Chapter M: Major infectious diseases (91)

Korea, South
An independent Korean state or collection of states has
existed almost continuously for several millennia. Between its
initial unification in the 7th century - from three predecessor
Korean states - until the 20th century, Korea existed as a single
independent country. In 1905, following the Russo-Japanese War,
Korea became a protectorate of imperial Japan, and in 1910 it was
annexed as a colony. Korea regained its independence following
Japan's surrender to the United States in 1945. After World War II,
a Republic of Korea (ROK) was set up in the southern half of the
Korean Peninsula while a Communist-style government was installed in
the north (the DPRK). During the Korean War (1950-53), US troops and
UN forces fought alongside soldiers from the ROK to defend South
Korea from DPRK attacks supported by China and the Soviet Union. An
armistice was signed in 1953, splitting the peninsula along a
demilitarized zone at about the 38th parallel. Thereafter, South
Korea achieved rapid economic growth with per capita income rising
to roughly 14 times the level of North Korea. In 1993, KIM Young-sam
became South Korea's first civilian president following 32 years of
military rule. South Korea today is a fully functioning modern
democracy. In June 2000, a historic first North-South summit took
place between the South's President KIM Dae-jung and the North's
leader KIM Jong Il. In October 2007, a second North-South summit
took place between the South's President ROH Moo-hyun and the North
Korean leader. Harsh rhetoric and unwillingness by North Korea to
engage with President LEE Myung-bak following his February 2008
inauguration has strained inter-Korean relations.

Kosovo
Ethnic Serbs migrated to the territories of modern Kosovo in
the 7th century but did not fully incorporate them into the Serbian
realm until the early 13th century. The defeat of the Serbian empire
at the Battle of Kosovo in 1389 led to five centuries of Ottoman
rule during which large numbers of Turks and Albanians moved to
Kosovo. By the end of the 19th century, Albanians replaced the Serbs
as the dominant ethnic group in Kosovo. Serbia reacquired control
over Kosovo from the Ottoman Empire during the First Balkan War of
1912. Kosovo became an autonomous province of Serbia with status
almost equivalent to that of a republic under the 1974 Constitution
of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Despite legislative
concessions, Albanian nationalism increased in the 1980s, which led
to riots and calls for Kosovo's independence. At the same time, Serb
nationalist leaders, such as Slobodan MILOSEVIC, exploited Kosovo
Serb claims of maltreatment to secure votes from supporters, many of
whom viewed Kosovo as their cultural heartland. Under MILOSEVIC's
leadership, Serbia instituted a new constitution in 1989 that
revoked Kosovo's status as an autonomous province of Serbia. Kosovo
Albanian leaders responded in 1991 by organizing a referendum that
declared Kosovo independent. Under MILOSEVIC, Serbia carried out
repressive measures against the Albanians in the early 1990s as the
unofficial Kosovo government, led by Ibrahim RUGOVA, used passive
resistance in an attempt to try to gain international assistance and
recognition of an independent Kosovo. Albanians dissatisfied with
RUGOVA's passive strategy in the 1990s created the Kosovo Liberation
Army and launched an insurgency. Starting in 1998, Serbian military,
police, and paramilitary forces conducted a counterinsurgency
campaign that resulted in massacres and massive expulsions of ethnic
Albanians. International attempts to mediate the conflict failed,
and MILOSEVIC's rejection of a proposed settlement led to a
three-month NATO bombing campaign against Serbia beginning in March
1999 that forced Serbia to agree to withdraw its military and police
forces from Kosovo. UN Security Council Resolution 1244 (1999)
placed Kosovo under a transitional administration, the UN Interim
Administration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK), pending a determination of
Kosovo's future status. A UN-led process began in late 2005 to
determine Kosovo's final status. The negotiations ran in stages
between 2006 and 2007, but ended without agreement between Belgrade
and Pristina. On 17 February 2008, the Kosovo Assembly declared
Kosovo independent. Since then, over fifty countries have recognized
Kosovo. Serbia continues to reject Kosovo's independence and
subsequently has sought an advisory opinion with the backing of the
General Assembly from the International Court of Justice on the
legality under international law of Kosovo's independence
declaration.

Kuwait
Britain oversaw foreign relations and defense for the ruling
Kuwaiti AL-SABAH dynasty from 1899 until independence in 1961.
Kuwait was attacked and overrun by Iraq on 2 August 1990. Following
several weeks of aerial bombardment, a US-led, UN coalition began a
ground assault on 23 February 1991 that liberated Kuwait in four
days. Kuwait spent more than $5 billion to repair oil infrastructure
damaged during 1990-91. The AL-SABAH family has ruled since
returning to power in 1991 and reestablished an elected legislature
that in recent years has become increasingly assertive. The country
witnessed the historic election in May 2009 of four women to its
National Assembly.

Kyrgyzstan
A Central Asian country of incredible natural beauty and
proud nomadic traditions, most of Kyrgyzstan was formally annexed to
Russia in 1876. The Kyrgyz staged a major revolt against the Tsarist
Empire in 1916 in which almost one-sixth of the Kyrgyz population
was killed. Kyrgyzstan became a Soviet republic in 1936 and achieved
independence in 1991 when the USSR dissolved. Nationwide
demonstrations in the spring of 2005 resulted in the ouster of
President Askar AKAEV, who had run the country since 1990.
Subsequent presidential elections in July 2005 were won
overwhelmingly by former prime minister Kurmanbek BAKIEV. The
political opposition organized demonstrations in Bishkek in April,
May, and November 2006 resulting in the adoption of a new
constitution that transferred some of the president's powers to
parliament and the government. In December 2006, the Kyrgyzstani
parliament voted to adopt new amendments, restoring some of the
presidential powers lost in the November 2006 constitutional change.
By late-September 2007, both previous versions of the constitution
were declared illegal, and the country reverted to the AKAEV-era
2003 constitution, which was subsequently modified in a flawed
referendum initiated by BAKIEV. The president then dissolved
parliament, called for early elections, and gained control of the
new parliament through his newly-created political party, Ak Jol, in
December 2007 elections. Current concerns include: privatization of
state-owned enterprises, negative trends in democracy and political
freedoms, endemic corruption, improving interethnic relations,
electricity generation, rising food prices, and combating terrorism.

