The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan: a compendium prepared by officers of the Sudan government, Vol. 1 (of 2)

Chapter I

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GENERAL DESCRIPTION.

[Sidenote: Boundaries.]

The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan comprises that country which is bounded on the north by the 22nd parallel of north latitude; on the east by the Red Sea, Eritrea, and Abyssinia; on the west and south-west by a line running through the Libyan Desert (defined by the Anglo-French Agreement of March, 1899), by the Sultanate of Wadai, and by the line of rising ground forming the watershed between the Congo and Shari on one side, and the Nile on the other; and on the south by the Lado Enclave[4] and east of the Nile, the 5th parallel of north latitude.

The greatest length from north to south is about 1,250 miles, and from east to west about 1,080 miles. (_Vide_ Appendix A for text of Frontier treaties.)

[Sidenote: Area and population.]

The estimated area of the territory is about 1,006,000 square miles, and the population about 2,000,000. For distribution of population _vide_ Appendix F., p. 322.

[Sidenote: Capital and main towns.]

The capital and seat of Government of the country is Khartoum, situated at the junction of the White and Blue Niles (lat. 15° 36′, long. 32° 32′), and distant, as the crow flies, about 1,250 miles from the Mediterranean Sea. (For description _see_ Chap. II, p. 49.)

The other chief towns of the country are Khartoum North (formerly termed Halfaya) and Omdurman (close to Khartoum), Halfa, Merowe, Berber, Wad Medani, Kassala, Suakin, Dueim, and El Obeid. (Detailed descriptions will be found in the various chapters dealing with them.)

ADMINISTRATION.

The Sudan is administered by a Governor-General (who is at present also Sirdar of the Egyptian Army) and under him by Mudirs (governors of provinces), assisted by inspectors and deputy inspectors[5] (British: military and civilian), and by Mamurs (Egyptian or Native officers).

The text of the agreement of 1899, on which the administration is based, provides for the administration of the territory south of the 22nd parallel of latitude by a Governor-General, appointed by Egypt with the assent of Great Britain, and declares the general principles in accordance with which the administration shall be carried on. The British and Egyptian flags shall be used together; laws shall be made by proclamation; no duties shall be levied on imports from Egypt, and duties on imports from other countries shall not exceed those levied in Egypt; the import and export of slaves is prohibited, and special attention shall be paid to the Brussels Act of 1890 respecting the import and export of arms, ammunition, and spirits.

The “Capitulations” are not in force in the Sudan, nor are there any foreign Consuls.

The Sudan is divided into eight first class and four second class Provinces, as follows:—

Each Province is divided into a varying number of Districts, each of which is under an Egyptian or native Mamur, as follows:—

--------------------+---------------------------
Province. | District.
--------------------+---------------------------
FIRST CLASS. |
|
|{ Deim Zubeir
|{
Bahr El Ghazal |{ Wau
|{
|{ Rumbek
|
|{ Robatab
|{
|{ Berber Town
|{
Berber |{ „ District
|{
|{ El Damer
|{
|{ Shendi
|
|{ Argo
|{
|{ Dongola
|{
|{ Khandak
Dongola |{
|{ Debba
|{
|{ Korti
|{
|{ Merowe
|
|{ Kassala
|{
Kassala |{ Gedaref
|{
|{ Gallabat
|
|{ Khartoum
|{
Khartoum |{ Omdurman
|{
|{ Wad Ramla
|
|{ El Obeid
|{
|{ Bara
|{
|{ Khursi (Um Dam)
|{
|{ Taiara
Kordofan |{
|{ Nahud
|{
|{ Dilling
|{
|{ Tendik
|{
|{ Nuba Mountains (Talodi)
|
|{ Sennar
|{
|{ Senga
|{
|{ Abu Naama
Sennar |{
|{ Dinder (Abu Hashim)
|{
|{ Roseires
|{
|{ Dar Fung (Soda)
|
|{ Renk
|{
|{ Kodok
|{
Upper Nile |{ Taufikia
|{
|{ Sobat
|{
|{ Mongalla
|
SECOND CLASS. |
|
|{ Abu Deleig
|{
|{ Kamlin
|{
|{ Rufaa
Gezira (Blue Nile) |{
|{ Mesellemia
|{
|{ Wad Medani
|{
|{ Managil
|
|{ Halfa
|{
Halfa |{ Mahas (Dalgo)
|{
|{ Sukkot (Kosha)
|
|{ Suakin
Suakin |{
|{ Tokar
|
|{ Geteina
|{
|{ Dueim
White Nile |{
|{ Kawa
|{
|{ Gedid
--------------------+---------------------------

The chief Government officials, besides the Governor-General, are the Secretary-General, the Director of Intelligence and Agent-General (Cairo), the Inspector-General, the Legal Secretary, Financial Secretary, Director of Surveys, Director of Works, Director of Education, Director-General of Irrigation,[6] Principal Medical Officer, Director of Woods and Forests, Director of Agriculture and Lands, Director of Railways, Director of Steamers and Boats, Director of Telegraphs and Posts, Director of Customs, Principal Veterinary Officer, Director of Slavery Repression Department[6], and Superintendent of Game Preservation Department.

The duties of these officials sufficiently explain themselves by their titles.

