Chapter M: Major infectious diseases (131)

Taiwan
Taiwan has a dynamic capitalist economy with gradually
decreasing government guidance of investment and foreign trade. In
keeping with this trend, some large, state-owned banks and
industrial firms have been privatized. Exports have provided the
primary impetus for industrialization. The island runs a large trade
surplus, and its foreign reserves are among the world's largest.
Recently opened cross-strait travel, transportation, and tourism
links are likely to increase Taiwan and China's economic
interdependence. In 2008 China overtook the US to become Taiwan's
second-largest source of imports, after Japan. China is also the
island's number one destination for foreign direct investment.
Growth fell to 0.1% in 2008 because of the global slowdown.

Tajikistan
Tajikistan has one of the lowest per capita GDPs among
the 15 former Soviet republics. Because of a lack of employment
opportunities in Tajikistan, nearly half of the labor force works
abroad, primarily in Russia, supporting families in Tajikistan
through remittances. The exact number of labor migrants is unknown,
but estimated at around 1 million. Less than 7% of the land area is
arable. Cotton is the most important crop, but this sector is
burdened with debt and obsolete infrastructure. Mineral resources
include silver, gold, uranium, and tungsten. Industry consists only
of a large aluminum plant, hydropower facilities, and small obsolete
factories mostly in light industry and food processing. The civil
war (1992-97) severely damaged the already weak economic
infrastructure and caused a sharp decline in industrial and
agricultural production. Tajikistan's economic situation remains
fragile due to uneven implementation of structural reforms,
corruption, weak governance, widespread unemployment, seasonal power
shortages, and the external debt burden. A debt restructuring
agreement was reached with Russia in December 2002 including a $250
million write-off of Tajikistan's $300 million debt. Completion of
the Sangtuda I hydropower dam - built with Russian investment - and
the Sangtuda II and Rogun dams will add substantially to electricity
output. If finished according to Tajik plans, Rogun will be the
world's tallest dam. Tajikistan has also received substantial
infrastructure development loans from the Chinese government to
improve roads and an electricity transmission network. To help
increase north-south trade, the US funded a $36 million bridge which
opened in August 2007 and links Tajikistan and Afghanistan. While,
Tajikistan has experienced steady economic growth since 1997, nearly
two-thirds of the population continues to live in poverty. Economic
growth reached 10.6% in 2004, but dropped below 8% in 2005-08, as
the effects of higher oil prices and then the international
financial crisis began to register - mainly in the form of lower
prices for key commodities and lower remittances from Tajiks working
in Russia, due to the declining economic conditions in that country.

Tanzania
Tanzania is in the bottom ten percent of the world's
economies in terms of per capita income. The economy depends heavily
on agriculture, which accounts for more than 40% of GDP, provides
85% of exports, and employs 80% of the work force. Topography and
climatic conditions, however, limit cultivated crops to only 4% of
the land area. Industry traditionally featured the processing of
agricultural products and light consumer goods. The World Bank, the
IMF, and bilateral donors have provided funds to rehabilitate
Tanzania's out-of-date economic infrastructure and to alleviate
poverty. Long-term growth through 2005 featured a pickup in
industrial production and a substantial increase in output of
minerals led by gold. Recent banking reforms have helped increase
private-sector growth and investment. Continued donor assistance and
solid macroeconomic policies supported real GDP growth of 7.1% in
2008.

Thailand
With a well-developed infrastructure, a free-enterprise
economy, and generally pro-investment policies, Thailand was one of
East Asia's best performers from 2002-04, averaging more than 6%
annual real GDP growth. However, overall economic growth has fallen
sharply - averaging 4.9% from 2005 to 2007 - as persistent political
crisis stalled infrastructure mega-projects, eroded investor and
consumer confidence, and damaged the country's international image.
The growth rate fell to 2.6% in 2008. Exports were the key economic
driver as foreign investment and consumer demand stalled. Export
growth from January 2005 to November 2008 averaged 17.5% annually.
Business uncertainty escalated, however, following the September
2006 coup when the military-installed government imposed capital
controls and considered far-reaching changes to foreign investment
rules and other business legislation. Although controversial capital
controls have since been lifted and business rules largely remain
unchanged, investor sentiment has not recovered. Moreover, the 2008
global financial crisis further darkened Thailand's economic
horizon. Continued political uncertainty will hamper resumption of
infrastructure mega-projects.

Timor-Leste
In late 1999, about 70% of the economic infrastructure
of Timor-Leste was laid waste by Indonesian troops and
anti-independence militias. Three hundred thousand people fled
westward. Over the next three years a massive international program,
manned by 5,000 peacekeepers (8,000 at peak) and 1,300 police
officers, led to substantial reconstruction in both urban and rural
areas. By the end of 2005, refugees had returned or had settled in
Indonesia. The country continues to face great challenges in
rebuilding its infrastructure, strengthening the civil
administration, and generating jobs for young people entering the
work force. The development of oil and gas resources in offshore
waters has begun to supplement government revenues ahead of schedule
and above expectations. The technology-intensive industry, however,
has done little to create jobs for the unemployed because there are
no production facilities in Timor. Gas is piped to Australia. In
June 2005, the National Parliament unanimously approved the creation
of a Petroleum Fund to serve as a repository for all petroleum
revenues and preserve the value of Timor-Leste's petroleum wealth
for future generations. The Fund held assets of US$3.9 billion as of
October 2008. The economy is recovering from the mid-2006 outbreak
of violence and civil unrest, which disrupted both private and
public sector economic activity. The government in 2008 resettled
tens of thousands of an estimated 100,000 internally displaced
persons (IDPs) and planned for all IDPs to return home by early
2009. The underlying economic policy challenge the country faces
remains how best to use oil-and-gas wealth to lift the non-oil
economy onto a higher growth path and to reduce poverty.

