Chapter VII (3)

The Bahr El Ghazal sudd is, as has been said, of a different kind to that of the Bahr El Jebel. It is, as a rule, much lighter in consistency and easier to remove. This is doubtless due to the fact that the velocity of this river is very low, and, consequently, the pressure exerted by the water upon a block is small compared with that caused by similar conditions in the Bahr El Jebel. Again, on the Bahr El Ghazal, the papyrus and reeds do not extend on either side to any distance, nor are continuous and large lagoons close at hand. Between miles 42 and 52, up-stream of the junction with the Khor Deleib, there must, it is true, be always a risk of a block. In this reach the river passes through papyrus swamps, which are miniature editions of the Jebel marshes. Even here, however, the obstruction can hardly attain to the same solidity as in the case of the Jebel sudd, as the sluggish current of the Ghazal would fail to wedge the mass between the banks as tightly as would the rapid stream of the other river. Lake Ambadi appears to be a great nursery for the smaller varieties of the sudd plants. In the beginning of the rainy season these are carried down-stream and, as the channel wanders and twists, they form small obstructions. None of these, however, appear to be lasting, and it is rare that the Ghazal river is blocked for any length of time. It may be closed for a few months and then re-open itself. Thus in March and April, 1900, it was clear throughout its entire length, while in September of the same year it was blocked in more than one place. On this river, as on the Jebel, the sudd frequently sinks to the bottom, and decomposes, gradually raising the bed of the river. In this state it is very hard to remove.

[Sidenote: Botanical Composition.]

The sudd-forming plants may be classed in three divisions.[230]

The first, which contains plants whose roots descend to the river bed, is chiefly composed of the papyrus (_Cyperus Papyrus_), the common reed or “Bus” (_Phragmites communis_), and the feathery-headed grass (_Saccharum Spontaneum_).

The second kind is composed entirely of plants whose roots are in the water, but do not strike down to the ground or bed of river. The principal plant in this class is the “Um sûf” (_Panicum pyramidale_), grass, so called by the Arabs (“Mother of wool”) on account of the irritant hairs found on its leaf-sheaths which adhere to the skin of anyone touching them. In addition to the above, the wild bean (_Vigna Nilotica_) and creepers with purple flowers (_Ipomœa_) are found in profusion.

The third or last class of sudd is composed entirely of plants which swim upon the surface of the water. These form the cementing medium which binds the first two classes together.

The following are the principal components of this class:—

_Pistia_, a small cabbage-like plant with bright green leaves. _Azolla_, resembling moss in texture. _Utricularia_, _Aldrovandia_ and _Ceratophyllum_, all resembling feathery floating streamers. The first variety has a series of small bulbs, like floats, attached to each streamer. The last is common in the canals and drains of Lower Egypt.

_Otellia_, a plant with big leaves and a white flower like a lily.[231] It is found everywhere in this class of sudd, and is met with at Damietta, where it is called by the Arabs “Lughmet el Kadi,” or the “Kadi’s pudding.”

In and among the above the blue-flowered creeper (_Commellaria_) is found.

[Sidenote: Detail. (Mr. Broun.)]

Regarding the detail of the formation, the first point of interest is that all the most important sudd plants propagate themselves by means of tubular rhizomes which run along the surface of the water giving out shoots from point to point. These shoots, after developing, give out other runners which cross the others and weave themselves into them, a further consolidation being given by twiners which bind them all together.

[Sidenote: Chief sudd plants.]

The most important sudd plants are, without doubt, Papyrus, “Um sûf” (_Panicum pyramidale_), and “Bus” (_Phragmites communis_).

“Um sûf” is probably the greatest source of blocks in the river courses, as it seems to thrive in deeper water than either the “Papyrus” or “Bus.” But all these give out long rhizomes. Those of the “Bus,” which is a very tall reed, extend sometimes quite 20 yards from the parent plants. These rhizomes either break away when the new shoots have developed and go to form new colonies elsewhere, or they are driven by the side of the others and gradually encroach on the river.

Among the climbers which bind the new growth (as well as the old) together, the principal are three kinds of _Ipomœa_, one vine and a leguminous twiner _Vigna Nilotica_. One of the _Ipomœas_ (_I. Reptans_) deserves special mention, as it is not only a twiner, but possesses also tubular rhizomes, which enable it to float along the rhizomes of Papyrus, “Bus,” or “Um sûf,” and to knit them together as soon as they give out shoots. Among other plants which have also hollow stems are _Jussiæa diffusa_, which is also supplied with bunches of spine-shaped floats, and _Polygonum tomentosum_.

