Chapter XXXII: Section 2: Darfur

[Sidenote: Historical.[121]]

Darfur was formerly one of the line of ancient African Kingdoms stretching across the Continent from west to east, of which Wadai and Abyssinia are the only ones still surviving[122] as independent states. Up to the early part of the 18th century the Kings of Darfur had dominion over the country as far east as the Atbara; but the war-like Fungs, who at that time were one of the most powerful tribes of the Sudan, gradually drove the Darfurians back, and established their own authority on the banks of the White Nile. _Vide_ p. 229.

In 1770 they wrested the Province of Kordofan from the Darfur kings, but five years later it was retaken by the latter, and remained under their control until conquered in 1822 by Mohammed Bey Dafterdar, the brother-in-law of Ismail Pasha, who was burnt at Shendi.

After the loss of Kordofan the Darfurians retired westwards and the kings then governed only a circumscribed area, of which Jebel Marra was the centre. This is the Darfur that was conquered and annexed to Egypt by Zubeir Pasha in 1874 and which is the Darfur of the present day.

[Sidenote: Present boundaries.]

Modern Darfur in shape is a more or less regular parallelogram, 400 miles by 400 miles, and may be said to lie between N. Lat. 10° and 16° and E. Long. 22° and 27° 30′.

It is bounded on the north by Dar Bedaiat and the desert west of the Wadi Melh; on the east by Kordofan,[123] the frontier running from Kaja Serrug (Darfur) in a south-west direction to Dam Jamad (Kordofan) and thence in a southerly direction to the Bahr El Arab and Dar Fertit; Dar Habbania and Dar Taaisha belonging to Darfur. The western boundary leaves Dar Sula and Borgu or Wadai within the French sphere of influence and Dar Gimr and Dar Tama to Darfur.

[Sidenote: Drainage.]

The watershed of Darfur, which forms part of that separating the basin of Lake Chad from that of the Nile, runs nearly north and south through the centre of the country. The chief features which define it are in the North Jebel Meidob (3,500 feet) connected with Jebel Tagabo further south by a plateau, the greatest altitude of which is about 1,200 feet, and further south Jebel Marra and its offshoots. To the south-west of these mountains, the main peaks of which rise to an altitude of some 6,000 feet, the plain is about 4,000 feet above the sea.

As might be expected the general direction of the drainage is east and west. In the north the country is so arid and the rains so meagre that the water draining eastwards towards the Wadi Melh soon sinks into the sandy soil and disappears. Similarly, further south the Wadis, chief of which is Wadi Ko, draining the east and south-east of the Marra group and which flow generally in a south-easterly direction towards the Bahr El Arab, an affluent of the Bahr El Ghazal, seldom if ever discharge water into that river. The Wadis Bulbul, Gendi, and Ibra, however, which spring from the more southern slopes of the watershed and also trend south-east, are believed to convey a considerable quantity of water into the Bahr El Arab during the rainy season.

To the west of the watershed the general trend of the wadis is south-west, the Wadi Sonot and Kia in the north, with their affluents draining the hills of Dar Tama, and most important of all the Wadi Azum which carries the drainage from the western slopes of Jebel Marra are thought to unite near Dar Sula and to flow, under the name of Bahr El Salamat, towards Lake Iro, though it is doubtful if their waters ever reach this marshy swamp which, in turn, drains into the Shari.

The drainage of the south-west of Darfur flows towards the River Mamun, a perennial stream, also an affluent of the Shari, which, of course, empties into the southern end of Lake Chad.

[Sidenote: Water supply.]

Broadly it may be said that the country to the north and east of the Marra range resembles that of Kordofan in its character and usual dearth of water, whilst to the west, south-west, and south it is much better watered and more fertile. During the rains water is here everywhere plentiful, whilst at this season much of Southern Darfur becomes marshy and difficult to travel over. In the rainy season too the principal wadis, especially those in the south and south-west, are perfect torrents, and, although their beds are dry soon after the cessation of the rains, water is generally to be found in abundance held up by the clayey strata at a few feet below the surface. In Eastern Darfur the wells are of considerable depth and at great distances from each other, especially south of Dara and Taweisha, and the people are dependent to a great extent on water melons (_batikh_) and to a less extent on Tebeldi trees (_Adansonia digitata_) which are such a feature of Dar Hamar, the adjoining district of Kordofan.