The following are the names, at present (1904), of the chief officials:—

Governor-General Major-General Sir F. Reginald Wingate,
K.C.B., K.C.M.G., D.S.O.

Secretary-General Colonel F. J. Nason, D.S.O.

Inspector-General El Lewa Sir Rudolf von Slatin Pasha,
K.C.M.G, C.V.O., C.B.

Legal Secretary E. Bonham-Carter, Esq.

Agent-General, Cairo Lieut.-Colonel Lord E. Cecil, D.S.O.

Financial Secretary „ „ E. E. Bernard.

All the above (with the exception of the Legal Secretary, the Directors of Education, Woods and Forests, Superintendent of Game Preservation, and Director of Agriculture and Lands, who are civilians) are at present British[7] officers attached to the Egyptian Army.

In addition to one British battalion, at present furnished by the British Army of Occupation in Egypt and The Army quartered at Khartoum, nearly the whole of the Egyptian Army may be said to be in the Sudan. The normal garrisons of the Sudan are as follows:—

[B.: British.
E.: Egyptian.
S.: Sudanese.
H.B.: Horse Battery.
F.B.: Field Battery.
G.C.: Garrison Company.
Misc.: Miscellaneous]

----------+--------------+-----------+--------------------+-----------
| Battalions. |Squadrons. | Artillery. | Misc.
Province.+----+----+----+-----+-----+------+------+------+Additional
| B. | E. | S. | E. | S. | H.B. | F.B. | G.C. |Troops.[8]
----------+----+----+----+-----+-----+------+------+------+-----------
Bahr El | — | — | 1 | — | — | — | — | — |276 men,
Ghazal | | | | | | | | |Gehadia.
| | | | | | | | |
Berber | — | ½ | — | 3 | 1 | — | 1 | — | —
| | | | | | | | |
Dongola | — | 1 | — | — | — | — | — | — | —
| | | | | | | | |
Halfa | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — |1 Railway
| | | | | | | | |Battalion.
| | | | | | | | |
Kassala | — | — | 1 | — | — | — | — | — |1
| | | | | | | | |Battalion
| | | | | | | | |Arab
| | | | | | | | |Camel
| | | | | | | | |Corps.
| | | | | | | | |
Khartoum | 1 | 4 | 1 | — | — | 1 | 2 | 2 |Hd.-Qrs.
| | | | | |(Max.)| | |A.G.’s
| | | | | | | | |Dept. and
| | | | | | | | |Works
| | | | | | | | |Dept.
| | | | | | | | |
Kordofan | — | — | 1 | — | — | — | — | — |4
| | | | | | | | |Companies
| | | | | | | | |Camel
| | | | | | | | |Corps (3
| | | | | | | | |Arab, 1
| | | | | | | | |Sudanese).
| | | | | | | | |
Sennar | — | — | 1 | — | — | — | — | — | —
| | | | | | | | |
Suakin | — | ½ | — | — | — | — | — | — | —
| | | | | | | | |
Upper | — | — | 1 | — | — | — | — | — | —
Nile | | | | | | | | |
+----+----+----+-----+-----+------+------+------+
Totals | 1 | 6 | 6 | 3 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 2 |
----------+----+----+----+-----+-----+------+------+------+-----------

As a rule, the Governor of the Province, being the senior British officer, is in Military command of the troops in his Province.

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.

The following gives a table of revenue and expenditure since 1899:—

----------+----------+--------------+-----------
Year. | Revenue. | Expenditure. | Deficit.
----------+----------+--------------+-----------
| £E. | £E. | £E.
| | |
1899 | 126,596 | 511,693 | 385,097
| | |
1900 | 156,888 | 614,780 | 457,892
| | |
1901 | 242,309 | 629,969 | 387,660
| | |
1902 | 270,226 | 639,493 | 369,267
| | |
1903 | 462,605 | 810,019 | 347,414
| | |
1904 | 531,000 | 815,500 | 284,500
| | |
1905[9] | 535,883 | 915,646 | 379,763
----------+----------+--------------+-----------
1 £E. = 100 piastres = £1 0_s._ 6_d._

The deficit is made up by the Egyptian Government, which now contributes annually to the cost of Civil and Military Administration in the Sudan the nominal sum of about £E.380,000. The actual sum contributed is, however, not really so large as this, for about £E.60,000 is paid in Customs dues in Egypt on goods going to the Sudan, which sum is absorbed by the Egyptian Government; and the Sudan Government pays the Egyptian Government an annual amount of between £E.122,000 and £E.282,000 (£E.186,757 in 1905) for the maintenance of that portion of the army which is in the Sudan.

Some changes were introduced into the system of accounts in 1903 which caused a considerable increase in the figures on both sides of the Budget of that year as compared with those for previous years, but this increase was apparent only and did not affect the amount of the contribution by the Egyptian Government towards the Civil and Military expenditure of the Sudan Government.

Besides the above budgetary expenditure, additional credits to the extent of £E.1,060,114 have been authorised since 1899, principally for completing and improving the railway between Halfa and Khartoum, for telegraph extensions, public works and for other purposes. Moreover, the entire cost of the railway now in course of construction between Suakin on the Red Sea and the Nile at a point near the Atbara River in the Berber Province, and expenditure connected with the new harbour works at Sheikh Barghout to the North of Suakin, will be borne by the Egyptian Government.