Laos
Modern-day Laos has its roots in the ancient Lao kingdom of Lan
Xang, established in the 14th Century under King FA NGUM. For 300
years Lan Xang had influence reaching into present-day Cambodia and
Thailand, as well as over all of what is now Laos. After centuries
of gradual decline, Laos came under the domination of Siam
(Thailand) from the late 18th century until the late 19th century
when it became part of French Indochina. The Franco-Siamese Treaty
of 1907 defined the current Lao border with Thailand. In 1975, the
Communist Pathet Lao took control of the government ending a
six-century-old monarchy and instituting a strict socialist regime
closely aligned to Vietnam. A gradual return to private enterprise
and the liberalization of foreign investment laws began in 1986.
Laos became a member of ASEAN in 1997.

Latvia
The name "Latvia" originates from the ancient Latgalians, one
of four eastern Baltic tribes that formed the ethnic core of the
Latvian people (ca. 8th-12th centuries A.D.). The region
subsequently came under the control of Germans, Poles, Swedes, and
finally, Russians. A Latvian republic emerged following World War I,
but it was annexed by the USSR in 1940 - an action never recognized
by the US and many other countries. Latvia reestablished its
independence in 1991 following the breakup of the Soviet Union.
Although the last Russian troops left in 1994, the status of the
Russian minority (some 30% of the population) remains of concern to
Moscow. Latvia joined both NATO and the EU in the spring of 2004.

Lebanon
Following World War I, France acquired a mandate over the
northern portion of the former Ottoman Empire province of Syria. The
French separated out the region of Lebanon in 1920, and granted this
area independence in 1943. A lengthy civil war (1975-1990)
devastated the country, but Lebanon has since made progress toward
rebuilding its political institutions. Under the Ta'if Accord - the
blueprint for national reconciliation - the Lebanese established a
more equitable political system, particularly by giving Muslims a
greater voice in the political process while institutionalizing
sectarian divisions in the government. Since the end of the war,
Lebanon has conducted several successful elections. Most militias
have been disbanded, with the exception of Hizballah, designated by
the US State Department as a Foreign Terrorist Organization, and
Palestinian militant groups. During Lebanon's civil war, the Arab
League legitimized in the Ta'if Accord Syria's troop deployment,
numbering about 16,000 based mainly east of Beirut and in the Bekaa
Valley. Israel's withdrawal from southern Lebanon in May 2000 and
the passage in September 2004 of UNSCR 1559 - a resolution calling
for Syria to withdraw from Lebanon and end its interference in
Lebanese affairs - encouraged some Lebanese groups to demand that
Syria withdraw its forces as well. The assassination of former Prime
Minister Rafiq HARIRI and 22 others in February 2005 led to massive
demonstrations in Beirut against the Syrian presence ("the Cedar
Revolution"), and Syria withdrew the remainder of its military
forces in April 2005. In May-June 2005, Lebanon held its first
legislative elections since the end of the civil war free of foreign
interference, handing a majority to the bloc led by Saad HARIRI, the
slain prime minister's son. In July 2006, Hizballah kidnapped two
Israeli soldiers leading to a 34-day conflict with Israel in which
approximately 1,200 Lebanese civilians were killed. UNSCR 1701 ended
the war in August 2006, and Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF) deployed
throughout the country for the first time in decades, charged with
securing Lebanon's borders against weapons smuggling and maintaining
a weapons-free zone in south Lebanon with the help of the UN Interim
Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL). The LAF in May-September 2007 battled
Sunni extremist group Fatah al-Islam in the Nahr al-Barid
Palestinian refugee camp, winning a decisive victory, but destroying
the camp and displacing 30,000 Palestinian residents. Lebanese
politicians in November 2007 were unable to agree on a successor to
Emile LAHUD when he stepped down as president, creating a political
vacuum until the election of Army Commander Michel SULAYMAN in May
2008 and the formation of a new unity government in July 2008.

Lesotho
Basutoland was renamed the Kingdom of Lesotho upon
independence from the UK in 1966. The Basuto National Party ruled
for the first two decades. King MOSHOESHOE was exiled in 1990, but
returned to Lesotho in 1992 and was reinstated in 1995.
Constitutional government was restored in 1993 after seven years of
military rule. In 1998, violent protests and a military mutiny
following a contentious election prompted a brief but bloody
intervention by South African and Botswanan military forces under
the aegis of the Southern African Development Community. Subsequent
constitutional reforms restored relative political stability.
Peaceful parliamentary elections were held in 2002, but the National
Assembly elections of February 2007 were hotly contested and
aggrieved parties continue to periodically demonstrate their
distrust of the results.

Liberia
Settlement of freed slaves from the US in what is today
Liberia began in 1822; by 1847, the Americo-Liberians were able to
establish a republic. William TUBMAN, president from 1944-71, did
much to promote foreign investment and to bridge the economic,
social, and political gaps between the descendents of the original
settlers and the inhabitants of the interior. In 1980, a military
coup led by Samuel DOE ushered in a decade of authoritarian rule. In
December 1989, Charles TAYLOR launched a rebellion against DOE's
regime that led to a prolonged civil war in which DOE himself was
killed. A period of relative peace in 1997 allowed for elections
that brought TAYLOR to power, but major fighting resumed in 2000. An
August 2003 peace agreement ended the war and prompted the
resignation of former president Charles TAYLOR, who faces war crimes
charges in The Hague related to his involvement in Sierra Leone's
civil war. After two years of rule by a transitional government,
democratic elections in late 2005 brought President Ellen JOHNSON
SIRLEAF to power. The UN Mission in Liberia (UNMIL) maintains a
strong presence throughout the country, but the security situation
is still fragile and the process of rebuilding the social and
economic structure of this war-torn country will take many years.