Togo
This small, sub-Saharan economy is heavily dependent on both
commercial and subsistence agriculture, which provides employment
for 65% of the labor force. Some basic foodstuffs must still be
imported. Cocoa, coffee, and cotton generate about 40% of export
earnings with cotton being the most important cash crop. Togo is the
world's fourth-largest producer of phosphate. The government's
decade-long effort, supported by the World Bank and the IMF, to
implement economic reform measures, encourage foreign investment,
and bring revenues in line with expenditures has moved slowly.
Progress depends on follow through on privatization, increased
openness in government financial operations, progress toward
legislative elections, and continued support from foreign donors.
Togo is working with donors to write a Poverty Reduction and Growth
Facility (PRGF) that could eventually lead to a debt reduction plan.
Economic growth remains marginal due to declining cotton production,
underinvestment in phosphate mining, and strained relations with
donors.

Tokelau
Tokelau's small size (three villages), isolation, and lack
of resources greatly restrain economic development and confine
agriculture to the subsistence level. The people rely heavily on aid
from New Zealand - about $4 million annually - to maintain public
services with annual aid being substantially greater than GDP. The
principal sources of revenue come from sales of copra, postage
stamps, souvenir coins, and handicrafts. Money is also remitted to
families from relatives in New Zealand.

Tonga
Tonga has a small, open, South Pacific island economy. It has
a narrow export base in agricultural goods. Squash, vanilla beans,
and yams are the main crops. Agricultural exports, including fish,
make up two-thirds of total exports. The country must import a high
proportion of its food, mainly from New Zealand. The country remains
dependent on external aid and remittances from Tongan communities
overseas to offset its trade deficit. Tourism is the second-largest
source of hard currency earnings following remittances. Tonga had
41,000 visitors in 2004. The government is emphasizing the
development of the private sector, especially the encouragement of
investment, and is committing increased funds for health and
education. Tonga has a reasonably sound basic infrastructure and
well developed social services. High unemployment among the young, a
continuing upturn in inflation, pressures for democratic reform, and
rising civil service expenditures are major issues facing the
government.

Trinidad and Tobago
Trinidad and Tobago has earned a reputation as
an excellent investment site for international businesses and has
one of the highest growth rates and per capita incomes in Latin
America. Economic growth for the past seven years has averaged
slightly over 8%, significantly above the regional average of about
3.7% for that same period; however, it has slowed down this year to
about 5% and is expected to slow further with the global downturn.
Growth has been fueled by investments in liquefied natural gas
(LNG), petrochemicals, and steel. Additional petrochemical,
aluminum, and plastics projects are in various stages of planning.
Trinidad and Tobago is the leading Caribbean producer of oil and
gas, and its economy is heavily dependent upon these resources but
it also supplies manufactured goods, notably food and beverages, as
well as cement to the Caribbean region. Oil and gas account for
about 40% of GDP and 80% of exports, but only 5% of employment. The
country is also a regional financial center, and tourism is a
growing sector, although it is not proportionately as important as
in many other Caribbean islands. The economy benefits from a growing
trade surplus. The MANNING administration has benefited from fiscal
surpluses fueled by the dynamic export sector; however, declines in
oil and gas prices have reduced government revenues which will
challenge his government's commitment to maintaining high levels of
public investment.

Tunisia
Tunisia has a diverse economy, with important agricultural,
mining, tourism, and manufacturing sectors. Governmental control of
economic affairs while still heavy has gradually lessened over the
past decade with increasing privatization, simplification of the tax
structure, and a prudent approach to debt. Progressive social
policies also have helped raise living conditions in Tunisia
relative to the region. Real growth, which averaged almost 5% over
the past decade, declined to 4.7% in 2008 and probably will decline
further in 2009 because of economic contraction and slowing of
import demand in Europe - Tunisia's largest export market. However,
development of non-textile manufacturing, a recovery in agricultural
production, and strong growth in the services sector somewhat
mitigated the economic effect of slowing exports. Tunisia will need
to reach even higher growth levels to create sufficient employment
opportunities for an already large number of unemployed as well as
the growing population of university graduates. The challenges ahead
include: privatizing industry, liberalizing the investment code to
increase foreign investment, improving government efficiency,
reducing the trade deficit, and reducing socioeconomic disparities
in the impoverished south and west.

Turkey
Turkey's dynamic economy is a complex mix of modern industry
and commerce along with a traditional agriculture sector that still
accounts for about 30% of employment. It has a strong and rapidly
growing private sector, yet the state remains a major participant in
basic industry, banking, transport, and communication. The largest
industrial sector is textiles and clothing, which accounts for
one-third of industrial employment; it faces stiff competition in
international markets with the end of the global quota system.
However, other sectors, notably the automotive and electronics
industries, are rising in importance within Turkey's export mix.
Real GDP growth has exceeded 6% in many years, but this strong
expansion has been interrupted by sharp declines in output in 1994,
1999, and 2001. Due to global contractions, annual growth is
estimated to have fallen to 1.1% in 2008. Inflation fell to 7.7% in
2005 - a 30-year low - but climbed to over 10% in 2008. Despite the
strong economic gains from 2002-07, which were largely due to
renewed investor interest in emerging markets, IMF backing, and
tighter fiscal policy, the economy is still burdened by a high
current account deficit and high external debt. Further economic and
judicial reforms and prospective EU membership are expected to boost
foreign direct investment. The stock value of FDI stood at nearly
$130 billion at year-end 2008. Privatization sales are currently
approaching $21 billion. Oil began to flow through the
Baku-Tblisi-Ceyhan pipeline in May 2006, marking a major milestone
that will bring up to 1 million barrels per day from the Caspian to
market. In 2007 and 2008, Turkish financial markets weathered
significant domestic political turmoil, including turbulence sparked
by controversy over the selection of former Foreign Minister
Abdullah GUL as Turkey's 11th president and the possible closure of
the Justice and Development Party (AKP). Economic fundamentals are
sound, marked by moderate economic growth and foreign direct
investment. Nevertheless, the Turkish economy may be faced with more
negative economic indicators in 2009 as a result of the global
economic slowdown. In addition, Turkey's high current account
deficit leaves the economy vulnerable to destabilizing shifts in
investor confidence.