SOURCES OF REVENUE AND TAXATION.

The revenue is derived at present from the following taxes, etc., which are imposed according to the circumstances of the Province:—

Land Tax.

Date Tax.

Animal Tax.

Road Tax.

House Tax.

Boat Tax.

Tribute from Tribes.

Royalties.

Customs.

Sales (of Government properties, etc.).

Woods and Forests.

Miscellaneous, including rents, ferries, licences, stamped paper,
market and court fees, slaughtering dues, etc., etc.

LAND TAX.—A proportion of this tax is derived in certain Provinces from the “Ushur,” or tenth part, tax. This is assessed on the value of the products of the land, and is paid sometimes in kind, but generally in cash.

The land tax is assessed on the extent and value of the irrigated land, and varies from 10 piastres to 60 piastres a feddan (acre). Rain lands pay less than irrigated lands, whilst those only recently coming under cultivation pay less than those already long cultivated, etc., etc.

The DATE TAX is levied on date palms, at the rate of 2 piastres per tree, whether male or female.

ANIMAL TAX is levied on camels, mules, sheep, horses, etc., etc., at the following rates:—

The ROAD TAX is a light tax levied in certain places with the object of keeping the roads open and safe, and the wells dug and in good order.

The BOAT TAX amounts to 2 piastres per ardeb capacity.

The HOUSE TAX amounts to one-twelfth of the annual rental value of the building.

The TRIBUTE FROM TRIBES is levied on those nomad tribes who own no lands or are not agriculturists. It is assessed by the Governor broadly on the value of their possessions in herds and other property.

Gum, ivory, ostrich feathers and india-rubber[10] are the articles at present which pay a ROYALTY of 20 per cent. _ad valorem_ to Government. The Royalty on ivory has been recently reduced to 15 per cent. as a temporary and tentative measure.

SALES AND MISCELLANEOUS explain themselves.

[Sidenote: Budget.]

The following are the special services and estimated receipts and expenditure for 1904-5:—

SPECIAL SERVICES.

------------------------------------+---------------+-----------------
| 1905. | 1904.
------------------------------------+-------+-------+--------+--------
_I.—Loans not yet wholly expended._| | | |
| | | |
| £E. | £E. | £E. | £E.
| | | |
_Loan for the development of the | | |_55,000_|
Sudan Railway_ | | | |
| | | |
_Loan for the purchase of iron | | |_18,500_|
bases for Telegraph poles_ | | | |
| | | |
Loan for improving the Sudan |528,000| | 528,000|
Railway and purchasing Rolling | | | |
Stock | | | |
| | | |
Advance for special survey, | 10,000| | 10,000|
Suakin-Berber projected Railway | | | |
| | | |
Advance for the construction of | 30,985| | 30,985|
the Suakin Port | | | |
| | | |
Advance for the construction of | 15,800| | 15,800|
Light-houses at Suakin | | | |
| | | |
Advance for the excavation of a | 16,000| | 16,000|
cutting and for improving and | | | |
digging wells on the Suakin-Atbara | | | |
line | | | |
+-------+ +--------+
| |600,785| |674,285
| | | |
_II.—Credits not yet wholly | | | |
expended._ | | | |
| | | |
Credit from Wakfs Administration | 5,000| | 10,000|
for building mosques | | | |
| | | |
Credits from the Egyptian | | | |
Government:— | | | |
| | | |
1. Relief of poor Refugees | 4,000| | 4,000|
| | | |
2. Extension of Telegraph line | 12,150| | |
to the Bahr-el Ghazal | | | |
Province | | | |
| | | |
3. Partial cost of a steamer | 2,850| | |
for development of trade | | | |
on the Upper Nile (total | | | |
cost being £E.4,000) | | | |
| | | |
Credits sanctioned against the | 68,200| | |
surpluses of the years 1902 and | | | |
1903 | | | |
+-------+ +--------+
| | 92,200| | 14,000
| | | |
_III.—Services outside the Budget._| | | |
| | | |
Gordon Memorial College | 3,590| | 3,590|
+-------+ +--------+
| | 3,590| | 3,590
| +-------+ +--------
GRAND TOTAL | |696,575| |691,875
------------------------------------+-------+-------+--------+--------

TABLE SHOWING THE SUDAN GOVERNMENT BUDGET FOR THE YEARS 1904-5.