Libya
The Italians supplanted the Ottoman Turks in the area around
Tripoli in 1911 and did not relinquish their hold until 1943 when
defeated in World War II. Libya then passed to UN administration and
achieved independence in 1951. Following a 1969 military coup, Col.
Muammar Abu Minyar al-QADHAFI began to espouse his own political
system, the Third Universal Theory. The system is a combination of
socialism and Islam derived in part from tribal practices and is
supposed to be implemented by the Libyan people themselves in a
unique form of "direct democracy." QADHAFI has always seen himself
as a revolutionary and visionary leader. He used oil funds during
the 1970s and 1980s to promote his ideology outside Libya,
supporting subversives and terrorists abroad to hasten the end of
Marxism and capitalism. In addition, beginning in 1973, he engaged
in military operations in northern Chad's Aozou Strip - to gain
access to minerals and to use as a base of influence in Chadian
politics - but was forced to retreat in 1987. UN sanctions in 1992
isolated QADHAFI politically following the downing of Pan AM Flight
103 over Lockerbie, Scotland. During the 1990s, QADHAFI began to
rebuild his relationships with Europe. UN sanctions were suspended
in April 1999 and finally lifted in September 2003 after Libya
accepted responsibility for the Lockerbie bombing. In December 2003,
Libya announced that it had agreed to reveal and end its programs to
develop weapons of mass destruction and to renounce terrorism.
QADHAFI has made significant strides in normalizing relations with
Western nations since then. He has received various Western European
leaders as well as many working-level and commercial delegations,
and made his first trip to Western Europe in 15 years when he
traveled to Brussels in April 2004. The US rescinded Libya's
designation as a state sponsor of terrorism in June 2006. In January
2008, Libya assumed a nonpermanent seat on the UN Security Council
for the 2008-09 term. In August 2008, the US and Libya signed a
bilateral comprehensive claims settlement agreement to compensate
claimants in both countries who allege injury or death at the hands
of the other country, including the Lockerbie bombing, the LaBelle
disco bombing, and the UTA 772 bombing. In October 2008, the US
Government received $1.5 billion pursuant to the agreement to
distribute to US national claimants, and as a result effectively
normalized its bilateral relationship with Libya. The two countries
then exchanged ambassadors for the first time since 1973 in January
2009.

Liechtenstein
The Principality of Liechtenstein was established
within the Holy Roman Empire in 1719. Occupied by both French and
Russian troops during the Napoleanic wars, it became a sovereign
state in 1806 and joined the Germanic Confederation in 1815.
Liechtenstein became fully independent in 1866 when the
Confederation dissolved. Until the end of World War I, it was
closely tied to Austria, but the economic devastation caused by that
conflict forced Liechtenstein to enter into a customs and monetary
union with Switzerland. Since World War II (in which Liechtenstein
remained neutral), the country's low taxes have spurred outstanding
economic growth. In 2000, shortcomings in banking regulatory
oversight resulted in concerns about the use of financial
institutions for money laundering. However, Liechtenstein
implemented anti-money-laundering legislation and a Mutual Legal
Assistance Treaty with the US that went into effect in 2003.

Lithuania
Lithuanian lands were united under MINDAUGAS in 1236; over
the next century, through alliances and conquest, Lithuania extended
its territory to include most of present-day Belarus and Ukraine. By
the end of the 14th century Lithuania was the largest state in
Europe. An alliance with Poland in 1386 led the two countries into a
union through the person of a common ruler. In 1569, Lithuania and
Poland formally united into a single dual state, the
Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. This entity survived until 1795,
when its remnants were partitioned by surrounding countries.
Lithuania regained its independence following World War I but was
annexed by the USSR in 1940 - an action never recognized by the US
and many other countries. On 11 March 1990, Lithuania became the
first of the Soviet republics to declare its independence, but
Moscow did not recognize this proclamation until September of 1991
(following the abortive coup in Moscow). The last Russian troops
withdrew in 1993. Lithuania subsequently restructured its economy
for integration into Western European institutions; it joined both
NATO and the EU in the spring of 2004.

Luxembourg
Founded in 963, Luxembourg became a grand duchy in 1815
and an independent state under the Netherlands. It lost more than
half of its territory to Belgium in 1839, but gained a larger
measure of autonomy. Full independence was attained in 1867. Overrun
by Germany in both World Wars, it ended its neutrality in 1948 when
it entered into the Benelux Customs Union and when it joined NATO
the following year. In 1957, Luxembourg became one of the six
founding countries of the European Economic Community (later the
European Union), and in 1999 it joined the euro currency area.

Macau
Colonized by the Portuguese in the 16th century, Macau was the
first European settlement in the Far East. Pursuant to an agreement
signed by China and Portugal on 13 April 1987, Macau became the
Macau Special Administrative Region (SAR) of the People's Republic
of China on 20 December 1999. In this agreement, China promised
that, under its "one country, two systems" formula, China's
socialist economic system would not be practiced in Macau, and that
Macau would enjoy a high degree of autonomy in all matters except
foreign and defense affairs for the next 50 years.

Macedonia
Macedonia gained its independence peacefully from
Yugoslavia in 1991, but Greece's objection to the new state's use of
what it considered a Hellenic name and symbols delayed international
recognition, which occurred under the provisional designation of
"the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia." In 1995, Greece lifted
a 20-month trade embargo and the two countries agreed to normalize
relations. The United States began referring to Macedonia by its
constitutional name, Republic of Macedonia, in 2004 and negotiations
continue between Greece and Macedonia to resolve the name issue.
Some ethnic Albanians, angered by perceived political and economic
inequities, launched an insurgency in 2001 that eventually won the
support of the majority of Macedonia's Albanian population and led
to the internationally-brokered Framework Agreement, which ended the
fighting by establishing a set of new laws enhancing the rights of
minorities. Fully implementing the Framework Agreement and
stimulating economic growth and development continue to be
challenges for Macedonia, although progress has been made on both
fronts over the past several years.

Madagascar
Formerly an independent kingdom, Madagascar became a
French colony in 1896 but regained independence in 1960. During
1992-93, free presidential and National Assembly elections were held
ending 17 years of single-party rule. In 1997, in the second
presidential race, Didier RATSIRAKA, the leader during the 1970s and
1980s, was returned to the presidency. The 2001 presidential
election was contested between the followers of Didier RATSIRAKA and
Marc RAVALOMANANA, nearly causing secession of half of the country.
In April 2002, the High Constitutional Court announced RAVALOMANANA
the winner. RAVALOMANANA achieved a second term following a
landslide victory in the generally free and fair presidential
elections of 2006. In early 2009, protests due to increasing
restrictions on opposition press and activities resulted in
RAVALOMANANA stepping down and the presidency was conferred to the
mayor of Antananarivo, Andry RAJOELINA. Following negotiations in
July and August of 2009, a power-sharing agreement with a 15-month
transitional period was established. Elections are expected in the
fall of 2010.