Turkmenistan
Turkmenistan is largely a desert country with intensive
agriculture in irrigated oases and sizeable gas and oil resources.
One-half of its irrigated land is planted in cotton; formerly it was
the world's 10th-largest producer. Poor harvests in recent years
have led to an almost 50% decline in cotton exports. With an
authoritarian ex-Communist regime in power and a tribally based
social structure, Turkmenistan has taken a cautious approach to
economic reform, hoping to use gas and cotton sales to sustain its
inefficient economy. Privatization goals remain limited. From
1998-2005, Turkmenistan suffered from the continued lack of adequate
export routes for natural gas and from obligations on extensive
short-term external debt. At the same time, however, total exports
rose by an average of roughly 15% per year from 2003-08, largely
because of higher international oil and gas prices. A new pipeline
to China, set to come online in late 2009 or early 2010, will give
Turkmenistan an additional export route for its gas. Overall
prospects in the near future are discouraging because of widespread
internal poverty, a poor educational system, government misuse of
oil and gas revenues, and Ashgabat's reluctance to adopt
market-oriented reforms. In the past, Turkmenistan's economic
statistics were state secrets. The new government has established a
State Agency for Statistics, but GDP numbers and other figures are
subject to wide margins of error. In particular, the rate of GDP
growth is uncertain. Since his election, President BERDIMUHAMEDOW
has sought to improve the health and education systems, unified the
country's dual currency exchange rate, ordered the redenomination of
the manat, reduced state subsidies for gasoline, increased Internet
access both in schools and Internet cafes, ordered an independent
audit of Turkmenistan's gas resources, and created a special tourism
zone on the Caspian Sea. Although foreign investment is encouraged,
numerous bureaucratic obstacles from the NYYZOW-era remain.

Turks and Caicos Islands
The Turks and Caicos economy is based on
tourism, offshore financial services, and fishing. Most capital
goods and food for domestic consumption are imported. The US is the
leading source of tourists, accounting for more than three-quarters
of the 175,000 visitors that arrived in 2004. Major sources of
government revenue also include fees from offshore financial
activities and customs receipts.

Tuvalu
Tuvalu consists of a densely populated, scattered group of
nine coral atolls with poor soil. The country has no known mineral
resources and few exports and is almost entirely dependent upon
imported food and fuel. Subsistence farming and fishing are the
primary economic activities. Fewer than 1,000 tourists, on average,
visit Tuvalu annually. Job opportunities are scarce and public
sector workers make up most of those employed. About 15% of the
adult male population work as seamen on merchant ships abroad, and
remittances are a vital source of income contributing around $4
million in 2006. Substantial income is received annually from the
Tuvalu Trust Fund (TTF) an international trust fund established in
1987 by Australia, NZ, and the UK and supported also by Japan and
South Korea. Thanks to wise investments and conservative
withdrawals, this fund grew from an initial $17 million to an
estimated value of $77 million in 2006. The TFF contributed nearly
$9 million towards the government budget in 2006 and is an important
cushion for meeting shortfalls in the government's budget. The US
Government is also a major revenue source for Tuvalu because of
payments from a 1988 treaty on fisheries. In an effort to ensure
financial stability and sustainability, the government is pursuing
public sector reforms, including privatization of some government
functions and personnel cuts. Tuvalu also derives royalties from the
lease of its ".tv" Internet domain name with revenue of more than $2
million in 2006. A minor source of government revenue comes from the
sale of stamps and coins. With merchandise exports only a fraction
of merchandise imports, continued reliance must be placed on fishing
and telecommunications license fees, remittances from overseas
workers, official transfers, and income from overseas investments.
Growing income disparities and the vulnerability of the country to
climatic change are among leading concerns for the nation.

Uganda
Uganda has substantial natural resources, including fertile
soils, regular rainfall, sizable mineral deposits of copper, cobalt,
gold, and other minerals, and recently discovered oil. Agriculture
is the most important sector of the economy, employing over 80% of
the work force. Coffee accounts for the bulk of export revenues.
Since 1986, the government - with the support of foreign countries
and international agencies - has acted to rehabilitate and stabilize
the economy by undertaking currency reform, raising producer prices
on export crops, increasing prices of petroleum products, and
improving civil service wages. The policy changes are especially
aimed at dampening inflation and boosting production and export
earnings. During 1990-2001, the economy turned in a solid
performance based on continued investment in the rehabilitation of
infrastructure, improved incentives for production and exports,
reduced inflation, gradually improved domestic security, and the
return of exiled Indian-Ugandan entrepreneurs. Growth continues to
be solid, despite variability in the price of coffee, Uganda's
principal export, and a consistent upturn in Uganda's export
markets. In 2000, Uganda qualified for enhanced Highly Indebted Poor
Countries (HIPC) debt relief worth $1.3 billion and Paris Club debt
relief worth $145 million. These amounts combined with the original
HIPC debt relief added up to about $2 billion.

Ukraine
After Russia, the Ukrainian republic was far and away the
most important economic component of the former Soviet Union,
producing about four times the output of the next-ranking republic.
Its fertile black soil generated more than one-fourth of Soviet
agricultural output, and its farms provided substantial quantities
of meat, milk, grain, and vegetables to other republics. Likewise,
its diversified heavy industry supplied the unique equipment (for
example, large diameter pipes) and raw materials to industrial and
mining sites (vertical drilling apparatus) in other regions of the
former USSR. Shortly after independence was ratified in December
1991, the Ukrainian Government liberalized most prices and erected a
legal framework for privatization, but widespread resistance to
reform within the government and the legislature soon stalled reform
efforts and led to some backtracking. Output by 1999 had fallen to
less than 40% of the 1991 level. Ukraine's dependence on Russia for
energy supplies and the lack of significant structural reform have
made the Ukrainian economy vulnerable to external shocks. Ukraine
depends on imports to meet about three-fourths of its annual oil and
natural gas requirements. Ukraine concluded a deal with Russia in
January 2006 that almost doubled the price Ukraine pays for Russian
gas. Disputes with Russia over pricing have led to periodic gas
cut-offs. Outside institutions - particularly the IMF - have
encouraged Ukraine to quicken the pace and scope of reforms.
Ukrainian Government officials eliminated most tax and customs
privileges in a March 2005 budget law, bringing more economic
activity out of Ukraine's large shadow economy, but more
improvements are needed, including fighting corruption, developing
capital markets, and improving the legislative framework. Ukraine's
economy was buoyant despite political turmoil between the prime
minister and president until mid-2008. Real GDP growth exceeded 7%
in 2006-07, fueled by high global prices for steel - Ukraine's top
export - and by strong domestic consumption, spurred by rising
pensions and wages. The drop in steel prices and Ukraine's exposure
to the global financial crisis due to aggressive foreign borrowing
has lowered growth in 2008 and the economy probably will contract in
2009. Ukraine reached an agreement with the IMF for a $16.5 billion
standby arrangement in November 2008 to deal with the economic
crisis. However, political turmoil in Ukraine as well as
deteriorating external conditions are likely to hamper efforts for
economic recovery.