The deepest wells are at Karnak, where water is only obtained at 250 feet. At Burush on the Fasher-Obeid road and on the road to Taweisha, and at Taweisha itself, the wells, which pass through strata of chalk and marl, average from 100 to 130 feet in depth.

At El Fasher the wells are of no great depth and at the end of the dry season water is obtainable at 35 feet.

The nearer one approaches the central group of mountains the depth at which water is found diminishes. At 3,200 feet above the sea it is found by excavating in the sandy beds of khors, but at 4,000 feet there is running water which becomes more abundant still further to the west of Jebel Marra.

[Sidenote: Geology.]

The geological formation is very varied; in the west the mountains show a volcanic origin; in the north and south granite and sandstone are the prevailing rocks; in the east the soil is sandy and contains a quantity of iron, which is worked to a small extent.

In the east and north-east, granite predominates, with the exception of a strip between Foga and El Fasher, where red and white sandstone crops out.

In the north, Wadi Melit and the hills in its neighbourhood are of gneiss. To the north-east of this, granite again predominates at Saya, whilst still further north, Jebel Tagabo is of sandstone.

Jebel Meidob contains both sandstone and granite; this group has been much distorted by volcanic agency, and beds of lava are to be seen in all directions. To its south-west lies Bir El Melh,[124] an extinct crater, which to outward appearance is an insignificant hill, but has a depth of about 150 feet. Here is a small lake strongly impregnated with alkaline matter, while sweet water springs issue from the sandstone and granite declivities.

The Jebel Marra group is also of volcanic origin; lava and granite are to be found everywhere, but there is no sandstone; small peaks of pink granite crop up here and there between these mountains and El Fasher.

Stretching from the main group in a westerly direction for a distance of 30 or 40 miles is a huge dyke of white quartz with a sandstone plateau raised some 300 feet above the plain which is itself about 3,200 feet above sea level.

The inhabitants report a large lake of brackish water, from which salt can be obtained, on the north-eastern part of the mountain; while, at a day’s journey to the west, salt is also found at Karunga, and the Wadi Burka is strongly impregnated with soda.

In all the depressions sand rich in iron is met with.

In a southerly direction from Jebel Marra, there stretches a broad alluvial plain which is dotted all over with peaks of granite, giving the impression of a range of mountains, buried all but its highest points.

[Sidenote: Inhabitants.]

The original tribes of the country are the FORS and the DAGO; the latter ruled for centuries over the entire district from their inaccessible strongholds in Jebel Marra. Tradition relates[125] that about the 14th century the TUNGUR Arabs, emigrating south from Tunis, scattered throughout Bornu and Wadai, and eventually readied Darfur, the first arrivals being two brothers, Ali and Ahmed, who settled with their flocks on the western slopes of Jebel Marra. Of these brothers, Ahmed, nicknamed El Makur, was destined to become the founder of a new dynasty in Darfur. He became very popular with the then king Kor who not only gave him his favourite daughter as wife, but nominated him as his successor to the throne. Accordingly on Kor’s death Ahmed succeeded to the throne of Darfur, and on the news spreading to the Tungur of Wadai and Bornu, they flocked into the country in such numbers as to partially displace the TEIGO. The only small settlements now left of the former rulers are near Dara, where there is a Dago sheikh, and also at Dar Sula, a long way to the west, where there is a semi-independent ruler called “Sultan Bekhit El Dagawi.”

A regular male succession was now established and a great grandson of Ahmed’s was the celebrated Sultan Dali, who wrote the Kitab-Dali or Penal Code. Another noted Sultan was Suleiman who took the name of Solon, who being the son of an Arab mother and himself married to an Arab woman, introduced Arab blood into the Royal Family. It was through him, some 400 years ago, that the country became Moslemised, and his descendants now proudly boast of their Arab descent and quite ignore the black element which is undoubtedly there, and which may account for the bitter enmity which exists between the ruling Darfur family and the Nomad Arabs of the country. At the end of the 18th century Sultan Abdel Rahman married a BEIGO girl and her son, Mohammed El Fadl, became Sultan about the beginning of the next century. The BEIGO tribe, originally slaves, were from that time declared free.