RECEIPTS.
------------------------------------+---------------+-----------------
| 1905. | 1904.
------------------------------------+-------+-------+--------+--------
| £E. | £E. | £E. | £E.
| | | |
Khartoum | 10,657| | 9,660|
| | | |
Gezira (Blue Nile) | 18,049| | 25,000|
| | | |
Sennar | 22,489| | 22,126|
| | | |
White Nile | 27,833| | |
| | | |
Kordofan | 43,122| | 55,390|
| | | |
Upper Nile | 7,700| | 8,300|
| | | |
Bahr-el-Ghazal | 5,990| | 5,500|
| | | |
Kassala | 10,425| | 8,310|
| | | |
Berber | 18,820| | 18,000|
| | | |
Dongola | 32,900| | 30,900|
| | | |
Halfa | 12,730| | 11,300|
| | | |
Suakin | 10,845| | 16,000|
+-------+ +--------+
| |221,560| |210,486
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
Secretary General’s Department | 800| | |
(Stores Section) | | | |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
Legal Department | 4,000| | 3,000|
| | | |
_Controller of Stores’ Department_ | | | _1,000_|
| | | |
Education Department | 250| | |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
Agriculture and Lands Department | 1,550| | |
| | | |
Game Preservation Department | 1,200| | |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
Customs | 12,000| | |
| | | |
Hospitals | 795| | 600|
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
Khartoum Town | 8,055| | 6,000|
| | | |
General Central Receipts | 8,700| | 9,090|
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
Steamers and Boats | 97,031| | 75,554|
| | | |
Posts and Telegraphs | 25,771| | 22,155|
| | | |
Railways |154,171| | 141,237|
+-------+ +--------+
| |314,323| |258,636
| +-------+ +-------
| |535,883| |469,122
| | | |
Contribution by Egyptian Government | |379,763| |379,763
| +-------+ +-------
TOTAL | |915,646| |848,885
------------------------------------+-------+-------+--------+--------

[Continued]

EXPENDITURE.
------------------------------------+---------------+-----------------
| 1905. | 1904.
------------------------------------+-------+-------+--------+--------
| £E.| £E.| £E.| £E.
| | | |
Khartoum | 16,952| | 14,862|
| | | |
Gezira (Blue Nile) | 16,796| | 18,220|
| | | |
Sennar | 28,383| | 21,647|
| | | |
White Nile | 13,495| | |
| | | |
Kordofan | 25,352| | 24,557|
| | | |
Upper Nile | 18,853| | 12,617|
| | | |
Bahr-el-Ghazal | 25,503| | 19,117|
| | | |
Kassala | 16,937| | 14,615|
| | | |
Berber | 20,180| | 17,909|
| | | |
Dongola | 19,350| | 18,045|
| | | |
Halfa | 9,210| | 6,279|
| | | |
Suakin | 16,092| | 14,364|
+-------+ +--------+
| |227,103| |182,232
| | | |
_Central Administration_ | | |_47,187_|
| | | |
Governor General’s Office | 5,808| | |
| | | |
Inspector General’s Office | 2,723| | |
| | | |
Secretary General’s Department | 33,358| | |
| | | |
Finance Department | 17,681| | |
| | | |
Legal Department | 18,630| | 15,760|
| | | |
_Controller of Stores’ Department_ | | |_16,680_|
| | | |
Education Department | 12,806| | 8,552|
| | | |
Forestry Department | 15,602| | 14,289|
| | | |
Agriculture and Lands Department | 4,639| | |
| | | |
Game Preservation Department | 1,051| | 840|
| | | |
_Prisons Department_ | | |_12,568_|
| | | |
Customs | 6,237| | |
| | | |
Hospitals | 13,584| | 10,523|
| | | |
Cattle Plague | 1,670| | 1,622|
| | | |
Survey Department | 7,909| | 5,045|
| | | |
Khartoum Town | 16,002| | 10,385|
| | | |
General Central Expenditure | 38,259| | 29,407|
| | | |
Public Works | 47,314| | 47,245|
| | | |
Steamers and Boats | 92,975| | 90,864|
| | | |
Posts and Telegraphs | 32,260| | 31,508|
| | | |
Railways |133,278| | 140,478|
+-------+ +--------+
| |501,786| |482,953
| +-------+ +-------
| |728,889| |665,185
| | | |
Egyptian War Department for | | | |
maintenance of Army in the Sudan | |186,757| |183,700
| +-------+ +-------
TOTAL | |915,646| |848,885
------------------------------------+-------+-------+--------+--------

COMMUNICATIONS.

(_See_ Chapter X for details.)

Communication in the Sudan is maintained by:—(I) Railways; (II) River; (III) Roads.

(I) THE RAILWAY.—The Sudan Government Railway, a single line completed on the last day of 1899, runs from Halfa, crossing the Nubian desert, to Abu Hamed along the Nile bank to Khartoum North on the right bank of the Blue Nile opposite Khartoum (575 miles).

Another branch, also single, 203 miles, runs from Halfa to Kerma (35 miles north of Dongola) following the Nile. This is to be abandoned after the 31st December, 1904.

A line of railway joining Suakin on the Red Sea to the Nile near the mouth of the Atbara is now under construction; it will be of the greatest benefit to the trade and development of the Sudan. Other railway projects at present under consideration are:—Abu Hamed to Merowe, Thamiam (near Suakin) to Kassala, and Omdurman to El Obeid.

The distance between Halfa and Aswan forms the only break in the railway communication between Khartoum and the Mediterranean Sea; a service of Sudan steamers plies on this reach.

(II) RIVER.—North of Khartoum the river is navigable throughout except at the five cataracts; at certain times of the year most of these are navigable, with difficulty. South of Khartoum communication is maintained along the White and Blue Niles and their affluents. During low Nile—January to June—the Blue Nile is not navigable. The White Nile is navigable up to Gondokoro in Uganda, though there are some difficulties in the way of navigation (_vide_ p. 73). The Sobat and Baro are not navigable from January to beginning of May.

