export
crop; in the 20th century, nutmeg became the leading export. In
1967, Britain gave Grenada autonomy over its internal affairs. Full
independence was attained in 1974, making Grenada one of the
smallest independent countries in the Western Hemisphere. Grenada
was seized by a Marxist military council on 19 October 1983. Six
days later the island was invaded by US forces and those of six
other Caribbean nations, which quickly captured the ringleaders and
their hundreds of Cuban advisers. Free elections were reinstituted
the following year and have continued since that time. Hurricane
Ivan struck Grenada in September of 2004 causing severe damage.

Guam
Guam was ceded to the US by Spain in 1898. Captured by the
Japanese in 1941, it was retaken by the US three years later. The
military installation on the island is one of the most strategically
important US bases in the Pacific.

Guatemala
The Mayan civilization flourished in Guatemala and
surrounding regions during the first millennium A.D. After almost
three centuries as a Spanish colony, Guatemala won its independence
in 1821. During the second half of the 20th century, it experienced
a variety of military and civilian governments, as well as a 36-year
guerrilla war. In 1996, the government signed a peace agreement
formally ending the conflict, which had left more than 100,000
people dead and had created, by some estimates, some 1 million
refugees.

Guernsey
Guernsey and the other Channel Islands represent the last
remnants of the medieval Dukedom of Normandy, which held sway in
both France and England. The islands were the only British soil
occupied by German troops in World War II. Guernsey is a British
crown dependency, but is not part of the UK. However, the UK
Government is constitutionally responsible for its defense and
international representation.

Guinea
Guinea has had only two presidents since gaining its
independence from France in 1958. Lansana CONTE came to power in
1984 when the military seized the government after the death of the
first president, Sekou TOURE. Guinea did not hold democratic
elections until 1993 when Gen. CONTE (head of the military
government) was elected president of the civilian government. He was
reelected in 1998 and again in 2003, though all the polls have been
marred by irregularities. Guinea has maintained its internal
stability despite spillover effects from conflict in Sierra Leone
and Liberia. As those countries have rebuilt, Guinea's own
vulnerability to political and economic crisis has increased.
Declining economic conditions and popular dissatisfaction with
corruption and bad governance prompted two massive strikes in 2006;
a third nationwide strike in early 2007 sparked violent protests in
many Guinean cities and prompted two weeks of martial law. To
appease the unions and end the unrest, CONTE named a new prime
minister in March 2007.

Guinea-Bissau
Since independence from Portugal in 1974,
Guinea-Bissau has experienced considerable political and military
upheaval. In 1980, a military coup established authoritarian
dictator Joao Bernardo 'Nino' VIEIRA as president. Despite setting a
path to a market economy and multiparty system, VIEIRA's regime was
characterized by the suppression of political opposition and the
purging of political rivals. Several coup attempts through the 1980s
and early 1990s failed to unseat him. In 1994 VIEIRA was elected
president in the country's first free elections. A military mutiny
and resulting civil war in 1998 eventually led to VIEIRA's ouster in
May 1999. In February 2000, a transitional government turned over
power to opposition leader Kumba YALA, after he was elected
president in transparent polling. In September 2003, after only
three years in office, YALA was ousted by the military in a
bloodless coup, and businessman Henrique ROSA was sworn in as
interim president. In 2005, former President VIEIRA was re-elected
president pledging to pursue economic development and national
reconciliation.

Guyana
Originally a Dutch colony in the 17th century, by 1815 Guyana
had become a British possession. The abolition of slavery led to
black settlement of urban areas and the importation of indentured
servants from India to work the sugar plantations. This
ethnocultural divide has persisted and has led to turbulent
politics. Guyana achieved independence from the UK in 1966, and
since then it has been ruled mostly by socialist-oriented
governments. In 1992, Cheddi JAGAN was elected president in what is
considered the country's first free and fair election since
independence. After his death five years later, his wife, Janet
JAGAN, became president but resigned in 1999 due to poor health. Her
successor, Bharrat JAGDEO, was reelected in 2001 and again in 2006.

Haiti
The native Taino Amerindians - who inhabited the island of
Hispaniola when it was discovered by COLUMBUS in 1492 - were
virtually annihilated by Spanish settlers within 25 years. In the
early 17th century, the French established a presence on Hispaniola,
and in 1697, Spain ceded to the French the western third of the
island, which later became Haiti. The French colony, based on
forestry and sugar-related industries, became one of the wealthiest
in the Caribbean, but only through the heavy importation of African
slaves and considerable environmental degradation. In the late 18th
century, Haiti's nearly half million slaves revolted under Toussaint
L'OUVERTURE. After a prolonged struggle, Haiti became the first
black republic to declare its independence in 1804. The poorest
country in the Western Hemisphere, Haiti has been plagued by
political violence for most of its history. After an armed rebellion
led to the forced resignation and exile of President Jean-Bertrand
ARISTIDE in February 2004, an interim government took office to
organize new elections under the auspices of the United Nations
Stabilization Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH). Continued violence and
technical delays prompted repeated postponements, but Haiti finally
did inaugurate a democratically elected president and parliament in
May of 2006.

Heard Island and McDonald Islands
These uninhabited, barren,
sub-Antarctic islands were transferred from the UK to Australia in
1947. Populated by large numbers of seal and bird species, the
islands have been designated a nature preserve.