When all these floating masses are being tied together by the twiners the river brings down other plants as a packing to fill the interstices. The most common is _Pistia Stratiotes_, but there is also a constant supply of _Ceratophyllum_, _Utricularia_, _Vallisneria_ and other plants of the same family; also _Trapa bispinosa_ (the water-nut), _Potomogetum_, _Azolla_, etc. Little nooks are thus enclosed by runners from the Bus reed, the interior spaces of which are crammed with smaller plants.

It appears wonderful that with all this enormous mass of vegetation growing in these vast swamps in which no traces of human habitations can be seen, the natural decay of the plants does not gradually raise the level of the soil and force the water to keep to well-defined channels which, with the greater volume of water which they would contain would soon force for themselves a less winding course than they now follow.

[Sidenote: Action of fires.]

It appears that one of the chief causes of continuation of the old order of things is _fire_. Sparsely inhabited as the swamps are, they are swept through from end to end by fierce fires which carry everything before them and kill nearly all the trees which attempt to gain a footing. Here and there a few Kakamut, Dôm, Deleib, Dabka or Talh have managed to spring up, but they are so scattered that they do not count. The papyrus and reeds, instead of dying a natural death and forming soil by decay, are burnt down, and what of the ashes is not blown away by the wind is carried away by the next flood. Were it not for these fires it is probable that trees of the species mentioned above would spring out more abundantly, and it would not be a difficult matter to define the banks of the channel by plantations of these or other river-side trees, such as are to be found in Ceylon, for example, lining the river, _e.g._, _Terminalis glabra_, _Vitex Leucoxylon_, _Vateria acuminata_.

[Sidenote: Recent history of blocks and sudd-cutting. (Various.)]

In 1863, 1864, and 1868, heavy sudds blocked the Bahr El Jebel, and in the first mentioned year they extend to the north of Lake No.

In 1870, Sir Samuel Baker found the Bahr El Jebel closed with sudd at its mouth in Lake No. He attempted to ascend the Bahr El Zeraf but failed to reach the Upper Nile, and was obliged to return.

In 1871 he ascended the Bahr El Zeraf, and eventually forced his way into the main river near Shambe, literally lifting his boats and steamer over the intervening swamps and shallows.

In 1872 both the Bahr El Jebel and Bahr El Zeraf were closed, and in 1874 Ismail Pasha Ayub cleared away the sudd in the former river.

In 1878 Emin Pasha found it impossible to ascend the Bahr El Jebel from the south.

In 1879 and 1880 Marno (an Austrian) cleared the Bahr El Jebel of obstruction, completing his work in April, 1880.

In this same year Gessi Pasha undertook his disastrous journey in the Bahr El Ghazal, his steamer being blocked in that river for many weeks, and his expedition only being extricated by the timely arrival of another steamer under Marno, not, however, before he had lost many men.

In 1881 and 1884 the Bahr El Jebel was again closed by the sudd. During the period of Dervish rule nothing detailed was known regarding the state of the river, but in 1895 it was reported to the Intelligence Department that the White Nile was closed by the sudd. During this period the steamer “Mansurah” sank in the main channel in what is now known as the 15th block. The steamer was discovered during the Sudd operations of 1903-04.

As soon as possible after the battle of Omdurman (2nd September, 1898) steamers were sent up-stream to investigate. Major M. Peake attempted (7th October, 1898) to penetrate the Bahr El Jebel, but in vain. He steamed, however, up the Bahr El Ghazal nearly as far as Meshra el Rek. With Major Stanton he shortly afterwards steamed 157 miles up the Bahr El Zeraf, and was then stopped by shallow water.

In the following year, after a visit by Sir W. Garstin and Lt.-Col. Sparkes in the spring, operations for clearing the Bahr El Jebel were seriously undertaken, and Major Peake left Omdurman at the head of an expedition on 16th December, 1899. The party consisted of five gunboats, five English and some Egyptian officers, some British N.C.O.’s, 100 Sudanese, and a gang of 800 Dervish prisoners.