United Arab Emirates
The UAE has an open economy with a high per
capita income and a sizable annual trade surplus. Successful efforts
at economic diversification have reduced the portion of GDP based on
oil and gas output to 25%. Since the discovery of oil in the UAE
more than 30 years ago, the UAE has undergone a profound
transformation from an impoverished region of small desert
principalities to a modern state with a high standard of living. The
government has increased spending on job creation and infrastructure
expansion and is opening up utilities to greater private sector
involvement. In April 2004, the UAE signed a Trade and Investment
Framework Agreement with Washington and in November 2004 agreed to
undertake negotiations toward a Free Trade Agreement with the US.
The country's Free Trade Zones - offering 100% foreign ownership and
zero taxes - are helping to attract foreign investors. Higher oil
revenue, strong liquidity, housing shortages, and cheap credit in
2005-07 led to a surge in asset prices (shares and real estate) and
consumer inflation. The global financial crisis and the resulting
tight international credit market and falling oil prices have
already begun to deflate asset prices and will result in slower
economic growth for 2009. Dependence on oil and a large expatriate
workforce are significant long-term challenges. The UAE's strategic
plan for the next few years focuses on diversification and creating
more opportunities for nationals through improved education and
increased private sector employment.

United Kingdom
The UK, a leading trading power and financial center,
is one of the quintet of trillion dollar economies of Western
Europe. Over the past two decades, the government has greatly
reduced public ownership and contained the growth of social welfare
programs. Agriculture is intensive, highly mechanized, and efficient
by European standards, producing about 60% of food needs with less
than 2% of the labor force. The UK has large coal, natural gas, and
oil resources, but its oil and natural gas reserves are declining
and the UK became a net importer of energy in 2005; energy
industries now contribute about 4% to GDP. Services, particularly
banking, insurance, and business services, account by far for the
largest proportion of GDP while industry continues to decline in
importance. Since emerging from recession in 1992, Britain's economy
enjoyed the longest period of expansion on record during which time
growth outpaced most of Western Europe. The global economic
slowdown, tight credit, and falling home prices, however, pushed
Britain back into recession in the latter half of 2008 and prompted
the BROWN government to implement a number of new measures to
stimulate the economy and stabilize the financial markets; these
include part-nationalizing the banking system, cutting taxes,
suspending public sector borrowing rules, and bringing forward
public spending on capital projects. The Bank of England
periodically coordinates interest rate moves with the European
Central Bank, but Britain remains outside the European Economic and
Monetary Union (EMU), and opinion polls show a majority of Britons
oppose joining the euro.

United States
The US has the largest and most technologically
powerful economy in the world, with a per capita GDP of $46,900. In
this market-oriented economy, private individuals and business firms
make most of the decisions, and the federal and state governments
buy needed goods and services predominantly in the private
marketplace. US business firms enjoy greater flexibility than their
counterparts in Western Europe and Japan in decisions to expand
capital plant, to lay off surplus workers, and to develop new
products. At the same time, they face higher barriers to enter their
rivals' home markets than foreign firms face entering US markets. US
firms are at or near the forefront in technological advances,
especially in computers and in medical, aerospace, and military
equipment; their advantage has narrowed since the end of World War
II. The onrush of technology largely explains the gradual
development of a "two-tier labor market" in which those at the
bottom lack the education and the professional/technical skills of
those at the top and, more and more, fail to get comparable pay
raises, health insurance coverage, and other benefits. Since 1975,
practically all the gains in household income have gone to the top
20% of households. The war in March-April 2003 between a US-led
coalition and Iraq, and the subsequent occupation of Iraq, required
major shifts in national resources to the military. Hurricane
Katrina caused extensive damage in the Gulf Coast region in August
2005, but had a small impact on overall GDP growth for the year.
Soaring oil prices between 2005 and the first half of 2008
threatened inflation and unemployment, as higher gasoline prices ate
into consumers' budgets. Imported oil accounts for about two-thirds
of US consumption. Long-term problems include inadequate investment
in economic infrastructure, rapidly rising medical and pension costs
of an aging population, sizable trade and budget deficits, and
stagnation of family income in the lower economic groups. The
merchandise trade deficit reached a record $819 billion in 2007 and
$821 billion in 2008. The global economic downturn, the sub-prime
mortgage crisis, investment bank failures, falling home prices, and
tight credit pushed the United States into a recession by mid-2008.
To help stabilize financial markets, the US Congress established a
$700 billion Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP) in October 2008.
The government used some of these funds to purchase equity in US
banks and other industrial corporations. In January 2009 the US
Congress passed and President Barack OBAMA signed a bill providing
an additional $787 billion fiscal stimulus - two-thirds on
additional spending and one-third on tax cuts - to create jobs and
to help the economy recover.