Holy See (Vatican City)
Popes in their secular role ruled portions
of the Italian peninsula for more than a thousand years until the
mid 19th century, when many of the Papal States were seized by the
newly united Kingdom of Italy. In 1870, the pope's holdings were
further circumscribed when Rome itself was annexed. Disputes between
a series of "prisoner" popes and Italy were resolved in 1929 by
three Lateran Treaties, which established the independent state of
Vatican City and granted Roman Catholicism special status in Italy.
In 1984, a concordat between the Holy See and Italy modified certain
of the earlier treaty provisions, including the primacy of Roman
Catholicism as the Italian state religion. Present concerns of the
Holy See include religious freedom, international development, the
environment, the Middle East, China, the decline of religion in
Europe, terrorism, interreligious dialogue and reconciliation, and
the application of church doctrine in an era of rapid change and
globalization. About one billion people worldwide profess the
Catholic faith.

Honduras
Once part of Spain's vast empire in the New World, Honduras
became an independent nation in 1821. After two and a half decades
of mostly military rule, a freely elected civilian government came
to power in 1982. During the 1980s, Honduras proved a haven for
anti-Sandinista contras fighting the Marxist Nicaraguan Government
and an ally to Salvadoran Government forces fighting leftist
guerrillas. The country was devastated by Hurricane Mitch in 1998,
which killed about 5,600 people and caused approximately $2 billion
in damage.

Hong Kong
Occupied by the UK in 1841, Hong Kong was formally ceded
by China the following year; various adjacent lands were added later
in the 19th century. Pursuant to an agreement signed by China and
the UK on 19 December 1984, Hong Kong became the Hong Kong Special
Administrative Region (SAR) of China on 1 July 1997. In this
agreement, China promised that, under its "one country, two systems"
formula, China's socialist economic system would not be imposed on
Hong Kong and that Hong Kong would enjoy a high degree of autonomy
in all matters except foreign and defense affairs for the next 50
years.

Hungary
Hungary became a Christian kingdom in A.D. 1000 and for many
centuries served as a bulwark against Ottoman Turkish expansion in
Europe. The kingdom eventually became part of the polyglot
Austro-Hungarian Empire, which collapsed during World War I. The
country fell under Communist rule following World War II. In 1956, a
revolt and an announced withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact were met
with a massive military intervention by Moscow. Under the leadership
of Janos KADAR in 1968, Hungary began liberalizing its economy,
introducing so-called "Goulash Communism." Hungary held its first
multiparty elections in 1990 and initiated a free market economy. It
joined NATO in 1999 and the EU in 2004.

Iceland
Settled by Norwegian and Celtic (Scottish and Irish)
immigrants during the late 9th and 10th centuries A.D., Iceland
boasts the world's oldest functioning legislative assembly, the
Althing, established in 930. Independent for over 300 years, Iceland
was subsequently ruled by Norway and Denmark. Fallout from the Askja
volcano of 1875 devastated the Icelandic economy and caused
widespread famine. Over the next quarter century, 20% of the
island's population emigrated, mostly to Canada and the US. Limited
home rule from Denmark was granted in 1874 and complete independence
attained in 1944. Literacy, longevity, income, and social cohesion
are first-rate by world standards.

India
Aryan tribes from the northwest infiltrated onto the Indian
subcontinent about 1500 B.C.; their merger with the earlier
Dravidian inhabitants created the classical Indian culture. The
Maurya Empire of the 4th and 3rd centuries B.C. - which reached its
zenith under ASHOKA - united much of South Asia. The Golden Age
ushered in by the Gupta dynasty (4th to 6th centuries A.D.) saw a
flowering of Indian science, art, and culture. Arab incursions
starting in the 8th century and Turkic in the 12th were followed by
those of European traders, beginning in the late 15th century. By
the 19th century, Britain had assumed political control of virtually
all Indian lands. Indian armed forces in the British army played a
vital role in both World Wars. Nonviolent resistance to British
colonialism led by Mohandas GANDHI and Jawaharlal NEHRU brought
independence in 1947. The subcontinent was divided into the secular
state of India and the smaller Muslim state of Pakistan. A third war
between the two countries in 1971 resulted in East Pakistan becoming
the separate nation of Bangladesh. India's nuclear weapons testing
in 1998 caused Pakistan to conduct its own tests that same year. The
dispute between the countries over the state of Kashmir is ongoing,
but discussions and confidence-building measures have led to
decreased tensions since 2002. Despite impressive gains in economic
investment and output, India faces pressing problems such as
significant overpopulation, environmental degradation, extensive
poverty, and ethnic and religious strife.

Indian Ocean
The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's
five oceans (after the Pacific Ocean and Atlantic Ocean, but larger
than the Southern Ocean and Arctic Ocean). Four critically important
access waterways are the Suez Canal (Egypt), Bab el Mandeb
(Djibouti-Yemen), Strait of Hormuz (Iran-Oman), and Strait of
Malacca (Indonesia-Malaysia). The decision by the International
Hydrographic Organization in the spring of 2000 to delimit a fifth
ocean, the Southern Ocean, removed the portion of the Indian Ocean
south of 60 degrees south latitude.

Indonesia
The Dutch began to colonize Indonesia in the early 17th
century; the islands were occupied by Japan from 1942 to 1945.
Indonesia declared its independence after Japan's surrender, but it
required four years of intermittent negotiations, recurring
hostilities, and UN mediation before the Netherlands agreed to
relinquish its colony. Indonesia is the world's largest archipelagic
state and home to the world's largest Muslim population. Current
issues include: alleviating poverty, preventing terrorism,
consolidating democracy after four decades of authoritarianism,
implementing financial sector reforms, stemming corruption, holding
the military and police accountable for human rights violations, and
controlling avian influenza. In 2005, Indonesia reached a historic
peace agreement with armed separatists in Aceh, which led to
democratic elections in December 2006. Indonesia continues to face a
low intensity separatist movement in Papua.