By the 27th March 1900, by means of hard and continuous labour, 14 blocks had been cleared out of 19, opening up 82 miles of river. Major Peake then avoided the remaining blocks by using side channels, arrived at Shambe, 25th April, 1900, and proceeded in clear water to Rejaf (5th May, 1900). Four (16th to 19th) out of the remaining five blocks were cleared by Lieutenant Drury, R.N., in January, 1901, and only the last one, the 15th, 22 miles long, and just south of Hellet El Nuer, still remained. It was considered, however, desirable to make renewed efforts to clear this block. Accordingly an expedition under the direction of Major G. E. Matthews was sent up in the winter of 1901-02, but did not succeed in completely opening the channel. The work of clearing this block was vastly increased owing to the entire absence of current. Nothing was done in 1902-03, but in 1903-04 Lieutenant Drury, late R.N., was again sent to renew the clearing operations. Practically no traces of Major Matthews’ work were discernible, and when, after dogged perseverance, the accomplishment of the task was well in sight the work had to be again reluctantly abandoned.

The false channel now in use is still liable to slight sudd-blocks, especially from April to June. A monthly steamer and other craft, however, keep the fairway open, as a ride, merely by their passage, and there is little or no danger of the channel being seriously blocked again.

[Sidenote: Method of clearing.]

The following was the method employed by Major Peake in clearing the sudd:—

The first operation was to cut and burn the whole of the vegetation growing on the surface; this was done by a party of men with swords, fasses,[232] and axes. Immediately this was done the line to be taken up for the first channel, generally about 12 yards in length, was marked out; this was trenched by the Dervish prisoners armed with fasses, picks, axes and saws, into pieces 4 yards square. After cutting down about 1 foot from the surface the water infiltrated; the men continued cutting until, owing to the depth of the water, they were unable to get any deeper. Holdfasts of telegraph poles were then driven as far as they would go around the edge of each piece. After this a 1½ inch flexible steel wire hawser was sunk as deep as it would go by means of the pronged poles, all round the piece to be removed; the ends of it were made fast to the bullards in the bow of the gunboat, one on the starboard side and one on the port, leaving sufficient slack wire to allow the steamer to go astern some 20 to 30 yards before she got the strain; “full speed astern” was then ordered. Full speed was kept up continually if the piece showed any sign of becoming detached until it came gradually away; as soon as the piece was quite clear, one end of the hawser was cast off and the piece was allowed to float down the stream; the holdfasts were pulled out by means of a rope, one end of which was made fast to the bow of the steamer, and the other by a hitch to the end of the holdfast. If the piece showed no signs of coming away, the engines were reversed and the steamer was brought close up to the sudd and then went astern again. This was repeated again and again until the piece was detached. Some pieces were known to take as much as two hours to get away. Sometimes with very thin sudd, after it had been trenched, the steamer would be run up with her bow on to the sudd, and on going astern would carry the piece with her; also with light sudd a grapnel anchor fixed to the steamer when going astern was found sufficient to tear away the piece.

Very often the sudd will be found with its roots adhering to the bottom; this is especially the case in a year when there is a very low Nile, like 1899-1900, or close up to the banks, when the first leading channel is being widened.

In this case a grapnel or ordinary anchor sunk to the bottom of the river and then dragged along by the steamer is useful. As soon as the leading steamer has opened up the channel a sufficient length to enable her not to interfere with a steamer working behind her, another steamer is put to work, the same way as the first, to widen the channel. This is generally laborious work, as there is not much current to act on the sudd, and in consequence it takes longer to get it away.

In cutting the trenches care should be taken to cut or saw through all roots.

(For further details of the sudd, _see_ H.B.S., pp. 4 and 207 to 213 inclusive (Dr. Junker’s account); Sir W. Garstin’s invaluable reports (Egypt Blue Books No. 5 of 1899, pp. 15 to 19, No. 2 of 1901, pp. 34 to 43, and No. 2 of 1904); Major Peake’s Reports, 1900; and Mr. Broun’s Note, 27.4.03—from all of which, besides some original work by the Editor, the above description has been compiled.)

[Footnote 228: The writer counted 72 in one lagoon at Shambe.]

[Footnote 229: Such blocks are so solid that elephants have been seen to walk on them.]

[Footnote 230: The Director of Forests, Mr. A. Broun, does not agree with the classification, or all the details, &c., given. He has not found the feathery-headed grass, and states that the Um sûf would not, in any case, come in the second class.—Ed.]

[Footnote 231: Query _Boottia Scabra_ or _Nymphaea Lotus_?—A. B.]