Malawi
Established in 1891, the British protectorate of Nyasaland
became the independent nation of Malawi in 1964. After three decades
of one-party rule under President Hastings Kamuzu BANDA the country
held multiparty elections in 1994, under a provisional constitution
that came into full effect the following year. Current President
Bingu wa MUTHARIKA, elected in May 2004 after a failed attempt by
the previous president to amend the constitution to permit another
term, struggled to assert his authority against his predecessor and
subsequently started his own party, the Democratic Progressive Party
(DPP) in 2005. As president, MUTHARIKA has overseen substantial
economic improvement but because of political deadlock in the
legislature, his minority party has been unable to pass significant
legislation, and anti-corruption measures have stalled. Population
growth, increasing pressure on agricultural lands, corruption, and
the spread of HIV/AIDS pose major problems for Malawi.

Malaysia
During the late 18th and 19th centuries, Great Britain
established colonies and protectorates in the area of current
Malaysia; these were occupied by Japan from 1942 to 1945. In 1948,
the British-ruled territories on the Malay Peninsula formed the
Federation of Malaya, which became independent in 1957. Malaysia was
formed in 1963 when the former British colonies of Singapore and the
East Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak on the northern coast of
Borneo joined the Federation. The first several years of the
country's history were marred by a Communist insurgency, Indonesian
confrontation with Malaysia, Philippine claims to Sabah, and
Singapore's secession from the Federation in 1965. During the
22-year term of Prime Minister MAHATHIR bin Mohamad (1981-2003),
Malaysia was successful in diversifying its economy from dependence
on exports of raw materials to expansion in manufacturing, services,
and tourism.

Maldives
The Maldives was long a sultanate, first under Dutch and
then under British protection. It became a republic in 1968, three
years after independence. President Maumoon Abdul GAYOOM dominated
the islands' political scene for 30 years, elected to six successive
terms by single-party referendums. Following riots in the capital
Male in August 2004, the president and his government pledged to
embark upon democratic reforms including a more representative
political system and expanded political freedoms. Progress was
sluggish, however, and many promised reforms were slow to be
realized. Nonetheless, political parties were legalized in 2005. In
June 2008, a constituent assembly - termed the "Special Majlis" -
finalized a new constitution, which was ratified by the president in
August. The first-ever presidential elections under a
multi-candidate, multi-party system were held in October 2008.
GAYOOM was defeated in a runoff poll by Mohamed NASHEED, a political
activist who had been jailed several years earlier by the former
regime. Challenges facing the new president include strengthening
democracy and combating poverty and drug abuse.

Mali
The Sudanese Republic and Senegal became independent of France
in 1960 as the Mali Federation. When Senegal withdrew after only a
few months, what formerly made up the Sudanese Republic was renamed
Mali. Rule by dictatorship was brought to a close in 1991 by a
military coup - led by the current president Amadou TOURE - enabling
Mali's emergence as one of the strongest democracies on the
continent. President Alpha KONARE won Mali's first democratic
presidential election in 1992 and was reelected in 1997. In keeping
with Mali's two-term constitutional limit, KONARE stepped down in
2002 and was succeeded by Amadou TOURE, who was subsequently elected
to a second term in 2007. The elections were widely judged to be
free and fair.

Malta
Great Britain formally acquired possession of Malta in 1814.
The island staunchly supported the UK through both World Wars and
remained in the Commonwealth when it became independent in 1964. A
decade later Malta became a republic. Since about the mid-1980s, the
island has transformed itself into a freight transshipment point, a
financial center, and a tourist destination. Malta became an EU
member in May 2004 and began using the euro as currency in 2008.

Marshall Islands
After almost four decades under US administration
as the easternmost part of the UN Trust Territory of the Pacific
Islands, the Marshall Islands attained independence in 1986 under a
Compact of Free Association. Compensation claims continue as a
result of US nuclear testing on some of the atolls between 1947 and
1962. The Marshall Islands hosts the US Army Kwajalein Atoll (USAKA)
Reagan Missile Test Site, a key installation in the US missile
defense network.

Mauritania
Independent from France in 1960, Mauritania annexed the
southern third of the former Spanish Sahara (now Western Sahara) in
1976, but relinquished it after three years of raids by the
Polisario guerrilla front seeking independence for the territory.
Maaouya Ould Sid Ahmed TAYA seized power in a coup in 1984 and ruled
Mauritania with a heavy hand for more than two decades. A series of
presidential elections that he held were widely seen as flawed. A
bloodless coup in August 2005 deposed President TAYA and ushered in
a military council that oversaw a transition to democratic rule.
Independent candidate Sidi Ould Cheikh ABDALLAHI was inaugurated in
April 2007 as Mauritania's first freely and fairly elected
president. His term ended prematurely in August 2008 when a military
junta deposed him and ushered in a military council government.
Meanwhile, the country continues to experience ethnic tensions among
its black population (Afro-Mauritanians) and White and Black Moor
(Arab-Berber) communities.

Mauritius
Although known to Arab and Malay sailors as early as the
10th century, Mauritius was first explored by the Portuguese in the
16th century and subsequently settled by the Dutch - who named it in
honor of Prince Maurits van NASSAU - in the 17th century. The French
assumed control in 1715, developing the island into an important
naval base overseeing Indian Ocean trade, and establishing a
plantation economy of sugar cane. The British captured the island in
1810, during the Napoleonic Wars. Mauritius remained a strategically
important British naval base, and later an air station, playing an
important role during World War II for anti-submarine and convoy
operations, as well as the collection of signals intelligence.
Independence from the UK was attained in 1968. A stable democracy
with regular free elections and a positive human rights record, the
country has attracted considerable foreign investment and has earned
one of Africa's highest per capita incomes. Recent poor weather,
declining sugar prices, and declining textile and apparel
production, have slowed economic growth, leading to some protests
over standards of living in the Creole community.