(III) ROADS.—Roads are, and must be for some time to come, the principal means of communication in the Sudan. Transport is chiefly performed by camels, mules and donkeys. The greater part of the Sudan, being level, lends itself without much difficulty to the making of roads suitable for carriages, though draught transport has not been in use hitherto to any extent. Bullock wagons are in use in the Bahr El Ghazal.

Some automobile carriages are now being tried in the different parts of the Sudan, and have so far given fairly good results.

RESOURCES AND COMMERCE.

The chief natural resources of the Sudan at present lie in the forests of Kordofan and the Blue Nile, which produce gum (Hashab and Talh), ebony, furniture woods and fibre; and in those of the Bahr El Ghazal, which produce india-rubber, gutta-percha, etc.; also in the products of animals, such as ivory, ostrich feathers, rhinoceros horns, skins, etc.

There are large quantities of fine cattle in the country, especially on the Upper White Nile, but export of these is for the present forbidden.

As regards agricultural products, only the country lying close to the Nile and its tributaries is, as a rule, cultivated, and the people do not, so far, grow more than is necessary for their own use. The principal crops are dura (a kind of millet), beans, lentils, dukhn, sesame, onions, melons, and a little wheat and barley. In the Gezira, however, between the White and Blue Niles, and in the Gedaref district, large tracts are cultivated.

The Dongola Province is rich in date palms, and exports large quantities of dates.

There is a large opening for the growth and export of cotton. Little is grown at present, but the soil is favourable and the quality is good. Inducements, therefore, in the way of seed and promises to purchase what is grown, are being offered to the natives to cultivate this invaluable plant, and it is expected that the opening of the Nile-Red Sea Railway will considerably increase its production.

Sugar could also be grown: there was formerly a sugar factory at Kamlin.

[Sidenote: Land and settlement.]

The fertility of the land in the Sudan varies enormously, from the sterile desert wastes of Northern Kordofan and the Eastern Sudan to the rich soil bordering the river banks. There are also large tracts of fertile soil round Gedaref, Kassala and Tokar, where rich crops are grown with little effort.

Inducements are, according to circumstances, held out by the Government to would-be settlers in the shape of free or easy grants of lands, remission of taxes for a time, low rates of transport, etc., and purchasers and cultivators are slowly trickling in. The settlement, especially in view of the dearth of native population and labour, must necessarily be a slow one. As larger tracts are brought into cultivation, as canals are dug, and as irrigation and communications are improved, so will the export of cereals and produce of all sorts increase. The Nile-Red Sea Railway is expected to give Sudan trade a great impetus, and the population is rapidly increasing. But although those best qualified to judge are convinced of a great economic future before the country, it can hardly be expected that the Sudan will pay its own way for some years to come.

[Sidenote: Produce and Industries.]

The following is a list of the chief articles of produce of the Sudan, with the districts where such are mostly found:—

Cotton Throughout the Sudan in small quantities, but
increasing in Dongola, Berber, and Gezira
Provinces.

Hides Kordofan and Eastern Desert.

Gum Kordofan, Blue Nile, and Gedaref District.

Ivory Bahr El Ghazal, Kordofan, and Upper Nile
Provinces.

India-rubber Bahr El Ghazal and Kordofan.

Feathers Kordofan.

Woods Chiefly up the White and Blue Niles and in the
Bahr El Ghazal.

Grain and Cereals Chiefly Dongola, Tokar, Gedaref, the Gezira,
Sennar, and Upper Nile Provinces.

Sugar Small quantities in Berber. Increasing.

Dates Dongola. Best quality at Sukkot.

Gold Indications in Northern Sudan and Upper Blue Nile.

Copper Hofrat Nahas—Bahr El Ghazal.

Iron Bahr El Ghazal and Kordofan.

Other Minerals Kordofan, Upper Blue Nile and Abyssinian border,
Eastern and Northern Sudan.

Mother of Pearl Suakin.

The native industries are, so far, limited in number. Cultivation is the usual occupation of the people. Cotton-cloth weaving, boat-building on the Niles, camel breeding in the northern and western deserts, and iron-smelting in the Bahr El Ghazal practically exhaust the list. Agricultural and industrial shows at the chief towns have, however, been started, and receive considerable support. Minor industries, such as pottery, leather work, improved carpentry, etc., are quickly coming to the fore.

CUSTOMS DUTIES.

For the purpose of Customs duties, the Sudan is, in the main, considered as forming a part of Egypt. The Government has, however, concluded a Customs Convention with Eritrea,[11] and applies practically the same principles to the co-terminous countries of Uganda, the Congo Free State, the French Congo and Abyssinia.

Broadly, goods exported to these countries from the Sudan pay 1 per cent. _ad valorem_, and imports from those countries 5 to 8 per cent.; whilst goods in transit thence receive a drawback equal in amount to the duty paid on entering the country, _i.e._, they can pass free of duty through the Sudan.[11]

JUSTICE.

The main lines of judicial organisation in the Sudan date from 1899, at which time the whole country was under Egyptian Martial Law.