[Footnote 232: Native hoes.]

=APPENDIX C.=

* * * * *

ZOOLOGY OF THE SUDAN.

ZOOLOGY.

In preparing the following notes on the Zoology of the country, it has been assumed that the Mammals and Birds will present the most general interest. The variety and distribution of the large “game” animals has been briefly sketched, and, to make space for this, reference to the Invertebrate animals has been omitted.

MAMMALS.

[Sidenote: _Primates._]

Apes and Monkeys are well represented in the Sudan. The Chimpanzee (_Anthropopithecus troglodytes schweinfurthi_) occurs in the Bahr el Ghazal region, where also is found the beautiful black and white fur-bearing _Colobus guereza_; Baboons (_Papio hamadryas_ and _P. anubis_), Grivet (_Cercopithecus sabæus_) and Patas Monkeys (_C. patas_) abound and are widely distributed. Lemurs (_Galago_) occur, but are seldom met with.

[Sidenote: _Carnivora._]

The Lion is found wherever the country is suited to its habits, and is in places plentiful. In 1880, one was seen half-way between Berber and Suakin, but at the present time it ranges little further north in the Sudan than Kassala. The Leopard, commoner than the Lion, but warier and less often seen, is even more widely distributed; the Cheetah or Hunting Leopard (_Cynælurus jubatus_) less so. Among smaller felines are the Serval, Caracal and Libyan Cat (_Felis serval_, _F. caracal_ and _F. libyca_).

Hyænas, spotted and striped (_H. crocuta_ and _H. striata_) are common; much rarer and more local is the Hyæna-like, but smaller, Aard Wolf (_Proteles cristatus_).

Jackals, Foxes and Fennecs are abundant; the Wild Dog (_Lycaon pictus_) is scarcer.

Smaller carnivora are Civets, Genets, the Mongoose, the Ratel, and the pretty little black-and-white Zorillas, which in coloration remind one of the American Skunks.

[Sidenote: _Insectivora._]

The _Insectivora_ are represented by Hedgehogs and Shrews (_Erinaceus_ and _Crocidura_).

Bats (_Chiroptera_) are plentiful.

[Sidenote: _Rodentia._]

Rodents (_Rodentia_) are represented by the common Porcupine, Hares, Ground-Squirrels (_Xerus_), Rats, and the Jerboas and Gerbilles—curious little nocturnal creatures living in holes in the desert sands. They have long hind legs and tails, progress by leaps like miniature kangaroos, are of a protective sandy coloration, and subsist entirely without water.

[Sidenote: _Ungulata._]

Much the most interesting to the general traveller and sportsman are the _Ungulata_ or hoofed animals, and in this “big game” the Sudan is particularly rich.

The Elephant is found on the Setit (from which during the Kharif or rainy season it ranges as far north as the Gash), the Upper Atbara, the Rahad, the Dinder, and the Blue Nile; it ranges across the Gezira in smaller numbers and becomes more plentiful again along the Upper Sobat, Pibor, the Bahr-el-Jebel, in the Bahr-el-Ghazal Province, along and west of the Bahr-el-Arab as far north as Kalaka. The ivory from these southern swampy districts is much larger than that from the Blue Nile and Abyssinian frontier—tusks running up to 130 lbs. or so in weight—but it is not of quite as good quality. No organized effort to capture and train adult African elephants has been made in modern times, and attempts to rear the young on cow’s or goat’s milk or farinaceous substitutes have generally failed.

The Black Rhinoceros (_R. bicornis_) was found as far north as the Gash in 1880; a very few still remain on the Setit, the Rahad, Dinder and Blue Nile; on the Bahr-el-Jebel, in the Bahr-el-Ghazal Province, and on the Bahr-el-Arab it is less scarce, while there is some reason to believe that in this last-named tract of country the White Rhinoceros (_R. Simus_) is not yet extinct. The destruction of Rhinoceroses in the Sudan is absolutely prohibited.

A curious little animal somewhat doubtfully placed by naturalists near the Rhinoceroses is the _Hyrax_, a small animal, in shape somewhat resembling a guinea-pig, which inhabits rocky hills in many parts of the Sudan.

The Wild Ass is found in some of the Eastern deserts; while Zebras (probably Grant’s Zebra) just extend into Sudan territory north of Gondokoro on both banks of the Bahr El Jebel.