Iran
Known as Persia until 1935, Iran became an Islamic republic in
1979 after the ruling monarchy was overthrown and the shah was
forced into exile. Conservative clerical forces established a
theocratic system of government with ultimate political authority
vested in a learned religious scholar referred to commonly as the
Supreme Leader who, according to the constitution, is accountable
only to the Assembly of Experts. US-Iranian relations have been
strained since a group of Iranian students seized the US Embassy in
Tehran on 4 November 1979 and held it until 20 January 1981. During
1980-88, Iran fought a bloody, indecisive war with Iraq that
eventually expanded into the Persian Gulf and led to clashes between
US Navy and Iranian military forces between 1987 and 1988. Iran has
been designated a state sponsor of terrorism for its activities in
Lebanon and elsewhere in the world and remains subject to US and UN
economic sanctions and export controls because of its continued
involvement in terrorism and conventional weapons proliferation.
Following the election of reformer Hojjat ol-Eslam Mohammad KHATAMI
as president in 1997 and similarly a reformer Majles (parliament) in
2000, a campaign to foster political reform in response to popular
dissatisfaction was initiated. The movement floundered as
conservative politicians, through the control of unelected
institutions, prevented reform measures from being enacted and
increased repressive measures. Starting with nationwide municipal
elections in 2003 and continuing through Majles elections in 2004,
conservatives reestablished control over Iran's elected government
institutions, which culminated with the August 2005 inauguration of
hardliner Mahmud AHMADI-NEJAD as president. In December 2006 and
March 2007, the international community passed resolutions 1737 and
1747 respectively after Iran failed to comply with UN demands to
halt the enrichment of uranium or to agree to full IAEA oversight of
its nuclear program. In October 2007, Iranian entities were also
subject to US sanctions under EO 13382 designations for
proliferation activities and EO 13224 designations for providing
material support to the Taliban and other terrorist organizations.

Iraq
Formerly part of the Ottoman Empire, Iraq was occupied by
Britain during the course of World War I; in 1920, it was declared a
League of Nations mandate under UK administration. In stages over
the next dozen years, Iraq attained its independence as a kingdom in
1932. A "republic" was proclaimed in 1958, but in actuality a series
of military strongmen ruled the country until 2003. The last was
SADDAM Husayn. Territorial disputes with Iran led to an inconclusive
and costly eight-year war (1980-88). In August 1990, Iraq seized
Kuwait but was expelled by US-led, UN coalition forces during the
Gulf War of January-February 1991. Following Kuwait's liberation,
the UN Security Council (UNSC) required Iraq to scrap all weapons of
mass destruction and long-range missiles and to allow UN
verification inspections. Continued Iraqi noncompliance with UNSC
resolutions over a period of 12 years led to the US-led invasion of
Iraq in March 2003 and the ouster of the SADDAM Husayn regime.
Coalition forces remain in Iraq under a UNSC mandate, helping to
provide security and to support the freely elected government. The
Coalition Provisional Authority, which temporarily administered Iraq
after the invasion, transferred full governmental authority on 28
June 2004 to the Iraqi Interim Government, which governed under the
Transitional Administrative Law for Iraq (TAL). Under the TAL,
elections for a 275-member Transitional National Assembly (TNA) were
held in Iraq on 30 January 2005. Following these elections, the
Iraqi Transitional Government (ITG) assumed office. The TNA was
charged with drafting Iraq's permanent constitution, which was
approved in a 15 October 2005 constitutional referendum. An election
under the constitution for a 275-member Council of Representatives
(CoR) was held on 15 December 2005. The CoR approval in the
selection of most of the cabinet ministers on 20 May 2006 marked the
transition from the ITG to Iraq's first constitutional government in
nearly a half-century.

Ireland
Celtic tribes arrived on the island between 600-150 B.C.
Invasions by Norsemen that began in the late 8th century were
finally ended when King Brian BORU defeated the Danes in 1014.
English invasions began in the 12th century and set off more than
seven centuries of Anglo-Irish struggle marked by fierce rebellions
and harsh repressions. A failed 1916 Easter Monday Rebellion touched
off several years of guerrilla warfare that in 1921 resulted in
independence from the UK for 26 southern counties; six northern
(Ulster) counties remained part of the UK. In 1949, Ireland withdrew
from the British Commonwealth; it joined the European Community in
1973. Irish governments have sought the peaceful unification of
Ireland and have cooperated with Britain against terrorist groups. A
peace settlement for Northern Ireland is being implemented with some
difficulties. In 2006, the Irish and British governments developed
and began to implement the St. Andrews Agreement, building on the
Good Friday Agreement approved in 1998.

Isle of Man
Part of the Norwegian Kingdom of the Hebrides until the
13th century when it was ceded to Scotland, the isle came under the
British crown in 1765. Current concerns include reviving the almost
extinct Manx Gaelic language. Isle of Man is a British crown
dependency but is not part of the UK. However, the UK Government
remains constitutionally responsible for its defense and
international representation.