United States Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges
no economic activity

Uruguay
Uruguay's economy is characterized by an export-oriented
agricultural sector, a well-educated work force, and high levels of
social spending. After averaging growth of 5% annually during
1996-98, in 1999-2002 the economy suffered a major downturn,
stemming largely from the spillover effects of the economic problems
of its large neighbors, Argentina and Brazil. In 2001-02, Argentine
citizens made massive withdrawals of dollars deposited in Uruguayan
banks after bank deposits in Argentina were frozen, which led to a
plunge in the Uruguayan peso, a banking crisis, and a sharp economic
contraction. Real GDP fell in four years by nearly 20%, with 2002
the worst year. The unemployment rate rose, inflation surged, and
the burden of external debt doubled. Financial assistance from the
IMF helped stem the damage. Uruguay restructured its external debt
in 2003 without asking creditors to accept a reduction on the
principal. Economic growth for Uruguay resumed, and averaged 8%
annually during the period 2004-08.

Uzbekistan
Uzbekistan is a dry, landlocked country of which 11%
consists of intensely cultivated, irrigated river valleys. More than
60% of its population lives in densely populated rural communities.
Uzbekistan is now the world's second-largest cotton exporter and
fifth largest producer; it relies heavily on cotton production as
the major source of export earnings and has come under increasing
international criticism for the use of child labor in its annual
cotton harvest. Other major export earners include gold, natural
gas, and oil. Following independence in September 1991, the
government sought to prop up its Soviet-style command economy with
subsidies and tight controls on production and prices. While aware
of the need to improve the investment climate, the government still
sponsors measures that often increase, not decrease, its control
over business decisions. A sharp increase in the inequality of
income distribution has hurt the lower ranks of society since
independence. In 2003, the government accepted Article VIII
obligations under the IMF, providing for full currency
convertibility. However, strict currency controls and tightening of
borders have lessened the effects of convertibility and have also
led to some shortages that have further stifled economic activity.
The Central Bank often delays or restricts convertibility,
especially for consumer goods. Potential investment by Russia and
China in Uzbekistan's gas and oil industry, as well as increased
cooperation with South Korea in the realm of civil aviation, may
boost growth prospects. In November 2005, Russian President Vladimir
PUTIN and Uzbekistan President KARIMOV signed an "alliance," which
included provisions for economic and business cooperation. Russian
businesses have shown increased interest in Uzbekistan, especially
in mining, telecom, and oil and gas. In 2006, Uzbekistan took steps
to rejoin the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO) and the
Eurasian Economic Community (EurASEC), which it subsequently left in
2008, both organizations dominated by Russia. Uzbek authorities have
accused US and other foreign companies operating in Uzbekistan of
violating Uzbek tax laws and have frozen their assets.

Vanuatu
This South Pacific island economy is based primarily on
small-scale agriculture, which provides a living for over 70% of the
population. Fishing, offshore financial services, and tourism, with
more than 167,000 visitors in 2007 are other mainstays of the
economy. Mineral deposits are negligible; the country has no known
petroleum deposits. A small light industry sector caters to the
local market. Tax revenues come mainly from import duties. Economic
development is hindered by dependence on relatively few commodity
exports, vulnerability to natural disasters, and long distances from
main markets and between constituent islands. In response to foreign
concerns, the government has promised to tighten regulation of its
offshore financial center. In mid-2002, the government stepped up
efforts to boost tourism through improved air connections, resort
development, and cruise ship facilities. Agriculture, especially
livestock farming, is a second target for growth. Australia and New
Zealand are the main suppliers of tourists and foreign aid.

Venezuela
Venezuela remains highly dependent on oil revenues, which
account for roughly 90% of export earnings, about 50% of the federal
budget revenues, and around 30% of GDP. A nationwide strike between
December 2002 and February 2003 had far-reaching economic
consequences - real GDP declined by around 9% in 2002 and 8% in 2003
- but economic output since then has recovered strongly. Fueled by
high oil prices, record government spending helped to boost GDP by
about 10% in 2006, 8% in 2007, and nearly 5% in 2008. This spending,
combined with recent minimum wage hikes and improved access to
domestic credit, has created a consumption boom but has come at the
cost of higher inflation - roughly 20% in 2007 and more than 30% in
2008. Imports also have jumped significantly. Declining oil prices
in the latter part of 2008 are expected to undermine the govenment's
ability to continue the high rate of spending. President Hugo CHAVEZ
in 2008 continued efforts to increase the government's contol of the
economy by nationalizing firms in the cement and steel sectors. In
2007, he nationalized firms in the petroleum, communications, and
electricity sectors. In July 2008, CHAVEZ implemented by decree a
number of laws that further consolidate and centralize authority
over the economy through his plan for "21st Century Socialism."

Vietnam
Vietnam is a densely-populated developing country that in
the last 30 years has had to recover from the ravages of war, the
loss of financial support from the old Soviet Bloc, and the
rigidities of a centrally-planned economy. Since 2001, Vietnamese
authorities have reaffirmed their commitment to economic
liberalization and international integration. They have moved to
implement the structural reforms needed to modernize the economy and
to produce more competitive export-driven industries. Vietnam's
membership in the ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA) and entry into force
of the US-Vietnam Bilateral Trade Agreement in December 2001 have
led to even more rapid changes in Vietnam's trade and economic
regime. Vietnam's exports to the US increased 900% from 2001 to
2007. Vietnam joined the WTO in January 2007 following over a decade
long negotiation process. WTO membership has provided Vietnam an
anchor to the global market and reinforced the domestic economic
reform process. Among other benefits, accession allows Vietnam to
take advantage of the phase-out of the Agreement on Textiles and
Clothing, which eliminated quotas on textiles and clothing for WTO
partners on 1 January 2005. Agriculture's share of economic output
has continued to shrink from about 25% in 2000 to less than 20% in
2008. Deep poverty has declined significantly and is now smaller
than that of China, India, and the Philippines. Vietnam is working
to create jobs to meet the challenge of a labor force that is
growing by more than one-and-a-half million people every year. The
global financial crisis, however, will constrain Vietnam's ability
to create jobs and further reduce poverty. As global growth sharply
drops in 2009, Vietnam's export-oriented economy - exports were 68%
of GDP in 2007 - will suffer from lower exports, higher unemployment
and corporate bankruptcies, and decreased foreign investment.