Buffalo—the shorter-horned northern form (_Bos caffer equinoctialis_) are numerous in suitable localities, and appear to be holding their own; their distribution is roughly the same as that given for the Elephant.

Of Hartebeests, _Bubalis tora_ is common on the Setit, the Upper Atbara and the Blue Nile tributaries; _Bubalis jacksoni_ takes its place on the White Nile, Bahr-el-Ghazal and in S.W. Kordofan; a much scarcer and more local species, apparently _Bubas Neumanni_ has been found on the White Nile near J. Ahmed Agha. The Tiang[233] or Bastard Hartebeest (_Damaliscus tiang_) is abundant in the Gezira, and in the southern and western parts of the Sudan; on the eastern side of the country it does not range north of the Dinder.

The Water-buck (_Cobus defassa_) is generally distributed where water and grazing are to be found; the beautiful Mrs. Gray’s Water-buck (_C. maria_)—the males of which are marked with a snow-white patch on the withers—is one of the most local of African Antelopes, inhabiting only the swamps of the Bahr-el-Ghazal and Bahr-el-Jebel.

The White-eared Cob (_C. leucotis_), commencing near Renk, follows the White Nile upwards, increasing in abundance in the Bahr-el-Ghazal, occurring also on the Sobat and the Pibor, and extending along the Bahr-el-Jebel into Uganda. On this last river the Uganda Cob (_C. thomasi_) has been shot.

The Roan Antelope (_Hippotragus equinus bakeri_) is locally distributed from the Setit to the south-west of the Sudan; the Blue Nile tributaries are perhaps the chief stronghold of this noble beast.

The _Oryx leucoryx_ is plentiful in Western Kordofan; the _Oryx beisa_ occurs in one or two localities east of the Atbara. The Addax ranges into the deserts of the Western Sudan, but very few have yet been shot by any European.

The greater Kudu (_Strepsiceros capensis_) is one of the scarcer Antelopes in the Sudan, occurring locally in Kordofan, and from the Blue Nile to the neighbourhood of Suakin.

The largest known form of Eland (the _Taurotragus oryx gigas_ of Von Heuglin) is found in the Bahr-el-Ghazal Province.

The Lesser Reedbuck (_Cervicapra bohor_) occurs on both the Blue and White Niles and their tributaries, the Blue Nile examples carrying the finest heads. The Bushbuck of the White Nile is _Tragelaphus scriptus_, the Blue Nile form being _T. decula_.

The commonest Gazelles of the Sudan are the Ariel, the Red-fronted, the Dorcas, and Isabelline Gazelles (_Gazella sœmmeringi_, _G. rufifrons_, _G. dorcas_, and _G. isabella_), widely distributed; more local are the Addra Gazelle[234] of Kordofan (_G. ruficollis_) and Heuglin’s Gazelle of the Setit (_G. ptilonura_). Smaller common Antelopes are the Duiker, Dig-dig, and Oribi (_Cephalophus_, _Madoqua_, and _Ourebia_).

The Klipspringer (_Oreotragus saltator_) is found sparingly on the hills of the Red Sea Littoral.

Ibex (_Capra nubiana_) frequent the rocky hills of the Kassala and Suakin districts; Wild Sheep (_Ovis lervia_) have a wider range, but are much scarcer and shier, and have not been recently shot in the Sudan.

Giraffes are in parts numerous, their range in the Sudan area being approximately that of the Elephant, except that they are absent from localities which are entirely swampy.

A few Hippopotami still remain as far north as Dongola, and a few are to be found near Khartoum. Up the White Nile and the Bahr-el-Ghazal they abound, to such an extent that in places they become dangerous or a positive nuisance.

Wart-hogs (_Phacochærus_) are common and widely spread; while the Sennar Boar (_Sus sennarensis_) has only been obtained, and very rarely, in this one district.

[Sidenote: _Edentata._]

A scaly ant-eater (_Manis_) occurs, and also a curious ant-bear (_Orycteropus æthiopicus_), very similar to the “Aard Vaark” of the Cape.

[Sidenote: _Cetacea._]

No Cetaceans have been found in the Sudan rivers.

BIRDS.

The Bird fauna of the Sudan is rich and interesting. Visitors will be most struck by the aquatic species whose abundance on the rivers forms one of the most pleasing features of the scenery. The practice of shooting at birds from steamers (forbidden by law, as is all trading in plumes) cannot be too strongly deprecated. This practice has within the last 30 years banished most of the bird-life from the Egyptian parts of the Nile for ever.