Israel
Following World War II, the British withdrew from their
mandate of Palestine, and the UN partitioned the area into Arab and
Jewish states, an arrangement rejected by the Arabs. Subsequently,
the Israelis defeated the Arabs in a series of wars without ending
the deep tensions between the two sides. The territories Israel
occupied since the 1967 war are not included in the Israel country
profile, unless otherwise noted. On 25 April 1982, Israel withdrew
from the Sinai pursuant to the 1979 Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty. In
keeping with the framework established at the Madrid Conference in
October 1991, bilateral negotiations were conducted between Israel
and Palestinian representatives and Syria to achieve a permanent
settlement. Israel and Palestinian officials signed on 13 September
1993 a Declaration of Principles (also known as the "Oslo Accords")
guiding an interim period of Palestinian self-rule. Outstanding
territorial and other disputes with Jordan were resolved in the 26
October 1994 Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace. In addition, on 25 May
2000, Israel withdrew unilaterally from southern Lebanon, which it
had occupied since 1982. In April 2003, US President BUSH, working
in conjunction with the EU, UN, and Russia - the "Quartet" - took
the lead in laying out a roadmap to a final settlement of the
conflict by 2005, based on reciprocal steps by the two parties
leading to two states, Israel and a democratic Palestine. However,
progress toward a permanent status agreement was undermined by
Israeli-Palestinian violence between September 2003 and February
2005. An Israeli-Palestinian agreement reached at Sharm al-Sheikh in
February 2005, along with an internally-brokered Palestinian
ceasefire, significantly reduced the violence. In the summer of
2005, Israel unilaterally disengaged from the Gaza Strip, evacuating
settlers and its military while retaining control over most points
of entry into the Gaza Strip. The election of HAMAS in January 2006
to head the Palestinian Legislative Council froze relations between
Israel and the Palestinian Authority (PA). Ehud OLMERT became prime
minister in March 2006; following an Israeli military operation in
Gaza in June-July 2006 and a 34-day conflict with Hizballah in
Lebanon in June-August 2006, he shelved plans to unilaterally
evacuate from most of the West Bank. OLMERT in June 2007 resumed
talks with the PA after HAMAS seized control of the Gaza Strip and
PA President Mahmoud ABBAS formed a new government without HAMAS.

Italy
Italy became a nation-state in 1861 when the regional states
of the peninsula, along with Sardinia and Sicily, were united under
King Victor EMMANUEL II. An era of parliamentary government came to
a close in the early 1920s when Benito MUSSOLINI established a
Fascist dictatorship. His alliance with Nazi Germany led to Italy's
defeat in World War II. A democratic republic replaced the monarchy
in 1946 and economic revival followed. Italy was a charter member of
NATO and the European Economic Community (EEC). It has been at the
forefront of European economic and political unification, joining
the Economic and Monetary Union in 1999. Persistent problems include
illegal immigration, organized crime, corruption, high unemployment,
sluggish economic growth, and the low incomes and technical
standards of southern Italy compared with the prosperous north.

Jamaica
The island - discovered by Christopher COLUMBUS in 1494 -
was settled by the Spanish early in the 16th century. The native
Taino Indians, who had inhabited Jamaica for centuries, were
gradually exterminated and replaced by African slaves. England
seized the island in 1655 and established a plantation economy based
on sugar, cocoa, and coffee. The abolition of slavery in 1834 freed
a quarter million slaves, many of whom became small farmers. Jamaica
gradually obtained increasing independence from Britain, and in 1958
it joined other British Caribbean colonies in forming the Federation
of the West Indies. Jamaica gained full independence when it
withdrew from the Federation in 1962. Deteriorating economic
conditions during the 1970s led to recurrent violence as rival gangs
affiliated with the major political parties evolved into powerful
organized crime networks involved in international drug smuggling
and money laundering. Violent crime, drug trafficking, and poverty
pose significant challenges to the government today. Nonetheless,
many rural and resort areas remain relatively safe and contribute
substantially to the economy.

Jan Mayen
This desolate, arctic, mountainous island was named after
a Dutch whaling captain who indisputably discovered it in 1614
(earlier claims are inconclusive). Visited only occasionally by seal
hunters and trappers over the following centuries, the island came
under Norwegian sovereignty in 1929. The long dormant Haakon VII
Toppen/Beerenberg volcano resumed activity in 1970; the most recent
eruption occurred in 1985. It is the northernmost active volcano on
earth.

Japan
In 1603, a Tokugawa shogunate (military dictatorship) ushered
in a long period of isolation from foreign influence in order to
secure its power. For more than two centuries this policy enabled
Japan to enjoy stability and a flowering of its indigenous culture.
Following the Treaty of Kanagawa with the US in 1854, Japan opened
its ports and began to intensively modernize and industrialize.
During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Japan became a
regional power that was able to defeat the forces of both China and
Russia. It occupied Korea, Formosa (Taiwan), and southern Sakhalin
Island. In 1931-32 Japan occupied Manchuria, and in 1937 it launched
a full-scale invasion of China. Japan attacked US forces in 1941 -
triggering America's entry into World War II - and soon occupied
much of East and Southeast Asia. After its defeat in World War II,
Japan recovered to become an economic power and a staunch ally of
the US. While the emperor retains his throne as a symbol of national
unity, elected politicians - with heavy input from bureaucrats and
business executives - wield actual decisionmaking power. The economy
experienced a major slowdown starting in the 1990s following three
decades of unprecedented growth, but Japan still remains a major
economic power, both in Asia and globally.

Jersey
Jersey and the other Channel Islands represent the last
remnants of the medieval Dukedom of Normandy that held sway in both
France and England. These islands were the only British soil
occupied by German troops in World War II. Jersey is a British crown
dependency but is not part of the UK. However, the UK Government is
constitutionally responsible for its defense and international
representation.