Under the code of Criminal Procedure of that year the criminal courts are directly under the Governor-General, who, however, has the benefit of the advice of a Legal Secretary. Under “The Civil Justice Ordinance, 1900,” the civil courts are subordinated to the Legal Secretary, in his capacity as Acting Judicial Commissioner.

Criminal justice in each province is administered by the Mudir’s Court (composed of the Mudir or Governor, or his representative, and two other magistrates), which has general competence; minor District Courts of three officers, with limited competence; and magistrates with powers similar to, but more limited than, those of Indian Magistrates. These magistrates are the members of the Provincial Administrative Staff, who are either picked officers of the army or civilian inspectors, who, unless they have had a legal training, are required to pass an examination in the Codes.

The procedure at the inquiry, and as to arrest, etc., is borrowed from the Indian Code of Criminal Procedure; that at the hearing is that of an Egyptian (or substantially, of a British) court-martial, with which the military officers are familiar.

Sentences passed by the Mudir’s Court are submitted to the Governor-General for confirmation. Those of the subordinate courts are either submitted to the Mudir for confirmation, or are open to appeal before him.

The Governor-General has, in all cases, revising powers similar to those of an Indian High Court.

The substantive criminal law is contained in the Sudan Penal Code, which is a copy of the Indian Penal Code, with such modifications as the circumstances of the country appeared to demand.

The civil courts in each province are those of the Mudir and of the subordinate magistrates. The procedure is borrowed in part from that in Indian provinces which do not possess a High Court, and in part from the Ottoman and African Orders in Council.

The parties appear before the judge, who settles the issues to be tried before trying the case. Every court has power to sit with assessors, who, in commercial cases, are frequently of considerable assistance. Appeals lie to the Mudir, or from the court of the Mudir to that of the Judicial Commissioner.

This system has been somewhat modified by the appointment of four civil judges who are trained lawyers. Wherever there is a civil judge, he has all the powers, civil and criminal, of the Mudir, and ordinarily takes all the civil and the more responsible criminal work of that officer. A civil judge has now sat continuously for the last three years at Khartoum, where all the principal merchants reside. A system of circuits will probably be shortly instituted in the outlying provinces; in the meantime provision is made for civil disputes of special importance or complexity in those provinces by a section which authorises their transfer, by consent of the parties, to the court of the Judicial Commissioner. It is very possible that the latter court may shortly be replaced by a bench of civil judges.

It was not thought advisable to create a body of substantive civil law at a time when all that was known of the customs of the people was that they probably differed from those of any country whose legislation could have been taken as a precedent. Section 3 of the Civil Justice Ordinance provides for the recognition of customary law, so far as applicable and not repugnant to good conscience, in matters of succession, etc.; and Section 4 provides for the administration of “justice, equity, and good conscience,” a phrase which has stereotyped custom in large parts of the east, and filled up the interstices with the principles of English Law.

In commercial matters in the Sudan the judges have inclined to interpret it as implying the obligation to recognise the principles of Egyptian Commercial Law in cases in which the law of civilised countries is not in agreement.

The above-mentioned Codes are applied wherever they may be put in force by the Governor-General, and they have been gradually extended to all parts of the Sudan, except the Bahr El Ghazal. In the more backward provinces in the south, where officers are scattered, advantage has to be taken of a provision that they shall be applied with such modifications, not affecting the substance, as the circumstances may require.[12]

[Sidenote: Mehkema Sharia.]

There are special courts, Mehkema Sharia, for the trial in accordance with Mohammedan Law, of cases between Mohammedans, involving questions of personal status, such as succession, wills, gifts, marriage, divorce, family relations, and also the constitution of charitable endowments (wakf).

The judges of these courts are Mohammedan Sheikhs, either natives of the Sudan or Egyptians; of whom the latter have obtained their training in the Azhar Mosque at Cairo.

The Mehkema Sharia comprise District Courts, which have jurisdiction over one or more Districts, according to the extent and population of the Districts, Province Courts, which act as courts of appeal from the District Courts and have also an original jurisdiction over the district in which they are situated, and a Supreme Court of Appeal situated at Khartoum, consisting of the Grand Kadi of the Sudan, who acts as President, the Mufti, and two judges of appeal.

Though the majority of the inhabitants of the Sudan are followers of the Maliki School of Mohammedan Law, the courts generally, as in Egypt, adopt the jurisprudence of the Hanafi School.

LEGISLATION.

Legislation takes the form of Ordinances, issued by proclamation of the Governor-General. In accordance with Article IV of the Agreement of the 19th January, 1899, between the British and Egyptian Government as to the administration of the Sudan, all such ordinances must be forthwith notified to the British Agent-General in Cairo and the President of the Council of Ministers of His Highness the Khedive. All Ordinances are published in the “Sudan Gazette.”

RELIGION.

Except for the negroid tribes the religion of the native population is that of Islam. The black tribes in their own country are all heathen; outside it a good many of their members have embraced Islam.

The Arab population is inclined to be fanatical; and to enable the Government to keep itself informed of the religious feelings of the people, a consultory board of Ulema (learned men) has been established at Omdurman.

There are two Christian missionary stations amongst the black tribes: one (American Protestant) on the Sobat River, and the other (Austrian Roman Catholic) near Kodok. The latter mission is now establishing another branch in the Bahr El Ghazal.