Mayotte
Mayotte was ceded to France along with the other islands of
the Comoros group in 1843. It was the only island in the archipelago
that voted in 1974 to retain its link with France and forego
independence.

Mexico
The site of advanced Amerindian civilizations, Mexico came
under Spanish rule for three centuries before achieving independence
early in the 19th century. A devaluation of the peso in late 1994
threw Mexico into economic turmoil, triggering the worst recession
in over half a century. The nation had been making an impressive
recovery until the global financial crisis hit in late 2008. Ongoing
economic and social concerns include low real wages, underemployment
for a large segment of the population, inequitable income
distribution, and few advancement opportunities for the largely
Amerindian population in the impoverished southern states. The
elections held in 2000 marked the first time since the 1910 Mexican
Revolution that an opposition candidate - Vicente FOX of the
National Action Party (PAN) - defeated the party in government, the
Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI). He was succeeded in 2006 by
another PAN candidate Felipe CALDERON. In January 2009, Mexico
assumed a nonpermanent seat on the UN Security Council for the
2009-10 term.

Micronesia, Federated States of
In 1979 the Federated States of
Micronesia, a UN Trust Territory under US administration, adopted a
constitution. In 1986 independence was attained under a Compact of
Free Association with the US, which was amended and renewed in 2004.
Present concerns include large-scale unemployment, overfishing, and
overdependence on US aid.

Moldova
Part of Romania during the interwar period, Moldova was
incorporated into the Soviet Union at the close of World War II.
Although independent from the USSR since 1991, Russian forces have
remained on Moldovan territory east of the Dniester River supporting
the Slavic majority population, mostly Ukrainians and Russians, who
have proclaimed a "Transnistria" republic. One of the poorest
nations in Europe, Moldova became the first former Soviet state to
elect a Communist as its president in 2001.

Monaco
The Genoese built a fortress on the site of present-day
Monaco in 1215. The current ruling Grimaldi family secured control
in the late 13th century, and a principality was established in
1338. Economic development was spurred in the late 19th century with
a railroad linkup to France and the opening of a casino. Since then,
the principality's mild climate, splendid scenery, and gambling
facilities have made Monaco world famous as a tourist and recreation
center.

Mongolia
The Mongols gained fame in the 13th century when under
Chinggis KHAN they established a huge Eurasian empire through
conquest. After his death the empire was divided into several
powerful Mongol states, but these broke apart in the 14th century.
The Mongols eventually retired to their original steppe homelands
and in the late 17th century came under Chinese rule. Mongolia won
its independence in 1921 with Soviet backing and a Communist regime
was installed in 1924. The modern country of Mongolia, however,
represents only part of the Mongols' historical homeland; more
Mongols live in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region in the People's
Republic of China than in Mongolia. Following a peaceful democratic
revolution, the ex-Communist Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party
(MPRP) won elections in 1990 and 1992, but was defeated by the
Democratic Union Coalition (DUC) in the 1996 parliamentary election.
The MPRP won an overwhelming majority in the 2000 parliamentary
election, but the party lost seats in the 2004 election and shared
power with democratic coalition parties from 2004-08. The MPRP
regained a solid majority in the 2008 parliamentary elections but
nevertheless formed a coalition government with the Democratic
Party. The prime minister and most cabinet members are MPRP members.

Montenegro
The use of the name Montenegro began in the 15th century
when the Crnojevic dynasty began to rule the Serbian principality of
Zeta; over subsequent centuries Montenegro was able to maintain its
independence from the Ottoman Empire. From the 16th to 19th
centuries, Montenegro became a theocracy ruled by a series of bishop
princes; in 1852, it was transformed into a secular principality.
After World War I, Montenegro was absorbed by the Kingdom of Serbs,
Croats, and Slovenes, which became the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in
1929; at the conclusion of World War II, it became a constituent
republic of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. When the
latter dissolved in 1992, Montenegro federated with Serbia, first as
the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and, after 2003, in a looser
union of Serbia and Montenegro. In May 2006, Montenegro invoked its
right under the Constitutional Charter of Serbia and Montenegro to
hold a referendum on independence from the state union. The vote for
severing ties with Serbia exceeded 55% - the threshold set by the EU
- allowing Montenegro to formally declare its independence on 3 June
2006.

Montserrat
English and Irish colonists from St. Kitts first settled
on Montserrat in 1632; the first African slaves arrived three
decades later. The British and French fought for possession of the
island for most of the 18th century, but it finally was confirmed as
a British possession in 1783. The island's sugar plantation economy
was converted to small farm landholdings in the mid 19th century.
Much of this island was devastated and two-thirds of the population
fled abroad because of the eruption of the Soufriere Hills Volcano
that began on 18 July 1995. Montserrat has endured volcanic activity
since, with the last eruption occurring in July 2003.

Morocco
In 788, about a century after the Arab conquest of North
Africa, successive Moorish dynasties began to rule in Morocco. In
the 16th century, the Sa'adi monarchy, particularly under Ahmad
AL-MANSUR (1578-1603), repelled foreign invaders and inaugurated a
golden age. In 1860, Spain occupied northern Morocco and ushered in
a half century of trade rivalry among European powers that saw
Morocco's sovereignty steadily erode; in 1912, the French imposed a
protectorate over the country. A protracted independence struggle
with France ended successfully in 1956. The internationalized city
of Tangier and most Spanish possessions were turned over to the new
country that same year. Morocco virtually annexed Western Sahara
during the late 1970s, but final resolution on the status of the
territory remains unresolved. Gradual political reforms in the 1990s
resulted in the establishment of a bicameral legislature, which
first met in 1997. The country has made improvements in human rights
under King MOHAMMED VI and its press is moderately free. Despite the
continuing reforms, ultimate authority remains in the hands of the
monarch.