Jordan
Following World War I and the dissolution of the Ottoman
Empire, the UK received a mandate to govern much of the Middle East.
Britain separated out a semi-autonomous region of Transjordan from
Palestine in the early 1920s, and the area gained its independence
in 1946; it adopted the name of Jordan in 1950. The country's
long-time ruler was King HUSSEIN (1953-99). A pragmatic leader, he
successfully navigated competing pressures from the major powers
(US, USSR, and UK), various Arab states, Israel, and a large
internal Palestinian population, despite several wars and coup
attempts. In 1989 he reinstituted parliamentary elections and
gradual political liberalization; in 1994 he signed a peace treaty
with Israel. King ABDALLAH II, the son of King HUSSEIN, assumed the
throne following his father's death in February 1999. Since then, he
has consolidated his power and undertaken an aggressive economic
reform program. Jordan acceded to the World Trade Organization in
2000, and began to participate in the European Free Trade
Association in 2001. Municipal elections were held in July 2007
under a system in which 20% of seats in all municipal councils were
reserved by quota for women. Parliamentary elections were held in
November 2007 and saw independent pro-government candidates win the
vast majority of seats. In November 2007, King Abdallah instructed
his new prime minister to focus on socioeconomic reform, developing
a healthcare and housing network for civilians and military
personnel, and improving the educational system.

Kazakhstan
Native Kazakhs, a mix of Turkic and Mongol nomadic tribes
who migrated into the region in the 13th century, were rarely united
as a single nation. The area was conquered by Russia in the 18th
century, and Kazakhstan became a Soviet Republic in 1936. During the
1950s and 1960s agricultural "Virgin Lands" program, Soviet citizens
were encouraged to help cultivate Kazakhstan's northern pastures.
This influx of immigrants (mostly Russians, but also some other
deported nationalities) skewed the ethnic mixture and enabled
non-Kazakhs to outnumber natives. Independence in 1991 caused many
of these newcomers to emigrate. Kazakhstan's economy is larger than
those of all the other Central Asian states combined, largely due to
the country's vast natural resources and a recent history of
political stability. Current issues include: developing a cohesive
national identity; expanding the development of the country's vast
energy resources and exporting them to world markets; achieving a
sustainable economic growth; diversifying the economy outside the
oil, gas, and mining sectors; enhancing Kazakhstan's
competitiveness; and strengthening relations with neighboring states
and other foreign powers.

Kenya
Founding president and liberation struggle icon Jomo KENYATTA
led Kenya from independence in 1963 until his death in 1978, when
President Daniel Toroitich arap MOI took power in a constitutional
succession. The country was a de facto one-party state from 1969
until 1982 when the ruling Kenya African National Union (KANU) made
itself the sole legal party in Kenya. MOI acceded to internal and
external pressure for political liberalization in late 1991. The
ethnically fractured opposition failed to dislodge KANU from power
in elections in 1992 and 1997, which were marred by violence and
fraud, but were viewed as having generally reflected the will of the
Kenyan people. President MOI stepped down in December 2002 following
fair and peaceful elections. Mwai KIBAKI, running as the candidate
of the multiethnic, united opposition group, the National Rainbow
Coalition (NARC), defeated KANU candidate Uhuru KENYATTA and assumed
the presidency following a campaign centered on an anticorruption
platform. KIBAKI's NARC coalition splintered in 2005 over the
constitutional review process. Government defectors joined with KANU
to form a new opposition coalition, the Orange Democratic Movement,
which defeated the government's draft constitution in a popular
referendum in November 2005. KIBAKI's reelection in December 2007
brought charges of vote rigging from ODM candidate Raila ODINGA and
unleashed two months of violence in which as many as 1,500 people
died. UN-sponsored talks in late February produced a powersharing
accord bringing ODINGA into the government in the restored position
of prime minister.

Kiribati
The Gilbert Islands became a British protectorate in 1892
and a colony in 1915; they were captured by the Japanese in the
Pacific War in 1941. The islands of Makin and Tarawa were the sites
of major US amphibious victories over entrenched Japanese garrisons
in 1943. The Gilbert Islands were granted self-rule by the UK in
1971 and complete independence in 1979 under the new name of
Kiribati. The US relinquished all claims to the sparsely inhabited
Phoenix and Line Island groups in a 1979 treaty of friendship with
Kiribati.

Korea, North
An independent kingdom for much of its long history,
Korea was occupied by Japan in 1905 following the Russo-Japanese
War. Five years later, Japan formally annexed the entire peninsula.
Following World War II, Korea was split with the northern half
coming under Soviet-sponsored Communist domination. After failing in
the Korean War (1950-53) to conquer the US-backed Republic of Korea
(ROK) in the southern portion by force, North Korea (DPRK), under
its founder President KIM Il Sung, adopted a policy of ostensible
diplomatic and economic "self-reliance" as a check against excessive
Soviet or Communist Chinese influence. The DPRK demonized the US as
the ultimate threat to its social system through state-funded
propaganda, and molded political, economic, and military policies
around the core ideological objective of eventual unification of
Korea under Pyongyang's control. KIM's son, the current ruler KIM
Jong Il, was officially designated as his father's successor in
1980, assuming a growing political and managerial role until the
elder KIM's death in 1994. After decades of economic mismanagement
and resource misallocation, the DPRK since the mid-1990s has relied
heavily on international aid to feed its population while continuing
to expend resources to maintain an army of approximately 1 million.
North Korea's history of regional military provocations,
proliferation of military-related items, and long-range missile
development - as well as its nuclear, chemical, and biological
weapons programs and massive conventional armed forces - are of
major concern to the international community. In December 2002,
following revelations that the DPRK was pursuing a nuclear weapons
program based on enriched uranium in violation of a 1994 agreement
with the US to freeze and ultimately dismantle its existing
plutonium-based program, North Korea expelled monitors from the
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). In January 2003, it
declared its withdrawal from the international Non-Proliferation
Treaty. In mid-2003 Pyongyang announced it had completed the
reprocessing of spent nuclear fuel rods (to extract weapons-grade
plutonium) and was developing a "nuclear deterrent." Beginning in
August 2003, North Korea, China, Japan, Russia, South Korea, and the
US have participated in the Six-Party Talks aimed at resolving the
stalemate over the DPRK's nuclear programs. North Korea pulled out
of the talks in November 2005. It test-fired ballistic missiles in
July 2006 and conducted a nuclear test in October 2006. North Korea
returned to the Six-Party Talks in December 2006 and subsequently
signed two agreements on denuclearization. The 13 February 2007
Initial Actions Agreement shut down the North's nuclear facilities
at Yongbyon in July 2007. In the 3 October 2007 Second Phase Actions
Agreement, Pyongyang pledged to disable those facilities and provide
a correct and complete declaration of its nuclear programs. Under
the supervision of US nuclear experts, North Korean personnel
completed a number of agreed-upon disablement actions at the three
core facilities at the Yongbyon nuclear complex by the end of 2007.
North Korea also began the discharge of spent fuel rods in December
2007, but it did not provide a declaration of its nuclear programs
by the end of the year.