To turn to more recent times, Darfur has during the last 20 years been so devastated and depopulated that many formerly important tribes such as the MAHARIA, NAWAIBA, MAHAMID, EREIGAT, BENI, HUSSEIN, etc., have become so disintegrated and scattered that they now practically cease to exist as tribes and are seldom heard of.

The population of Darfur, prior to the Mahdi’s revolt, was estimated at 1,500,000. It is now probably less than half that number.

[Sidenote: Furs.]

The MASABAT and KUNJARA, the ruling class of FORS, have their centre at El Fasher.

The FORS are clean and industrious. They may be found assembled under trees spinning, weaving cotton or plaiting mats, whilst the children will be herding the cattle. The men wear a jibba and drawers of coarse cotton stuff, whilst the women wear a piece of the same stuff made fast round the hips with the end thrown over the shoulder.

They live in tukls or conical huts, five or six of which arranged in a circle form a habitation.

Compared to other tribes, they are exceedingly clean feeders and very particular as to the manner in which their food is served, though corn and merissa are the main articles of consumption.

They are religious and fanatical, and study the Koran assiduously.

The mountainous stronghold of Jebel Marra is inhabited by the JEBELAWIN, the aboriginal inhabitants of Darfur.

[Sidenote: Arabs, etc.]

Other important tribes are in the north the ZAGHAWA and ZEIADIA, in the east the BERTI and KAJA, in the south-east the MAALIA and RIZEIGAT, and in the south the BENI HELBA, HABBANIA and TAAISHA. The four last-named tribes are Baggara.[126] In the west are the MASABAT and TAMA.

In addition to these Darfur has a large sedentary population amongst whom are found the following tribes: MIMA, BIRGED, BEIGO, and GIMR, etc.

The present ruler of Darfur is Sultan Ali Dinar, a grandson of Sultan Mohammed Fadl; he was kept a prisoner at Omdurman during the Mahdia. In September, 1898, immediately after the defeat of the Khalifa at Kereri, he escaped to his native country. He now pays an annual tribute to the Sudan Government by which he has been officially recognised as its Agent in Darfur.

THE DARFUR MAHMAL PASSING THROUGH OMDURMAN, 1904.]

[Sidenote: Administration.]

The management of the internal affairs of the country is left almost entirely to the sultan, though the Sudan Government sends him instructions and advice on certain matters from time to time as occasion arises. His judgments on all administrative questions are based on a combination of the Sharia Mohammedia and common law.

[Sidenote: Army.]

The sultan maintains an army, organised on Dervish lines, of some 6,000 rifles, mostly of a more or less antiquated description. In case of need he could probably mobilise upwards of 2,000 horsemen. His chief commanders are Mohammed Ali Dedingawi, Adam Rijal, and Kamar El Din. The greater part of the army is quartered at El Fasher: the principal outlying garrison (about 500 men) is at Jebel El Hella on the Fasher-Obeid road.

[Sidenote: Communications.]

Though in 1874 it took Colonel Mason, with a large caravan, from 100 to 150 days to reach Fasher from Cairo, nowadays a letter from Cairo could reach Fasher in 30 days without any difficulty.

In the old days the telegraph extended to Foga, now the furthest point to which it is proposed at present to extend it is Nahud, which is on the western frontier of Kordofan, and about 10 days’ camel ride from El Fasher.

[Sidenote: (1) With Omdurman.]

There are two routes from Omdurman to El Fasher. That most generally used is _viâ_ El Obeid, Nahud, and Jebel El Hella. The other, which has hitherto been avoided by merchants owing to the number of robbers in the neighbourhood of Kaja Katul, and Serrug, lies to the north of El Obeid, and, after passing the two above-mentioned places, joins the El Obeid-Nahud route at Jebel El Hella. Both are described in the route reports in Vol. II.

[Sidenote: (2) With Wadai.]

There are three routes from Fasher to Abesher, the capital of Wadai. The direct road known as Sikkat El Masalat passes _viâ_ Kebkebia (Darfur) and Bir Tawil to Abesher. This is not much used, in fact Ali Dinar has forbidden merchants or pilgrims to use either this or the northern route, as at Kebkebia there is a Fiki named Senin who has defied all the sultan’s efforts to induce him to tender his submission, and this road is consequently unsafe.