Most of the birds, which are summer visitors to Europe, winter in the Sudan, or pass through it on their way further south. Conspicuous among these winter visitors are Hoopoes, Golden Orioles, Bee-eaters, Shrikes, Warblers, Wagtails, Flycatchers, &c. Small resident species are abundant, the various kinds of Weaver-finches predominating in numbers and collecting in vast flights. Among this family the beautiful scarlet and black “Dura-bird” (_Pyromelana franciscana_) and the long-tailed Whydah Bird (_Steganura paradisea_) are specially noticeable. The handsome Glossy Starlings—characteristic African birds—are represented by the genera _Spreo_, _Lamprocolius_, and _Lamprotornis_. Several species of Nightjars occur, noteworthy among which is the remarkable Standard-Wing (_Macrodipteryx_), bearing a large racket-shaped web at the end of an elongated wire-like feather in each wing.

Colies, or “Mouse-birds,” Kingfishers, Hornbills (chief among which is the great black-and-white _Bucorax abyssinicus_), Bee-eaters, Rollers and Cuckoos are well represented, as also are Larks and Wheatears. Shining little Sun-birds frequent the forests and enter the gardens in the towns.

Green parrakeets are common, and the grey parrot may be found on the Uganda boundary.

Of birds of prey there are Vultures, Eagles, Falcons, Ospreys, Harriers, Buzzards, Hawks, and Owls in great variety—among which may be mentioned the Noisy River Eagle (_Haliaetus vocifer_), the Secretary Bird (_Serpentarius secretarius_), and the handsome Bateleur Eagle (_Helotarsus ecaudatus_).

The rivers abound with Pelicans, Cormorants, Darters, Herons, Egrets, Bitterns, Storks, Ibises, and Spoonbills. Among these the great carrion-feeding Adjutant or Marabou (_Leptoptilus crumeniferus_) is conspicuous. The remarkable and very local Whale-headed Stork (_Balæniceps rex_) is found in the swamps of the Bahr-el-Ghazal and Bahr-el-Jebel, while the stately Saddle-billed Stork (_Ephippiorhynchus senegalensis_)—iridescent black and white with long brilliantly-coloured bill—is more widely met with. Flamingoes are scarce; Spur-winged and Egyptian Geese, and Whistling Teal, resident and plentiful. Their numbers are swelled by large hosts of northern-breeding ducks, which arrive in the autumn and remain till the spring. Vast numbers of Plovers, Godwits, Whimbrels, Sandpipers, and Terns also winter on the Nile. Snipe occur, but in comparatively small numbers, the area of irrigated land being very limited, and the grasses of the Nile swamps being too high and thick for them.

Three species of Sandgrouse are very abundant; the commonest (_Pterocles exustus_) affords the best bird shooting in the country—in the dry season they daily flight in thousands from the deserts to drink at the rivers. Doves and Guinea-fowl swarm in most parts; Francolins are more local and less plentiful. Quail are also found in parts.

A large Bustard (_Eupodotis arabis_) is plentiful and gives pretty rifle shooting. Three or four smaller bustards also occur.

The strikingly-beautiful Crowned Crane (_Balearica pavonina_) is resident and common, and in the winter immense flights of Common Cranes (_Grus grus_) and smaller numbers of the Demoiselle (_Grus virgo_) spread over the country.

The Ostrich is generally distributed, but is most abundant in Western Kordofan.

REPTILES.

The common African Crocodile (_Crocodilus niloticus_) abounds in the Sudan rivers. Large Monitor Lizards or “Waranas,” reaching 5 or 6 feet in length, are not uncommon: among smaller lizards are various Chameleons, Geckoes, and Skinks.

Soft-backed river Turtles (_Trionyx_) are plentiful. A common land Tortoise is _Testudo calcarata_: a common aquatic Tortoise is _Sternothærus adansoni_.

Of snakes the largest is _Python sebæ_; of poisonous species the Cobra, the Horned Cerastes, and, further south, the Puff-Adder occur: harmless species are more numerous. On the whole, snakes in the Sudan are not plentiful enough to be troublesome, and the mortality due to snake-bite seems insignificant.

Batrachians are rather poorly represented: a Toad (_Bufo regularis_) very like the common European species is the most abundant.

FISH.