Korea, South
An independent Korean state or collection of states has
existed almost continuously for several millennia. Between its
initial unification in the 7th century - from three predecessor
Korean states - until the 20th century, Korea existed as a single
independent country. In 1905, following the Russo-Japanese War,
Korea became a protectorate of imperial Japan, and in 1910 it was
annexed as a colony. Korea regained its independence following
Japan's surrender to the United States in 1945. After World War II,
a Republic of Korea (ROK) was set up in the southern half of the
Korean Peninsula while a Communist-style government was installed in
the north (the DPRK). During the Korean War (1950-53), US troops and
UN forces fought alongside soldiers from the ROK to defend South
Korea from DPRK attacks supported by China and the Soviet Union. An
armistice was signed in 1953, splitting the peninsula along a
demilitarized zone at about the 38th parallel. Thereafter, South
Korea achieved rapid economic growth with per capita income rising
to roughly 14 times the level of North Korea. In 1993, KIM Young-sam
became South Korea's first civilian president following 32 years of
military rule. South Korea today is a fully functioning modern
democracy. In June 2000, a historic first North-South summit took
place between the South's President KIM Dae-jung and the North's
leader KIM Jong Il. In October 2007, a second North-South summit
took place between the South's President ROH Moo-hyun and the North
Korean leader.

Kosovo
Serbs migrated to the territories of modern Kosovo in the 7th
century but did not fully incorporate them into the Serbian realm
until the early 13th century. The Serbian defeat at the Battle of
Kosovo in 1389 led to five centuries of Ottoman rule during which
large numbers of Turks and Albanians moved to Kosovo. By the end of
the 19th century, Albanians replaced the Serbs as the dominant
ethnic group in Kosovo. Serbia reacquired control over Kosovo from
the Ottoman Empire during the First Balkan War (1912). After World
War II (1945), the government of the Socialist Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia led by Josip TITO reorganized Kosovo as an autonomous
province within the constituent republic of Serbia. Over the next
four decades, Kosovo Albanians lobbied for greater autonomy, and
Kosovo was granted the status almost equal to that of a republic in
the 1974 Yugoslav Constitution. Despite the legislative concessions,
Albanian nationalism increased in the 1980s leading to nationalist
riots and calls for Kosovo's independence. Serbs in Kosovo
complained of mistreatment and Serb nationalist leaders, such as
Slobodan MILOSEVIC, exploited those charges to win support among
Serbian voters many of whom viewed Kosovo as their cultural
heartland. Under MILOSEVIC's leadership, Serbia instituted a new
constitution in 1989 that drastically curtailed Kosovo's autonomy.
Kosovo Albanian leaders responded in 1991 by organizing a referendum
that declared Kosovo independent from Serbia. The MILOSEVIC regime
carried out repressive measures against the Albanians in the early
1990s as the unofficial government of Kosovo, led by Ibrahim RUGOVA,
tried to use passive resistance to gain international assistance and
recognition of its demands for independence. In 1995, Albanians
dissatisfied with RUGOVA's nonviolent strategy created the Kosovo
Liberation Army and launched an insurgency. In 1998, MILOSEVIC
authorized a counterinsurgency campaign that resulted in massacres
and massive expulsions of ethnic Albanians by Serbian military,
police, and paramilitary forces. The international community tried
to resolve the conflict peacefully, but MILOSEVIC rejected the
proposed international settlement - the Rambouillet Accords -
leading to a three-month NATO bombing of Serbia beginning in March
1999, which forced Serbia to withdraw its military and police forces
from Kosovo in June 1999. UN Security Council Resolution 1244 (1999)
placed Kosovo under a transitional administration, the UN Interim
Administration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK), pending a determination of
Kosovo's future status. Under the resolution, Serbia's territorial
integrity was protected, but it was UNMIK that assumed
responsibility for governing Kosovo. In 2001, UNMIK promulgated a
Constitutional Framework, which established Kosovo's Provisional
Institutions of Self-Government (PISG). In succeeding years UNMIK
increasingly devolved responsibilities to the PISG. A UN-led process
began in late 2005 to determine Kosovo's future status. Negotiations
held intermittently between 2006 and 2007 on issues related to
decentralization, religious heritage, and minority rights failed to
yield a resolution between Serbia's willingness to grant a high
degree of autonomy and the Albanians' call for full independence for
Kosovo. On 17 February 2008, the Kosovo Assembly declared its
independence from Serbia.