Virgin Islands
Tourism is the primary economic activity, accounting
for 80% of GDP and employment. The islands hosted 2.6 million
visitors in 2005. The manufacturing sector consists of petroleum
refining, rum distilling, textiles, electronics, pharmaceuticals,
and watch assembly. One of the world's largest petroleum refineries
is at Saint Croix. The agricultural sector is small, with most food
being imported. International business and financial services are
small but growing components of the economy. The islands are
vulnerable to substantial damage from storms. The government is
working to improve fiscal discipline, to support construction
projects in the private sector, to expand tourist facilities, to
reduce crime, and to protect the environment.

Wake Island
Economic activity is limited to providing services to
military personnel and contractors located on the island. All food
and manufactured goods must be imported.

Wallis and Futuna
The economy is limited to traditional subsistence
agriculture, with about 80% of labor force earnings from agriculture
(coconuts and vegetables), livestock (mostly pigs), and fishing.
About 4% of the population is employed in government. Revenues come
from French Government subsidies, licensing of fishing rights to
Japan and South Korea, import taxes, and remittances from expatriate
workers in New Caledonia.

West Bank
The West Bank - the larger of the two areas comprising the
Palestinian Authority (PA) - has experienced a general decline in
economic conditions since the second intifada began in September
2000. The downturn has been largely a result of Israeli closure
policies - the imposition of closures and access restrictions in
response to security concerns in Israel - which disrupted labor and
trading relationships. In 2001, and even more severely in 2002,
Israeli military measures in PA areas resulted in the destruction of
capital, the disruption of administrative structures, and widespread
business closures. International aid of at least $1.14 billion to
the West Bank and Gaza Strip in 2004 prevented the complete collapse
of the economy and allowed some reforms in the government's
financial operations. In 2005, high unemployment and limited trade
opportunities - due to continued closures both within the West Bank
and externally - stymied growth. Israel's and the international
community's financial embargo of the PA when HAMAS ran the PA during
March 2006 - June 2007 interrupted the provision of PA social
services and the payment of PA salaries. Since then the FAYYAD
government in the West Bank has restarted salary payments and the
provision of services but would be unable to operate absent high
levels of international assistance.

Western Sahara
Western Sahara depends on pastoral nomadism, fishing,
and phosphate mining as the principal sources of income for the
population. The territory lacks sufficient rainfall for sustainable
agricultural production, and most of the food for the urban
population must be imported. Incomes in Western Sahara are
substantially below the Moroccan level. The Moroccan Government
controls all trade and other economic activities in Western Sahara.
Morocco and the EU signed a four-year agreement in July 2006
allowing European vessels to fish off the coast of Morocco,
including the disputed waters off the coast of Western Sahara.
Moroccan energy interests in 2001 signed contracts to explore for
oil off the coast of Western Sahara, which has angered the
Polisario. However, in 2006 the Polisario awarded similar
exploration licenses in the disputed territory, which would come
into force if Morocco and the Polisario resolve their dispute over
Western Sahara.

World
Global output rose by 3.8% in 2008, down from 5.2% in 2007.
Among major economies, growth was led by China (9.8%), Russia
(7.4%), and India (7.3%). Worldwide, nations varied widely in their
growth results, with Macau (15%), Azerbaijan (13.2%), and Angola
(11.6%), registering the highest. Growth rates slowed in all the
major industrial countries and most developing countries, because of
uncertainties in the financial markets and lowered consumer
confidence. Externally, the nation-state, as a bedrock
economic-political institution, is steadily losing control over
international flows of people, goods, funds, and technology.
Internally, the central government often finds its control over
resources slipping as separatist regional movements - typically
based on ethnicity - gain momentum, e.g., in many of the successor
states of the former Soviet Union, in the former Yugoslavia, in
India, in Iraq, in Indonesia, and in Canada. Externally, the central
government is losing decisionmaking powers to international bodies,
notably the EU. In Western Europe, governments face the difficult
political problem of channeling resources away from welfare programs
in order to increase investment and strengthen incentives to seek
employment. The addition of 80 million people each year to an
already overcrowded globe is exacerbating the problems of pollution,
desertification, underemployment, epidemics, and famine. Because of
their own internal problems and priorities, the industrialized
countries devote insufficient resources to deal effectively with the
poorer areas of the world, which, at least from an economic point of
view, are becoming further marginalized. The introduction of the
euro as the common currency of much of Western Europe in January
1999, while paving the way for an integrated economic powerhouse,
poses economic risks because of varying levels of income and
cultural and political differences among the participating nations.
The terrorist attacks on the US on 11 September 2001 accentuated a
growing risk to global prosperity, illustrated, for example, by the
reallocation of resources away from investment to anti-terrorist
programs. The opening of war in March 2003 between a US-led
coalition and Iraq added new uncertainties to global economic
prospects. The complex political difficulties and the high economic
cost of establishing domestic order in Iraq became major global
problems that continued through 2008.

Yemen
Yemen, one of the poorest countries in the Arab world,
reported average annual growth in the range of 3-4% from 2000
through 2007. In 2008, growth declined slightly as the price of oil
dropped and the slowing global economy reduced demand for oil.
Yemen's economic fortunes depend mostly on declining oil resources,
but the country is trying to diversify its earnings. In 2006, Yemen
began an economic reform program designed to bolster non-oil sectors
of the economy and foreign investment. As a result of the program,
international donors pledged about $5 billion for development
projects. A liquefied natural gas facility is scheduled to open in
2009. Yemen has limited exposure to the international financial
system and no capital markets, however, the global financial crisis
probably will reduce international aid in 2009.