There are also several missionary schools at Khartoum and Omdurman. A British Protestant Church is about to be built at Khartoum, and there are Roman Catholic, Greek, and Coptic churches in course of construction.

EDUCATION.

In the Sudan a higher primary school system is gradually being developed. There are four of these schools (Khartoum, Omdurman, Halfa, and Suakin), besides a few Kuttab or village schools, where instruction is given in reading, writing, and arithmetic. Every day shows a greater necessity for a Sudanese class able to read, write, and cipher sufficiently to fill the minor appointments under Government. This class is gradually being constructed, but it takes time, especially as competent teachers are scarce.

All school subjects are taught in Arabic, not English. The latter language is not encouraged, but it can be taught, as a foreign language.

The Gordon College, with an endowment of over £E.100,000, was finished and opened in October, 1903.

At present it contains a Higher Primary School, attended by 150 boys, and a Training College for Schoolmasters and Kadis. Competent Sudanese teachers of the vernacular are now the chief requirement, but this want will be remedied as time goes on.

A separate wing of the building affords room for an institute for bacteriological work,[13] and research into the products and diseases of the country.

Another invaluable adjunct to the College is found in some technical workshops generously and completely fitted up by a private benefactor.[14]

CLIMATE.

The climate of the Sudan naturally varies over such a huge territory. Roughly speaking, it may be said that from the latitude of about Shendi northwards the climate is dry throughout the year. South of this, the rains in the summer, increasing in intensity towards the south, towards the sea, and towards the Abyssinian hills, cause a damp climate for two or three months, the remaining months being quite dry.

Between Halfa and Dongola there are a few rainy days in the winter, and, very exceptionally, some torrential rains in the summer. At Suakin heavy rains occur at intervals from August to January, with occasional rainfalls during the spring. The Khor Baraka flood may be expected at Tokar about the 15th August, and the Gash flood at Kassala during the first week of July.

The rainy season proper, on the Upper Blue Nile, Atbara, and in Abyssinia commences about the middle or end of May, the rains lasting till the middle of September; light rains in January and February; heavy rains sometimes in October and November.

The rainy season at Khartoum and in the “Bayuda desert” lasts nominally from the middle of June to the end of September, but during this period rain rarely falls on more than 15 days. In the Bahr El Ghazal the rains last from April till October, and in Southern Kordofan and Darfur from June to October.

Heavy rains occur in addition in the valley of the Upper White Nile from September to November; also numerous thunderstorms, especially in the hilly region round Rejaf and the Sudd district to the north of it.

On the Sobat, rains last from May to end of October.

The more unhealthy parts, in each case only during the period immediately succeeding the rains or the Nile flood, are, in the order of the evil, the Bahr El Ghazal, the Upper White Nile, the Upper Blue Nile, Kordofan, Kassala, and Suakin. During the rest of the year the climate is dry and healthy throughout. The temperature is, in the summer, undoubtedly hot, the thermometer having on rare occasions risen to as much as 126°; but on the other hand, except in the rainy season, the nights are always cool and refreshing.

During the rest of the year, the temperature naturally varies considerably; but it may be said that the winter is bright and invigorating throughout, and not too hot. There are even unpleasantly cold winds at times.

Except during the rainy season, the prevailing winds are, in the valley of the Nile, always from a northerly direction. In other parts, the wind varies according to season, but all get their share of the north wind.

METEOROLOGICAL NOTES (KHARTOUM), 1902 and 1903.

---------+-----------------------------------------------------------+
| Temperature, Fahrenheit. |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------+
Month. | Maximum. | Minimum. | |
+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ Mean. |
| Highest. | Lowest | Highest. | Lowest | |
---------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
|1902.|1903.|1902.|1903.|1902.|1903.|1902.|1903.|1902.|1903.|
| | | | | | | | | | |
January | 97·7| 91·4| 70·7| 68·9| 68·9| 62·6| 48·2| 42·8| 61·2| 65·5|
| | | | | | | | | | |
February |105·8|100·4| 88·7| 71·6| 74·3| 64·4| 59·0| 48·2| 70·8| 67·1|
| | | | | | | | | | |
March |107·6|104·0| 88·7| 81·5| 79·7| 68·9| 57·2| 55·4| 84·2| 74·3|
| | | | | | | | | | |
April |110·3|113·0| 98·6| 96·8| 82·4| 79·7| 65·3| 61·7| 78·8| 86·4|
| | | | | | | | | | |
May |113·9|109·4|102·2|104·0| 85·1| 82·4| 73·4| 65·3| 93·0| 90·0|
| | | | | | | | | | |
June |113·0|112·1| 99·5|103·1| 86·0| 82·4| 72·5| 68·9| 96·5| 91·4|
| | | | | | | | | | |
July |106·7|105·8| 86·0| 87·8| 80·6| 81·5| 66·2| 71·6| 83·0| 77·9|
| | | | | | | | | | |
August |108·5|104·9| 92·3| 90·5| 81·5| 83·3| 69·8| 64·4| 87·5| 87·8|
| | | | | | | | | | |
September|108·5|105·8| 96·8| 96·8| 80·6| 78·8| 69·8| 60·8| 85·0| 86·1|
| | | | | | | | | | |
October |106·7|106·7| 97·7| 95·0| 83·3| 78·8| 61·7| 67·1| 88·9| 86·9|
| | | | | | | | | | |
November |104·9|105·8| 89·6| 93·2| 80·6| 78·8| 54·5| 64·4| 81·7| 85·5|
| | | | | | | | | | |
December | 91·4|101·3| 77·0| 86·9| 69·8| 69·8| 49·1| 56·3| 74·7| 78·6|
---------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