The Nile fish have recently been very thoroughly investigated, the collection formed by Mr. Loat, under the auspices of the Egyptian Government, being the largest ever brought together from one country.

Those interested in the subject may note that the scientific results of the “fish survey” will shortly be published in the form of a Monograph, by Mr. G. A. Boulenger.

[Briefly speaking, it may be said that the rivers swarm, almost throughout, with fish; they are mostly of a coarse kind, some running to an immense size—40 to 50 lbs. being quite an ordinary weight for some species.—NOTE BY EDITOR.]

[Footnote 233: Quite recently a closely allied, but rather larger species, Damaliscus korrigum, has been shot in the deserts of Western Kordofan. It was previously believed to be entirely a West African form. Herr Matschie had, in fact, recorded it from near Lake Victoria, but leading English naturalists seemed inclined to consider him mistaken. That it ranges as far east as Long. 30° is now definitely proved.]

[Footnote 234: This species has recently, in the Khartoum Gardens, for the first time bred in captivity.]

=APPENDIX D.=

* * * * *

THE ANTIQUITIES OF THE SUDAN.

(_Vide_ also pp. 221-228.)

The three decades following the Egyptian conquest of the Sudan in 1819 were each marked by the appearance of a large work dealing with the antiquities of the newly-opened provinces. Unfortunately the authors of these works, Cailliaud, Hoskins, and Lepsius, have found no successors of equal means and perseverance, so that our knowledge of the actual remains stands about as Lepsius left it. When Cailliaud (1820) and Hoskins (1833) visited the Sudan, nothing certain was known of the ancient relations of Egypt and Ethiopia, and the wildest philological theories were in the air. The imposing monuments which these travellers found fitted the theories that Egyptian art was the oldest art known; Ethiopia was supposed by some to be the mother of Egypt; here, then, at Meroe, Hoskins fancied that he had found the cradle, not of Egypt only but of the whole civilised world. Criticism began with Lepsius (1842): the style of these remains convinced him that they were not the archaic parents of Egyptian art but the late offspring of a mésalliance between Egypt and the luxuriant South. The progress made since his day enables us to recognise more clearly the main lines of development, though it will require years of research to fill in the details of our picture.

In the following notes the antiquities are grouped for convenience into four divisions—the Prehistoric, the Egyptian, the Meroitic, and the Christian.

1. _Prehistoric._—We know now that the dynastic culture of Egypt was developed at Abydos, Memphis and elsewhere, long before it reached the Sudan, but from the very earliest days desire for the products of the south must have attracted the trader and the soldier, and so carried the culture of Egypt ever further to the south. The ivory and the skulls found in pre-dynastic Egyptian tombs, and the dwarfs and black troops referred to in the Historical Summary, are sporadic witnesses to a coming and going along the Nile Valley which must have lasted for tens of thousands of years. What and whom the early travellers found we cannot say: the country was probably partitioned among a number of petty princelets like the Meleks whom Burckhardt describes as reigning in the provinces of Dongola and Berber in the eighteenth century, and some of the old forts reported in this region and in the desert may date back to this period. To this epoch possibly belong also some of the groups of tumuli visible between the 4th and the 6th cataracts and elsewhere, but of them only one,[235] of the Bronze Age, has been hitherto excavated. A closer study of the surface will doubtless bring to light vestiges of the Stone Age, as it has already done in Egypt and Somaliland.

2. _Egyptian._—The first effective occupation of the northern parts of the Sudan dates from the Middle Empire, but though it is represented by several monuments noted in the list below, it did not last for long. The kings and queens of the New Empire returned to the conquest and exploration of the south, and left much more striking memorials of their greatness. The tablets found at Tel el Amarna are full of requests from Syrian princes for gold, which was exported to them unworked, and by them smelted and wrought into ornaments and vessels. Now the bulk of this gold came from the numerous mines which still exist between the Red Sea and the Nile; in a word the Northern Sudan was the “Rand” of the ancient world. The shafts and huts of the miners, their washing-tables, grinders, and other appliances are found still _in situ_, and the position of some of the finest temples is now seen to be determined by their nearness to rich auriferous regions. This is, perhaps, the most important discovery made since the days of Lepsius.