The northern route runs through Kutum, Dar Zaghawa, Dar Gimr, and Dar Tama; this is known as Sikkat Zaghawa. Owing to recent disturbances in Dar Zaghawa, this road is temporarily closed.

The southern route leads _viâ_ Keibe and the Wadi Azum to Dar Sula and thence northwards to Abesher; this is known as Sikkat Dar Sula, and is the longest of the three, but it is comparatively safe.

[Sidenote: Trade.]

Trade between Darfur and other parts of the Sudan has increased a good deal of late. The principal imports from the Nile are cotton goods (gomash), sugar, and tea; the exports are feathers, ivory, pepper, rhinoceros horns, and tobacco. The ivory, as a rule, comes from Dar Jange and Dar Fertit in the south. Owing to the recent disturbances in Wadai, ivory that formerly was exported through that country has been finding its way _viâ_ El Fasher to Omdurman. A good many camels and cattle are imported from Wadai and are exported again _viâ_ Nahud to the Nile.

[Sidenote: Customs.]

A royalty of about 20 per cent. is taken on all ivory and feathers leaving Fasher, where the price of ivory is from £15 to £16 per 100 lbs.

Every laden camel entering Darfur pays PT.150 to PT.180, and each laden donkey PT.30 to PT.60.

[Sidenote: Taxes.]

The taxes are three in number, Oshur, Zika, and Fitra. Oshur tax is assessed at the rate of ⅒th of the harvest, whilst Zika is 2 per cent. on all property animals, goods, or money.

[Sidenote: Currency.]

The sultan has ordered that the present Egyptian coinage shall be current in Darfur, but merchants, finding they lose by it, are not anxious to introduce it. At present the principal coins in use are “Girsh Kabashi,” 20 of which equal one rial Mejidi, the equivalent of PT.16.

There are also a few “Girsh Garagandi” in use, these are of the same value as the “Kabashi.”

[Sidenote: Transport animals.]

Camels are the best transport animals, except in the mountainous and southern regions, where mules, donkeys, or bullocks would be preferable.

[Sidenote: Climate.]

The climate, of course, varies considerably. Fasher is healthy. In the south, where the rains are heavier, there must be the usual malaria at certain seasons. The climate of Jebel Marra is said to be cool and healthy.

[Sidenote: Religion.]

The people of Darfur, as a whole, are followers of Islam, but the negroes in Jebel Marra, the Jebelawin, and those in the south and south-west have no religion. The late Sheikh Senussi wrote three times to Sultan Ali Dinar asking him to prepare Zawias for him, and to otherwise further his doctrine. Ali Dinar, however, considered it best to politely hold aloof from him, and there are now no Senussiites in El Fasher.

PRODUCE.

The country may be divided into three sections with reference to the vegetation, _i.e._, the eastern zone of sandy steppes, the central mountains, and the western zone.

[Sidenote: Corn.]

In the eastern zone, the cultivation of corn, in the shape of dukhn and a little dura, is the chief industry. A small quantity of simsim, cucumbers, pumpkins, and water melons are also grown. In certain depressions of the ground, where the presence of clay gives a stronger soil, cotton is produced, but in no great quantity.

The northern part of the country is almost uncultivated; and in the west, agriculture is pretty much the same as described for the eastern portion, except that owing to the greater quantity of water, more vegetables are grown.

The central mountainous district is the best watered and richest, and accordingly the most thickly populated. Small terraces, upon which gardens are laid out, are constructed all over the slopes of the hills. Here barley, wheat, dukhn,[127] dura, simsim, pumpkins, and melons are grown. In the small water-courses, onions are planted during the dry season. Honey of very good quality is collected in Jebel Marra.

[Sidenote: Cotton.]

The cotton grown formerly was excellent. Now very little is grown. Arabs manufacture from wool a coarse material, but the Fors are ignorant of the process of its manufacture.

[Sidenote: Salt.]

The production of salt is carried on in many parts of Darfur.

[Sidenote: Camels.]

Camel breeding is the principal pursuit of the Arabs in the north and east of Darfur. North of 14° lat. camels used to be very numerous; they are now comparatively scarce. The Zeiadia, Maharia, and Bedaiat are the principal breeders.