Mozambique
Almost five centuries as a Portuguese colony came to a
close with independence in 1975. Large-scale emigration, economic
dependence on South Africa, a severe drought, and a prolonged civil
war hindered the country's development until the mid 1990's. The
ruling Front for the Liberation of Mozambique (FRELIMO) party
formally abandoned Marxism in 1989, and a new constitution the
following year provided for multiparty elections and a free market
economy. A UN-negotiated peace agreement between FRELIMO and rebel
Mozambique National Resistance (RENAMO) forces ended the fighting in
1992. In December 2004, Mozambique underwent a delicate transition
as Joaquim CHISSANO stepped down after 18 years in office. His
elected successor, Armando Emilio GUEBUZA, promised to continue the
sound economic policies that have encouraged foreign investment.
Mozambique has seen very strong economic growth since the end of the
civil war largely due to post-conflict reconstruction.

Namibia
South Africa occupied the German colony of South-West Africa
during World War I and administered it as a mandate until after
World War II, when it annexed the territory. In 1966 the Marxist
South-West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO) guerrilla group
launched a war of independence for the area that became Namibia, but
it was not until 1988 that South Africa agreed to end its
administration in accordance with a UN peace plan for the entire
region. Namibia has been governed by SWAPO since the country won
independence in 1990. Hifikepunye POHAMBA was elected president in
November 2004 in a landslide victory replacing Sam NUJOMA who led
the country during its first 14 years of self rule.

Nauru
The exact origins of the Nauruans are unclear since their
language does not resemble any other in the Pacific. The island was
annexed by Germany in 1888. Its phosphate deposits began to be mined
early in the 20th century by a German-British consortium. Nauru was
occupied by Australian forces in World War I and subsequently became
a League of Nations mandate. After the Second World War - and a
brutal occupation by Japan - Nauru became a UN trust territory. It
achieved independence in 1968 and joined the UN in 1999 as the
world's smallest independent republic.

Navassa Island
This uninhabited island was claimed by the US in 1857
for its guano. Mining took place between 1865 and 1898. The
lighthouse, built in 1917, was shut down in 1996 and administration
of Navassa Island transferred from the Coast Guard to the Department
of the Interior. A 1998 scientific expedition to the island
described it as a unique preserve of Caribbean biodiversity; the
following year it became a National Wildlife Refuge and annual
scientific expeditions have continued.

Nepal
In 1951, the Nepalese monarch ended the century-old system of
rule by hereditary premiers and instituted a cabinet system of
government. Reforms in 1990 established a multiparty democracy
within the framework of a constitutional monarchy. An insurgency led
by Maoist extremists broke out in 1996. The ensuing ten-year civil
war between insurgents and government forces witnessed the
dissolution of the cabinet and parliament and assumption of absolute
power by the king. Several weeks of mass protests in April 2006 were
followed by several months of peace negotiations between the Maoists
and government officials, and culminated in a November 2006 peace
accord and the promulgation of an interim constitution. Following a
nation-wide election in April 2008, the newly formed Constituent
Assembly declared Nepal a federal democratic republic and abolished
the monarchy at its first meeting the following month. The
Constituent Assembly elected the country's first president in July.
The Maoists, who received a plurality of votes in the Constituent
Assembly election, formed a coalition government in August 2008.

Netherlands
The Dutch United Provinces declared their independence
from Spain in 1579; during the 17th century, they became a leading
seafaring and commercial power, with settlements and colonies around
the world. After a 20-year French occupation, a Kingdom of the
Netherlands was formed in 1815. In 1830 Belgium seceded and formed a
separate kingdom. The Netherlands remained neutral in World War I,
but suffered invasion and occupation by Germany in World War II. A
modern, industrialized nation, the Netherlands is also a large
exporter of agricultural products. The country was a founding member
of NATO and the EEC (now the EU), and participated in the
introduction of the euro in 1999.

Netherlands Antilles
Once the center of the Caribbean slave trade,
the island of Curacao was hard hit by the abolition of slavery in
1863. Its prosperity (and that of neighboring Aruba) was restored in
the early 20th century with the construction of oil refineries to
service newly discovered Venezuelan oil fields. The island of Saint
Martin is shared with France; its southern portion is named Sint
Maarten and is part of the Netherlands Antilles; its northern
portion, called Saint Martin, is an overseas collectivity of France.

New Caledonia
Settled by both Britain and France during the first
half of the 19th century, the island was made a French possession in
1853. It served as a penal colony for four decades after 1864.
Agitation for independence during the 1980s and early 1990s ended in
the 1998 Noumea Accord, which over a period of 15 to 20 years will
transfer an increasing amount of governing responsibility from
France to New Caledonia. The agreement also commits France to
conduct as many as three referenda between 2013 and 2018, to decide
whether New Caledonia should assume full sovereignty and
independence.

New Zealand
The Polynesian Maori reached New Zealand in about A.D.
800. In 1840, their chieftains entered into a compact with Britain,
the Treaty of Waitangi, in which they ceded sovereignty to Queen
Victoria while retaining territorial rights. In that same year, the
British began the first organized colonial settlement. A series of
land wars between 1843 and 1872 ended with the defeat of the native
peoples. The British colony of New Zealand became an independent
dominion in 1907 and supported the UK militarily in both World Wars.
New Zealand's full participation in a number of defense alliances
lapsed by the 1980s. In recent years, the government has sought to
address longstanding Maori grievances.

Nicaragua
The Pacific coast of Nicaragua was settled as a Spanish
colony from Panama in the early 16th century. Independence from
Spain was declared in 1821 and the country became an independent
republic in 1838. Britain occupied the Caribbean Coast in the first
half of the 19th century, but gradually ceded control of the region
in subsequent decades. Violent opposition to governmental
manipulation and corruption spread to all classes by 1978 and
resulted in a short-lived civil war that brought the Marxist
Sandinista guerrillas to power in 1979. Nicaraguan aid to leftist
rebels in El Salvador caused the US to sponsor anti-Sandinista
contra guerrillas through much of the 1980s. Free elections in 1990,
1996, and 2001, saw the Sandinistas defeated, but voting in 2006
announced the return of former Sandinista President Daniel ORTEGA
Saavedra. The 2008 municipal elections were characterized by
widespread irregularities. Nicaragua's infrastructure and economy -
hard hit by the earlier civil war and by Hurricane Mitch in 1998 -
are slowly being rebuilt, but democratic institutions face new
challenges under the ORTEGA administration.