Kuwait
Britain oversaw foreign relations and defense for the ruling
Kuwaiti AL-SABAH dynasty from 1899 until independence in 1961.
Kuwait was attacked and overrun by Iraq on 2 August 1990. Following
several weeks of aerial bombardment, a US-led, UN coalition began a
ground assault on 23 February 1991 that liberated Kuwait in four
days. Kuwait spent more than $5 billion to repair oil infrastructure
damaged during 1990-91. The AL-SABAH family has ruled since
returning to power in 1991 and reestablished an elected legislature
that in recent years has become increasingly assertive.

Kyrgyzstan
A Central Asian country of incredible natural beauty and
proud nomadic traditions, most of Kyrgyzstan was formally annexed to
Russia in 1876. The Kyrgyz staged a major revolt against the Tsarist
Empire in 1916 in which almost one-sixth of the Kyrgyz population
was killed. Kyrgyzstan became a Soviet republic in 1936 and achieved
independence in 1991 when the USSR dissolved. Nationwide
demonstrations in the spring of 2005 resulted in the ouster of
President Askar AKAYEV, who had run the country since 1990.
Subsequent presidential elections in July 2005 were won
overwhelmingly by former prime minister Kurmanbek BAKIEV. The
political opposition organized demonstrations in Bishkek in April,
May, and November 2006 resulting in the adoption of a new
constitution that transferred some of the president's powers to
parliament and the government. In December 2006, the Kyrgyz
parliament voted to adopt new amendments, restoring some of the
presidential powers lost in the November 2006 constitutional change.
By late-September 2007, both previous versions of the constitution
were declared illegal, and the country reverted to the AKAYEV-era
2003 constitution, which was subsequently modified in a flawed
referendum initiated by BAKIEV. The president then dissolved
parliament, called for early elections, and gained control of the
new parliament through his newly-created political party, Ak Jol, in
December 2007 elections. Current concerns include: privatization of
state-owned enterprises, negative trends in democracy and political
freedoms, reduction of corruption, improving interethnic relations,
and combating terrorism.

Laos
Modern-day Laos has its roots in the ancient Lao kingdom of Lan
Xang, established in the 14th Century under King FA NGUM. For 300
years Lan Xang had influence reaching into present-day Cambodia and
Thailand, as well as over all of what is now Laos. After centuries
of gradual decline, Laos came under the domination of Siam
(Thailand) from the late 18th century until the late 19th century
when it became part of French Indochina. The Franco-Siamese Treaty
of 1907 defined the current Lao border with Thailand. In 1975, the
Communist Pathet Lao took control of the government ending a
six-century-old monarchy and instituting a strict socialist regime
closely aligned to Vietnam. A gradual return to private enterprise
and the liberalization of foreign investment laws began in 1986.
Laos became a member of ASEAN in 1997.

Latvia
The name "Latvia" originates from the ancient Latgalians, one
of four eastern Baltic tribes that formed the ethnic core of the
Latvian people (ca. 8th-12th centuries A.D.). The region
subsequently came under the control of Germans, Poles, Swedes, and
finally, Russians. A Latvian republic emerged following World War I,
but it was annexed by the USSR in 1940 - an action never recognized
by the US and many other countries. Latvia reestablished its
independence in 1991 following the breakup of the Soviet Union.
Although the last Russian troops left in 1994, the status of the
Russian minority (some 30% of the population) remains of concern to
Moscow. Latvia joined both NATO and the EU in the spring of 2004.

Lebanon
Following the capture of Syria from the Ottoman Empire by
Anglo-French forces in 1918, France received a mandate over this
territory and separated out the region of Lebanon in 1920. France
granted this area independence in 1943. A lengthy civil war
(1975-1990) devastated the country, but Lebanon has since made
progress toward rebuilding its political institutions. Under the
Ta'if Accord - the blueprint for national reconciliation - the
Lebanese established a more equitable political system, particularly
by giving Muslims a greater voice in the political process while
institutionalizing sectarian divisions in the government. Since the
end of the war, Lebanon has conducted several successful elections.
Most militias have been disbanded, and the Lebanese Armed Forces
(LAF) have extended authority over about two-thirds of the country.
Hizballah, a radical Shia organization listed by the US State
Department as a Foreign Terrorist Organization, retains its weapons.
During Lebanon's civil war, the Arab League legitimized in the Ta'if
Accord Syria's troop deployment, numbering about 16,000 based mainly
east of Beirut and in the Bekaa Valley. Israel's withdrawal from
southern Lebanon in May 2000 and the passage in October 2004 of
UNSCR 1559 - a resolution calling for Syria to withdraw from Lebanon
and end its interference in Lebanese affairs - encouraged some
Lebanese groups to demand that Syria withdraw its forces as well.
The assassination of former Prime Minister Rafiq HARIRI and 20
others in February 2005 led to massive demonstrations in Beirut
against the Syrian presence ("the Cedar Revolution"), and Syria
withdrew the remainder of its military forces in April 2005. In
May-June 2005, Lebanon held its first legislative elections since
the end of the civil war free of foreign interference, handing a
majority to the bloc led by Saad HARIRI, the slain prime minister's
son. Lebanon continues to be plagued by violence - Hizballah
kidnapped two Israeli soldiers in July 2006 leading to a 34-day
conflict with Israel. The LAF in May-September 2007 battled Sunni
extremist group Fatah al-Islam in the Nahr al-Barid Palestinian
refugee camp; and the country has witnessed a string of politically
motivated assassinations since the death of Rafiq HARIRI. Lebanese
politicians in November 2007 were unable to agree on a successor to
Emile LAHUD when he stepped down as president, creating a political
vacuum until the election of Army Commander Michel SULAYMAN in May
2008 and the formation of a new cabinet in July 2008.