The Arabs who breed camels occupy themselves with no other industry, and have even to buy the corn used in their households, which, with camel’s milk, satisfies all their wants.

[Sidenote: Cattle.]

In the south, among the sedentary inhabitants, cattle and sheep are to be found in abundance.

The cattle are of two kinds: the humped species and the so-called African species, with long horns. The former are compact, well-made animals, and become very fat; the others are not worth much.

[Sidenote: Sheep.]

The sheep have but little wool, but their flesh is good; among the Zaghawa there is a species with long curly hair. Zaghawa is leased to the present sultan’s sister, Miriam Tajer.

[Sidenote: Goats.]

Goats abound everywhere.

[Sidenote: Horses.]

The Baggara Arabs confine themselves chiefly to breeding cattle and horses. The Messeria are large horse-owners.

Horse breeding is largely carried on by the Mahamid tribe. The horses are small in size but very strong, and are said to be able on an emergency to travel for 60 hours without water. They are chiefly of a local breed (Tama).

The sultan has a stud farm in the Zeiadia country, with the object of improving and reviving the breed of horses.

_Towns._

[Sidenote: El Fasher.]

The old capital was Kobe, but at the end of the 17th century it was moved to El Fasher which is now the chief town. Colonel Gordon in 1877 described it as a most miserable place, though once a populous and thriving town under the sultans. It is 388 miles by road from El Obeid, or about 650 miles from Khartoum, and about 300 miles nearly due east from Abesher.

El Fasher or Tendelti stands mostly on the western bank of the Wadi Tendelti or Dindil in an angle formed by the junction of the latter with the Wadi El Ko.

The Tendelti has no current of its own, but is filled during the rains by the overflow from the Ko, and a dam, constructed near the junction, retains the water for some time. The wells supplying the town are all sunk in its bed.

The town now consists almost entirely of tukls and box-shaped straw sheds. There are about five or six mud houses, and the sultan intends to build himself a palace, the plans and material for which have been already sent to him from Khartoum.

On the town side, opposite the old palace, the old Government constructed a square fort with ditch and parapet. This is now demolished.

The population of the town was, in 1875, about 2,650. Of these—1,700 were natives, 300 Zeiadia Arabs, 250 Sâbah Arabs, 400 Melha Arabs. The population is now estimated at about 10,000.

[Sidenote: Dara.]

There are now no other towns of importance. Dara, which used to be second in importance to Fasher, and the headquarters of a mudiria, is merely a small tukl village.

[Sidenote: Melit.]

Melit is the name of rather a populous district in the north. Here there is a plentiful water supply from wells 9 to 12 feet deep in a khor, which also contains many date trees.

[Sidenote: Tura.]

The ancient burial place of the sultans is at Tura in Jebel Marra.

ROUGH GENEALOGICAL TABLE TO SHOW THE RELATIONSHIP OF THE MORE
RECENT SULTANS OF DARFUR.

* * * * *

SULTAN MOHAMMED EL FADL (died 1839).
|
(1)---+---(2)

+-------------------------+--------------------+---(1)
| | |
Sul. Hussein Hasaballa[128] Sul. Bosh
(died 1875). (died in Cairo). (died 1878).
| |
| |
Sultan Ibrahim. Abdel Rahman.
| |
+------+------+-+--------+---------+ |
| | | | | |
Sul. Sagha Abu El Abdel Hussein Osman Abdel
Yusef (died Kheirat Hamid (executed Rahman, late
(died 1889). (died (now in by Ali O. C. J. Hella
1888). 1890). Cairo). Dinar, (executed by Ali
1903.) Dinar, 1903).

(2)---+--------------+---------------+---------------+-------------+
| | | | |
Abu Bakr. Zakaria. Seif El Din. Nuerein. Imam, &c.
| | |
| | |
Dud Banga Ali Dinar Sul. Harun
(surrendered (present (died 1880).
1898. Now Sultan).
lives at |
Gedaref, |
1904.) |
|
+------------+---+--------------+
| | |
Hamza Ibrahim. Seif El Din, &c.
(Heir Apparent).
\_____________________________________________/
At present attached to the Staffs of the principal
Commanders in Sultan Ali Dinar’s Army.