[Continued]

---------+----------------+----------------
| |
| |
Month. | Prevailing | Rain,
| wind. | inches.[15]
| |
---------+-------+--------+-------+--------
| 1902. | 1903. | 1902. | 1903.
| | | |
January | N. | N. | — | —
| | | |
February | N.E. | N. | — | —
| | | |
March | N. | N. | — | —
| | | |
April | N. | N. | — | —
| | | |
May | N.W. | S. | — | 1·0
| | | |
June | W. | S. | — | ·7
| | | |
July | S. | S. | 4·962 | ·5
| | | |
August | S. | S.S.W. | ·197 | ·6
| | | |
September| S. | S.S.W. | ·070 | —
| | | |
October | N. | N. | ·320 | —
| | | |
November | N.E. | N.N.E. | — | —
| | | |
December | N. | N.N.E. | — | —
---------+-------+--------+-------+--------

GAME.

The efforts of the Government are directed towards preserving the numerous species of game of all sorts which abound in the Sudan, and to preventing them being exploited wholesale for commercial purposes.

Thus the Government, in the matter of ivory and feathers, has laid down stringent regulations which control the killing of elephants and ostriches. By imposing heavy duties and strictly limiting the numbers it is keeping within reasonable limits the export of live animals for menageries, etc., in Europe; and traffic in skins, trophies, etc., of wild animals is strictly prohibited.

As regards the shooting of game for sport, a sanctuary and game reserve have been instituted, and the licence with which a sportsman has to provide himself is expensive and only covers the shooting of a limited number of each species, some species being tabooed altogether. (For full details of the Game Laws, _vide_ Ordinance for Preservation of Wild Animals, etc., 1903, and for practical hints, etc., _re_ shooting, _see_ books mentioned on p. 213.)

SLAVERY.

Slave-running is practically dead, save perhaps in the remotest parts of the Sudan. The Egyptian Repression of Slavery Department is well represented by a number of posts dotted about in the regions most likely to be favourable to this traffic.

FORESTS.

In the Sudan, north of Khartoum, forests are scarce and of little extent. Scattered trees of “Samr” (_Acacia tortilis_) reach right into the desert, while on the occasionally flooded “Karu” land, between the desert and cultivation, is an open growth of the above with “Selem” (_Acacia Ehrenbergii_), “Sayal” (_Acacia spirocarpa_), “Hashab” (_Acacia Verek_), “Tundub” (_Capparis aphylla_), “Marakh” (_Leptadenia Spartium_), etc.

South of Khartoum till about parallel 12° N. the forests consist mostly of belts, usually not of very great width, lining the banks of the rivers and khors. In these belts the most valuable tree is the “Sant” or “Sunt” (_Acacia arabica_), known not only for the strength of its wood, but for the tanning properties of its bark and seed pod, and also for its excellence as fuel, as well as for its value for boat building.

Inland, there are open woods of “Heglig” (_Balanites ægyptiaca_), “Talh,” and “Hashab,” or dense thickets of “Kittr” (_Acacia mellifera_) and “Laot” (_Acacia nubica_).

It is in this zone that the open woods of “Hashab” (_Acacia verek_), in Kordofan, are carefully tended and preserved against fire for the sake of their gum which is exported as “Hashab Geneina”; the gum from the unprotected forests fetching a lower price as “Hashab Gezira,” or “Gezira,” while that from other acacias is known as “Talh,” as the Talh tree is the chief producer.

South of 12° N., where the rainfall is more abundant, the forest on the White Nile is, as far as the northern limits of the Sudd, of similar character, only large tracts have been cleared near the river by the Shilluks, and Sant has completely disappeared and is not replaced by trees of equivalent value.

On the Blue Nile the forest changes in character. Not far from the river are numerous gigantic Baobabs (“Tebeldi,” _Adansonia digitata_) and “Tarfa” (_Sterculia cinerea_), while the most abundant trees are the graceful “Silag” (_Anogeissus leiocarpus_) and the Sudan ebony (“Babanus,” _Dalbergia melanoxylon_).

In these two species, as well as in some others, these forests are like those on the higher lands of the Bahr El Ghazal province and parts of Southern Kordofan. The Bahr El Ghazal forests cover the larger portion of the ironstone deposits in that province, and, as far as quality goes, are probably the finest found in the Sudan, many trees of great height and girth being found there, one of them, the African mahogany (“Homraya,” _Khaya senegalensis_), having a beautiful timber, already known to commerce. It is in these forests that rubber-producing lianas are most abundant, the best of them being “Ndala” or “Odilo” (_Landolphia owariensis_), _vide_

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The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan: a compendium prepared by officers of the Sudan government, Vol. 1 (of 2)Chapter I

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