Lesotho
Basutoland was renamed the Kingdom of Lesotho upon
independence from the UK in 1966. The Basuto National Party ruled
for the first two decades. King MOSHOESHOE was exiled in 1990, but
returned to Lesotho in 1992 and was reinstated in 1995.
Constitutional government was restored in 1993 after seven years of
military rule. In 1998, violent protests and a military mutiny
following a contentious election prompted a brief but bloody
intervention by South African and Botswanan military forces under
the aegis of the Southern African Development Community. Subsequent
constitutional reforms restored relative political stability.
Peaceful parliamentary elections were held in 2002, but the National
Assembly elections of February 2007 were hotly contested and
aggrieved parties continue to periodically demonstrate their
distrust of the results.

Liberia
Settlement of freed slaves from the US in what is today
Liberia began in 1822; by 1847, the Americo-Liberians were able to
establish a republic. William TUBMAN, president from 1944-71, did
much to promote foreign investment and to bridge the economic,
social, and political gaps between the descendents of the original
settlers and the inhabitants of the interior. In 1980, a military
coup led by Samuel DOE ushered in a decade of authoritarian rule. In
December 1989, Charles TAYLOR launched a rebellion against DOE's
regime that led to a prolonged civil war in which DOE himself was
killed. A period of relative peace in 1997 allowed for elections
that brought TAYLOR to power, but major fighting resumed in 2000. An
August 2003 peace agreement ended the war and prompted the
resignation of former president Charles TAYLOR, who faces war crimes
charges in The Hague related to his involvement in Sierra Leone's
civil war. After two years of rule by a transitional government,
democratic elections in late 2005 brought President Ellen JOHNSON
SIRLEAF to power. The UN Mission in Liberia (UNMIL) maintains a
strong presence throughout the country, but the security situation
is still fragile and the process of rebuilding the social and
economic structure of this war-torn country will take many years.

Libya
The Italians supplanted the Ottoman Turks in the area around
Tripoli in 1911 and did not relinquish their hold until 1943 when
defeated in World War II. Libya then passed to UN administration and
achieved independence in 1951. Following a 1969 military coup, Col.
Muammar Abu Minyar al-QADHAFI began to espouse his own political
system, the Third Universal Theory. The system is a combination of
socialism and Islam derived in part from tribal practices and is
supposed to be implemented by the Libyan people themselves in a
unique form of "direct democracy." QADHAFI has always seen himself
as a revolutionary and visionary leader. He used oil funds during
the 1970s and 1980s to promote his ideology outside Libya,
supporting subversives and terrorists abroad to hasten the end of
Marxism and capitalism. In addition, beginning in 1973, he engaged
in military operations in northern Chad's Aozou Strip - to gain
access to minerals and to use as a base of influence in Chadian
politics - but was forced to retreat in 1987. UN sanctions in 1992
isolated QADHAFI politically following the downing of Pan AM Flight
103 over Lockerbie, Scotland. During the 1990s, QADHAFI began to
rebuild his relationships with Europe. UN sanctions were suspended
in April 1999 and finally lifted in September 2003 after Libya
accepted responsibility for the Lockerbie bombing. In December 2003,
Libya announced that it had agreed to reveal and end its programs to
develop weapons of mass destruction and to renounce terrorism.
QADHAFI has made significant strides in normalizing relations with
Western nations since then. He has received various Western European
leaders as well as many working-level and commercial delegations,
and made his first trip to Western Europe in 15 years when he
traveled to Brussels in April 2004. Libya has responded in good
faith to legal cases brought against it in US courts for terrorist
acts that predate its renunciation of violence. Claims for
compensation in the Lockerbie bombing, LaBelle disco bombing, and
UTA 772 bombing cases are ongoing. The US rescinded Libya's
designation as a state sponsor of terrorism in June 2006. In late
2007, Libya was elected by the General Assembly to a nonpermanent
seat on the United Nations Security Council for the 2008-09 term.

Liechtenstein
The Principality of Liechtenstein was established
within the Holy Roman Empire in 1719. Occupied by both French and
Russian troops during the Napoleanic wars, it became a sovereign
state in 1806 and joined the Germanic Confederation in 1815.
Liechtenstein became fully independent in 1866 when the
Confederation dissolved. Until the end of World War I, it was
closely tied to Austria, but the economic devastation caused by that
conflict forced Liechtenstein to enter into a customs and monetary
union with Switzerland. Since World War II (in which Liechtenstein
remained neutral), the country's low taxes have spurred outstanding
economic growth. In 2000, shortcomings in banking regulatory
oversight resulted in concerns about the use of financial
institutions for money laundering. However, Liechtenstein
implemented anti-money-laundering legislation and a Mutual Legal
Assistance Treaty with the US went into effect in 2003.

Lithuania
Lithuanian lands were united under MINDAUGAS in 1236; over
the next century, through alliances and conquest, Lithuania extended
its territory to include most of present-day Belarus and Ukraine. By
the end of the 14th century Lithuania was the largest state in
Europe. An alliance with Poland in 1386 led the two countries into a
union through the person of a common ruler. In 1569, Lithuania and
Poland formally united into a single dual state, the
Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. This entity survived until 1795,
when its remnants were partitioned by surrounding countries.
Lithuania regained its independence following World War I but was
annexed by the USSR in 1940 - an action never recognized by the US
and many other countries. On 11 March 1990, Lithuania became the
first of the Soviet republics to declare its independence, but
Moscow did not recognize this proclamation until September of 1991
(following the abortive coup in Moscow). The last Russian troops
withdrew in 1993. Lithuania subsequently restructured its economy
for integration into Western European institutions; it joined both
NATO and the EU in the spring of 2004.