Zambia
Zambia's economy has experienced strong growth in recent
years, with real GDP growth in 2005-08 about 6% per year.
Privatization of government-owned copper mines in the 1990s relieved
the government from covering mammoth losses generated by the
industry and greatly improved the chances for copper mining to
return to profitability and spur economic growth. Copper output has
increased steadily since 2004, due to higher copper prices and
foreign investment. In 2005, Zambia qualified for debt relief under
the Highly Indebted Poor Country Initiative, consisting of
approximately USD 6 billion in debt relief. Zambia experienced a
bumper harvest in 2007, which helped to boost GDP and agricultural
exports and contain inflation. Although poverty continues to be
significant problem in Zambia, its economy has strengthened,
featuring single-digit inflation, a relatively stable currency,
decreasing interest rates, and increasing levels of trade. The
decline in world commodity prices and demand will hurt GDP growth in
2009, and elections and campaign promises are likely to weaken
Zambia's improved fiscal stance.

Zimbabwe
The government of Zimbabwe faces a wide variety of
difficult economic problems as it struggles with an unsustainable
fiscal deficit, an overvalued official exchange rate,
hyperinflation, and bare store shelves. Its 1998-2002 involvement in
the war in the Democratic Republic of the Congo drained hundreds of
millions of dollars from the economy. The government's land reform
program, characterized by chaos and violence, has badly damaged the
commercial farming sector, the traditional source of exports and
foreign exchange and the provider of 400,000 jobs, turning Zimbabwe
into a net importer of food products. The EU and the US provide food
aid on humanitarian grounds. Badly needed support from the IMF has
been suspended because of the government's arrears on past loans and
the government's unwillingness to enact reforms that would stabilize
the economy. The Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe routinely prints money to
fund the budget deficit, causing the official annual inflation rate
to rise from 32% in 1998, to 133% in 2004, 585% in 2005, past 1,000%
in 2006, and 26,000% in November 2007, and to 11.2 million percent
in 2008. Meanwhile, the official exchange rate fell from
approximately 1 (revalued) Zimbabwean dollar per US dollar in 2003
to 30,000 per US dollar in September 2007.

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@2117

Field Listing :: Pipelines

This entry gives the lengths and types of pipelines for transporting
products like natural gas, crude oil, or petroleum products.
Country

Pipelines(km)

Afghanistan
gas 466 km (2008)

Albania
gas 339 km; oil 207 km (2008)

Algeria
condensate 1,937 km; gas 14,648 km; liquid petroleum gas
2,933 km; oil 7,579 km (2008)

Angola
gas 2 km; oil 87 km (2008)

Argentina
gas 28,138 km; liquid petroleum gas 41 km; oil 5,939 km;
refined products 3,629 km (2008)

Armenia
gas 2,233 km (2008)

Australia
gas 27,105 km; liquid petroleum gas 240 km; oil 3,258 km;
oil/gas/water 1 km (2008)

Austria
gas 2,721 km; oil 663 km; refined products 157 km (2008)

Azerbaijan
condensate 1 km; gas 3,361 km; oil 1,424 km (2008)

Bahrain
gas 20 km; oil 32 km (2008)

Bangladesh
gas 2,597 km (2008)

Belarus
gas 5,250 km; oil 1,528 km; refined products 1,730 km (2008)

Belgium
gas 1,330 km; oil 158 km; refined products 535 km (2008)

Bolivia
gas 4,883 km; liquid petroleum gas 47 km; oil 2,475 km;
refined products 1,589 km (2008)

Brazil
condensate/gas 62 km; gas 9,892 km; liquid petroleum gas 353
km; oil 4,517 km; refined products 4,465 km (2008)

Brunei
gas 37 km; oil 18 km (2008)

Bulgaria
gas 2,926 km; oil 339 km; refined products 156 km (2008)

Burma
gas 2,228 km; oil 558 km (2008)

Cameroon
oil 889 km (2008)

Canada
crude and refined oil 23,564 km; liquid petroleum gas 74,980
km (2006)

Chad
oil 250 km (2008)

Chile
gas 2,676 km; liquid petroleum gas 519 km; oil 892 km; refined
products 769 km (2008)

China
gas 28,132 km; oil 20,204 km; refined products 9,746 km (2008)

Colombia
gas 4,560 km; oil 6,094 km; refined products 3,383 km (2008)

Congo, Democratic Republic of the
gas 37 km; oil 39 km; refined
products 756 km (2008)

Congo, Republic of the
gas 7 km; oil 207 km (2008)

Costa Rica
refined products 796 km (2008)

Cote d'Ivoire
condensate 86 km; gas 180 km; oil 92 km (2008)

Croatia
gas 1,327 km; oil 583 km (2008)

Cuba
gas 41 km; oil 230 km (2008)

Czech Republic
gas 7,010 km; oil 547 km; refined products 94 km
(2008)

Denmark
gas 2,858 km; oil 107 km (2008)

Ecuador
extra heavy crude 435 km; gas 5 km; oil 1,374 km; refined
products 1,301 km (2008)

Egypt
condensate 320 km; condensate/gas 13 km; gas 5,586 km; liquid
petroleum gas 956 km; oil 4,314 km; oil/gas/water 3 km; refined
products 895 km; unknown 59 km; water 9 km (2008)

Equatorial Guinea
gas 38 km (2008)

Estonia
gas 859 km (2008)

Finland
gas 694 km (2008)

France
gas 14,688 km; oil 3,036 km; refined products 5,080 km (2008)

Gabon
gas 240 km; oil 723 km (2008)

Georgia
gas 1,591 km; oil 1,253 km (2008)

Germany
gas 24,364 km; oil 3,379 km; refined products 3,843 km (2008)

Ghana
oil 5 km; refined products 309 km (2008)

Greece
gas 1,197 km; oil 75 km (2008)

Guatemala
oil 480 km (2008)

Hungary
gas 4,407 km; oil 987 km; refined products 335 km (2008)

India
condensate/gas 2 km; gas 6,061 km; liquid petroleum gas 2,156
km; oil 7,678 km; refined products 6,876 km (2008)

Indonesia
condensate 735 km; condensate/gas 73 km; gas 5,797 km; oil
5,721 km; oil/gas/water 12 km; refined products 1,370 km; water 44
km (2008)

Iran
condensate 7 km; condensate/gas 12 km; gas 19,246 km; liquid
petroleum gas 570 km; oil 7,018 km; refined products 7,936 km (2008)