Niger
Niger became independent from France in 1960 and experienced
single-party and military rule until 1991, when Gen. Ali SAIBOU was
forced by public pressure to allow multiparty elections, which
resulted in a democratic government in 1993. Political infighting
brought the government to a standstill and in 1996 led to a coup by
Col. Ibrahim BARE. In 1999, BARE was killed in a coup by military
officers who promptly restored democratic rule and held elections
that brought Mamadou TANDJA to power in December of that year.
TANDJA was reelected in 2004. Niger is one of the poorest countries
in the world with minimal government services and insufficient funds
to develop its resource base. The largely agrarian and
subsistence-based economy is frequently disrupted by extended
droughts common to the Sahel region of Africa. A predominately
Tuareg ethnic group emerged in February 2007, the Nigerien Movement
for Justice (MNJ), and attacked several military targets in Niger's
northern region throughout 2007 and 2008. Events have since evolved
into a fledging insurgency.

Nigeria
British influence and control over what would become Nigeria
and Africa's most populous country grew through the 19th century. A
series of constitutions after World War II granted Nigeria greater
autonomy; independence came in 1960. Following nearly 16 years of
military rule, a new constitution was adopted in 1999, and a
peaceful transition to civilian government was completed. The
government continues to face the daunting task of reforming a
petroleum-based economy, whose revenues have been squandered through
corruption and mismanagement, and institutionalizing democracy. In
addition, Nigeria continues to experience longstanding ethnic and
religious tensions. Although both the 2003 and 2007 presidential
elections were marred by significant irregularities and violence,
Nigeria is currently experiencing its longest period of civilian
rule since independence. The general elections of April 2007 marked
the first civilian-to-civilian transfer of power in the country's
history.

Niue
Niue's remoteness, as well as cultural and linguistic
differences between its Polynesian inhabitants and those of the rest
of the Cook Islands, have caused it to be separately administered.
The population of the island continues to drop (from a peak of 5,200
in 1966 to an estimated 1,398 in 2009) with substantial emigration
to New Zealand 2,400 km to the southwest.

Norfolk Island
Two British attempts at establishing the island as a
penal colony (1788-1814 and 1825-55) were ultimately abandoned. In
1856, the island was resettled by Pitcairn Islanders, descendants of
the Bounty mutineers and their Tahitian companions.

Northern Mariana Islands
Under US administration as part of the UN
Trust Territory of the Pacific, the people of the Northern Mariana
Islands decided in the 1970s not to seek independence but instead to
forge closer links with the US. Negotiations for territorial status
began in 1972. A covenant to establish a commonwealth in political
union with the US was approved in 1975, and came into force on 24
March 1976. A new government and constitution went into effect in
1978.

Norway
Two centuries of Viking raids into Europe tapered off
following the adoption of Christianity by King Olav TRYGGVASON in
994. Conversion of the Norwegian kingdom occurred over the next
several decades. In 1397, Norway was absorbed into a union with
Denmark that lasted more than four centuries. In 1814, Norwegians
resisted the cession of their country to Sweden and adopted a new
constitution. Sweden then invaded Norway but agreed to let Norway
keep its constitution in return for accepting the union under a
Swedish king. Rising nationalism throughout the 19th century led to
a 1905 referendum granting Norway independence. Although Norway
remained neutral in World War I, it suffered heavy losses to its
shipping. Norway proclaimed its neutrality at the outset of World
War II, but was nonetheless occupied for five years by Nazi Germany
(1940-45). In 1949, neutrality was abandoned and Norway became a
member of NATO. Discovery of oil and gas in adjacent waters in the
late 1960s boosted Norway's economic fortunes. The current focus is
on containing spending on the extensive welfare system and planning
for the time when petroleum reserves are depleted. In referenda held
in 1972 and 1994, Norway rejected joining the EU.

Oman
The inhabitants of the area of Oman have long prospered on
Indian Ocean trade. In the late 18th century, a newly established
sultanate in Muscat signed the first in a series of friendship
treaties with Britain. Over time, Oman's dependence on British
political and military advisors increased, but it never became a
British colony. In 1970, QABOOS bin Said al-Said overthrew the
restrictive rule of his father; he has ruled as sultan ever since.
His extensive modernization program has opened the country to the
outside world while preserving the longstanding close ties with the
UK. Oman's moderate, independent foreign policy has sought to
maintain good relations with all Middle Eastern countries.

Pacific Ocean
The Pacific Ocean is the largest of the world's five
oceans (followed by the Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Southern
Ocean, and Arctic Ocean). Strategically important access waterways
include the La Perouse, Tsugaru, Tsushima, Taiwan, Singapore, and
Torres Straits. The decision by the International Hydrographic
Organization in the spring of 2000 to delimit a fifth ocean, the
Southern Ocean, removed the portion of the Pacific Ocean south of 60
degrees south.

Pakistan
The Indus Valley civilization, one of the oldest in the
world and dating back at least 5,000 years, spread over much of what
is presently Pakistan. During the second millennium B.C., remnants
of this culture fused with the migrating Indo-Aryan peoples. The
area underwent successive invasions in subsequent centuries from the
Persians, Greeks, Scythians, Arabs (who brought Islam), Afghans, and
Turks. The Mughal Empire flourished in the 16th and 17th centuries;
the British came to dominate the region in the 18th century. The
separation in 1947 of British India into the Muslim state of
Pakistan (with West and East sections) and largely Hindu India was
never satisfactorily resolved, and India and Pakistan fought two
wars - in 1947-48 and 1965 - over the disputed Kashmir territory. A
third war between these countries in 1971 - in which India
capitalized on Islamabad's marginalization of Bengalis in Pakistani
politics - resulted in East Pakistan becoming the separate nation of
Bangladesh. In response to Indian nuclear weapons testing, Pakistan
conducted its own tests in 1998. The dispute over the state of
Kashmir is ongoing, but discussions and confidence-building measures
have led to decreased tensions since 2002. Mounting public
dissatisfaction with President MUSHARRAF, coupled with the
assassination of the prominent and popular political leader, Benazir
BHUTTO, in late 2007, and MUSHARRAF's resignation in August 2008,
led to the September presidential election of Asif ZARDARI, BHUTTO's
widower. Pakistani government and military leaders are struggling to
control Islamist militants, many of whom are located in the tribal
areas adjacent to the border with Afghanistan. The November 2008
Mumbai attacks again inflamed Indo-Pakistan relations. The Pakistani
Government is also faced with a deteriorating economy as foreign
exchange reserves decline, the currency depreciates, and the current
account deficit widens.