Iraq
gas 2,501 km; liquid petroleum gas 918 km; oil 5,418 km;
refined products 1,637 km (2008)

Ireland
gas 1,550 km (2008)

Israel
gas 176 km; oil 442 km; refined products 261 km (2008)

Italy
gas 17,544 km; oil 1,241 km (2008)

Japan
gas 3,862 km; oil 167 km; oil/gas/water 53 km (2008)

Jordan
gas 439 km; oil 49 km (2008)

Kazakhstan
condensate 658 km; gas 11,146 km; oil 10,376 km; refined
products 1,095 km; water 1,465 km (2008)

Kenya
oil 4 km; refined products 928 km (2008)

Korea, North
oil 154 km (2008)

Korea, South
gas 1,423 km; refined products 827 km (2008)

Kuwait
gas 269 km; oil 540 km; refined products 57 km (2008)

Kyrgyzstan
gas 254 km; oil 16 km (2008)

Laos
refined products 540 km (2008)

Latvia
gas 948 km; refined products 415 km (2008)

Lebanon
gas 43 km (2008)

Libya
condensate 776 km; gas 2,860 km; oil 6,987 km (2008)

Liechtenstein
gas 20 km (2008)

Lithuania
gas 1,695 km; refined products 114 km (2008)

Luxembourg
gas 155 km (2008)

Macedonia
gas 268 km; oil 120 km (2008)

Malaysia
condensate 3 km; gas 1,965 km; oil 31 km; refined products
114 km (2008)

Mexico
gas 22,705 km; liquid petroleum gas 1,875 km; oil 8,688 km;
oil/gas/water 228 km; refined products 6,520 km (2006)

Moldova
gas 1,906 km (2008)

Morocco
gas 830 km; oil 439 km (2008)

Mozambique
gas 918 km; refined products 278 km (2008)

Netherlands
gas 3,816 km; oil 365 km; refined products 716 km (2008)

New Zealand
condensate 331 km; gas 1,838 km; liquid petroleum gas
172 km; oil 288 km; refined products 198 km (2008)

Nicaragua
oil 54 km (2008)

Nigeria
condensate 21 km; gas 2,560 km; liquid petroleum gas 97 km;
oil 3,396 km; refined products 4,090 km (2008)

Norway
condensate 31 km; gas 64 km (2008)

Oman
gas 4,126 km; oil 3,558 km; refined products 263 km (2008)

Pakistan
gas 10,402 km; oil 2,076 km; refined products 792 km (2008)

Papua New Guinea
oil 195 km (2008)

Peru
extra heavy crude 533 km; gas 1,078 km; liquid petroleum gas
654 km; oil 1,018 km; refined products 15 km (2008)

Philippines
oil 107 km; refined products 112 km (2008)

Poland
gas 13,631 km; oil 1,384 km; refined products 777 km (2008)

Portugal
gas 1,098 km; oil 11 km; refined products 188 km (2008)

Qatar
condensate 145 km; condensate/gas 132 km; gas 978 km; liquid
petroleum gas 90 km; oil 382 km (2008)

Romania
gas 3,588 km; oil 2,424 km (2008)

Russia
condensate 122 km; gas 158,767 km; liquid petroleum gas 127
km; oil 74,285 km; refined products 13,658 km; water 23 km (2008)

Saudi Arabia
condensate 212 km; gas 1,880 km; liquid petroleum gas
1,183 km; oil 4,239 km; refined products 1,148 km (2008)

Senegal
gas 43 km; refined products 8 km (2008)

Serbia
gas 1,921 km; oil 323 km (2008)

Singapore
gas 106 km (2008)

Slovakia
gas 6,769 km; oil 416 km (2008)

Slovenia
gas 840 km; oil 11 km (2008)

South Africa
condensate 11 km; gas 908 km; oil 980 km; refined
products 1,379 km (2008)

Spain
gas 7,738 km; oil 560 km; refined products 3,445 km (2008)

Sudan
gas 156 km; oil 4,070 km; refined products 1,613 km (2008)

Suriname
oil 50 km (2008)

Sweden
gas 786 km (2008)

Switzerland
gas 1,662 km; oil 94 km; refined products 7 km (2008)

Syria
gas 2,900 km; oil 2,000 km (2008)

Taiwan
gas 406 km (2008)

Tajikistan
gas 549 km; oil 38 km (2008)

Tanzania
gas 253 km; oil 888 km; refined products 8 km (2008)

Thailand
gas 1,348 km; refined products 323 km (2008)

Trinidad and Tobago
gas 659 km; oil 336 km (2008)

Tunisia
gas 2,102 km; oil 1,195 km; refined products 372 km (2008)

Turkey
gas 7,555 km; oil 3,636 km (2008)

Turkmenistan
gas 6,417 km; oil 1,457 km (2008)

Ukraine
gas 33,327 km; oil 4,514 km; refined products 4,211 km (2008)

United Arab Emirates
condensate 458 km; gas 2,129 km; liquid
petroleum gas 220 km; oil 1,310 km; refined products 212 km; water
90 km (2008)

United Kingdom
condensate 43 km; gas 7,541 km; liquid petroleum gas
59 km; oil 699 km; refined products 4,417 km (2008)

United States
petroleum products 244,620 km; natural gas 548,665 km
(2006)

Uruguay
gas 226 km; oil 155 km (2008)

Uzbekistan
gas 9,706 km; oil 868 km (2008)

Venezuela
extra heavy crude 980 km; gas 5,036 km; oil 6,695 km;
refined products 1,484 km; unknown 141 km (2008)

Vietnam
condensate/gas 42 km; gas 66 km; refined products 206 km
(2008)

Yemen
gas 96 km; liquid petroleum gas 22 km; oil 1,367 km (2008)

Zambia
oil 771 km (2008)

Zimbabwe
refined products 270 km (2008)

======================================================================

@2118

Field Listing :: Political parties and leaders

This entry includes a listing of significant political organizations
and their leaders.
Country

Political parties and leaders