Palau
After three decades as part of the UN Trust Territory of the
Pacific under US administration, this westernmost cluster of the
Caroline Islands opted for independence in 1978 rather than join the
Federated States of Micronesia. A Compact of Free Association with
the US was approved in 1986 but not ratified until 1993. It entered
into force the following year when the islands gained independence.

Panama
Explored and settled by the Spanish in the 16th century,
Panama broke with Spain in 1821 and joined a union of Colombia,
Ecuador, and Venezuela - named the Republic of Gran Colombia. When
the latter dissolved in 1830, Panama remained part of Colombia. With
US backing, Panama seceded from Colombia in 1903 and promptly signed
a treaty with the US allowing for the construction of a canal and US
sovereignty over a strip of land on either side of the structure
(the Panama Canal Zone). The Panama Canal was built by the US Army
Corps of Engineers between 1904 and 1914. In 1977, an agreement was
signed for the complete transfer of the Canal from the US to Panama
by the end of the century. Certain portions of the Zone and
increasing responsibility over the Canal were turned over in the
subsequent decades. With US help, dictator Manuel NORIEGA was
deposed in 1989. The entire Panama Canal, the area supporting the
Canal, and remaining US military bases were transferred to Panama by
the end of 1999. In October 2006, Panamanians approved an ambitious
plan to expand the Canal. The project, which began in 2007 and could
double the Canal's capacity, is expected to be completed in 2014-15.

Papua New Guinea
The eastern half of the island of New Guinea -
second largest in the world - was divided between Germany (north)
and the UK (south) in 1885. The latter area was transferred to
Australia in 1902, which occupied the northern portion during World
War I and continued to administer the combined areas until
independence in 1975. A nine-year secessionist revolt on the island
of Bougainville ended in 1997 after claiming some 20,000 lives.

Paracel Islands
The Paracel Islands are surrounded by productive
fishing grounds and by potential oil and gas reserves. In 1932,
French Indochina annexed the islands and set up a weather station on
Pattle Island; maintenance was continued by its successor, Vietnam.
China has occupied the Paracel Islands since 1974, when its troops
seized a South Vietnamese garrison occupying the western islands.
China built a military installation on Mischief Reef in 1999. The
islands are claimed by Taiwan and Vietnam.

Paraguay
Paraguay achieved its independence from Spain in 1811. In
the disastrous War of the Triple Alliance (1865-70) - between
Paraguay and Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay - Paraguay lost
two-thirds of all adult males and much of its territory. The country
stagnated economically for the next half century. Following the
Chaco War of 1932-35 with Bolivia, Paraguay gained a large part of
the Chaco lowland region. The 35-year military dictatorship of
Alfredo STROESSNER ended in 1989, and, despite a marked increase in
political infighting in recent years, Paraguay has held relatively
free and regular presidential elections since then.

Peru
Ancient Peru was the seat of several prominent Andean
civilizations, most notably that of the Incas whose empire was
captured by the Spanish conquistadors in 1533. Peruvian independence
was declared in 1821, and remaining Spanish forces defeated in 1824.
After a dozen years of military rule, Peru returned to democratic
leadership in 1980, but experienced economic problems and the growth
of a violent insurgency. President Alberto FUJIMORI's election in
1990 ushered in a decade that saw a dramatic turnaround in the
economy and significant progress in curtailing guerrilla activity.
Nevertheless, the president's increasing reliance on authoritarian
measures and an economic slump in the late 1990s generated mounting
dissatisfaction with his regime, which led to his ouster in 2000. A
caretaker government oversaw new elections in the spring of 2001,
which ushered in Alejandro TOLEDO Manrique as the new head of
government - Peru's first democratically elected president of Native
American ethnicity. The presidential election of 2006 saw the return
of Alan GARCIA Perez who, after a disappointing presidential term
from 1985 to 1990, has overseen a robust macroeconomic performance.

Philippines
The Philippine Islands became a Spanish colony during
the 16th century; they were ceded to the US in 1898 following the
Spanish-American War. In 1935 the Philippines became a
self-governing commonwealth. Manuel QUEZON was elected president and
was tasked with preparing the country for independence after a
10-year transition. In 1942 the islands fell under Japanese
occupation during World War II, and US forces and Filipinos fought
together during 1944-45 to regain control. On 4 July 1946 the
Republic of the Philippines attained its independence. The 20-year
rule of Ferdinand MARCOS ended in 1986, when a "people power"
movement in Manila ("EDSA 1") forced him into exile and installed
Corazon AQUINO as president. Her presidency was hampered by several
coup attempts, which prevented a return to full political stability
and economic development. Fidel RAMOS was elected president in 1992
and his administration was marked by greater stability and progress
on economic reforms. In 1992, the US closed its last military bases
on the islands. Joseph ESTRADA was elected president in 1998, but
was succeeded by his vice-president, Gloria MACAPAGAL-ARROYO, in
January 2001 after ESTRADA's stormy impeachment trial on corruption
charges broke down and another "people power" movement ("EDSA 2")
demanded his resignation. MACAPAGAL-ARROYO was elected to a six-year
term as president in May 2004. The Philippine Government faces
threats from three terrorist groups on the US Government's Foreign
Terrorist Organization list, but in 2006 and 2007 scored some major
successes in capturing or killing key wanted terrorists. Decades of
Muslim insurgency in the southern Philippines have led to a peace
accord with one group and on-again/off-again peace talks with
another.

Pitcairn Islands
Pitcairn Island was discovered in 1767 by the
British and settled in 1790 by the Bounty mutineers and their
Tahitian companions. Pitcairn was the first Pacific island to become
a British colony (in 1838) and today remains the last vestige of
that empire in the South Pacific. Outmigration, primarily to New
Zealand, has thinned the population from a peak of 233 in 1937 to
less than 50 today.