Under the eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties the Northern Sudan was an Egyptian province, an appanage often of the heir-apparent, and the monuments of this date (see below) are thoroughly Egyptian in character. Under the twenty-second dynasty the conditions were reversed and Egypt became an Ethiopian province; but, as is usual, the civilised power conquered its conqueror, and although Napata now reached its zenith, the character of buildings, statuary, and inscriptions, was not native but Egyptian; this was only natural, seeing that the Ethiopians could command the best workmen in Egypt. It is not until the sixth century B.C. that we begin to see signs of a change. The inscriptions of Heru-Sa-Atef and Nastasenen clearly betray the native origin of their authors; they were written in hieroglyphics by priests who aimed in vain at reproducing the old classical idiom of Thebes. Their last editor very aptly compares them to attempts of a Dongolawi to write Koranic Arabic.

3. _Meroitic._—With the conquests of Alexander and his successors and the spread of the Roman Empire, Ethiopia was brought into touch with a wider system than any it had yet seen, and this Greco-Roman period coincides with the development of a complex original style, in which the African character seems to find its first articulate expression. Exact dates for the numerous monuments in this style cannot be given; some may go back before the time of Alexander, some of the most elaborate certainly fall late in the Roman period. The architectural forms of the latter show the gradual supersession of Egyptian conventions by European designs and construction, while the rich attire of the rulers portrayed bears witness not less to their barbaric taste than to the wealth which radiated under the _Pax Romana_ even beyond the limits of the empire. In this mingling of East and West these works should be compared with those of other schools that arose under the shadow of the Roman Empire, such as the Palmyrene school in Syria and the Greco-Roman Buddhist school in the north-west of India.

The most characteristic works of this school are to be found in the Berber province. The pyramids (Bagarawiya) and the avenue of rams and the pylon-fronted temples (Nagaa and Wadi El Sufra) point back to Egyptian prototypes, but side by side with these we see temples where the pylons have given way to columns fluted and spaced in the fashion of a Roman peristyle shrine, and one small building which has even been described as a Christian basilica!

The Meroitic Pantheon is equally mixed: we pass from the Ammon of Thebes to the Ammon of Napata, and from him to a strange Ethiopian Serapis and a still stranger local or Indian lion-headed god.

The subjects are mostly, like those in Egypt, scenes of adoration or offerings of spoils of victory, but the persons sculptured are Egyptian neither in type nor costume. The best-known of these is the fat Queen “Candace,” whose very fleshly charms are set off by masses of jewellery, heavy necklaces, armlets, bracelets, sandals, and clinging feather-like garments. Her consorts and attendants are only less richly bedizened with jewels and rare stuffs, embroidered with crosses, crescents, “and other delights.” Other panels represent water goddesses and hunting scenes with wild beasts (lions, elephants, etc.), led in captivity by men and genii. The small objects found on these sites (now mostly at Munich and Berlin) give the same impression of barbaric wealth, and the relatively numerous bells show that the Ethiopian of those days was as fond of noise as his black successor.

Unfortunately the inscriptions which accompany these buildings cannot be deciphered. As we saw above, Egyptian was a foreign language to the people of Napata in the sixth century. On the Meroitic monuments not only is the language foreign, but new phonetic values have been given to the old hieroglyphic signs, which makes even transliteration impossible until more bilingual inscriptions turn up.[236] And these hieroglyphics persist until superseded by a script based on Egyptian demotic or perhaps some Arabian alphabet, which is equally unintelligible.

4. _Christian._—The Christian antiquities have fared still worse at the hands of explorers than the earlier ones; the traveller notes “ruins of a Coptic convent” and hurries on to something more congenial. Lepsius collected a few inscriptions, and these have been supplemented from time to time; a few things have been found at Soba and rough sketches published of one or two churches.

The most interesting building known to the writer is the church at Old Dongola, a building in two storeys of burnt bricks, subsequently encased in a thick shell of sun-dried bricks. The ground plan of this is believed to be unique: it looks like an adaptation to Christian ends of old Egyptian structural motives. This building and the ruin-heaps into which many other churches—still called Kanisas by the natives—have been reduced, show that all the lessons of construction learnt under the Roman Empire were not forgotten under the rule of the Christian kings. The pottery of this period was, so far as one can judge from fragments still lying on the surface, more finely levigated, better baked, and more variously decorated than in earlier or later days.

Inscriptions in three languages have been found. At Soba, and perhaps at Geteina (White Nile), Christian inscriptions occur in an unknown language, but in the Greek alphabet eked out by five additional letters; from the Dongola province and from Northern Nubia come inscriptions in Greek and in Coptic. Some of these are dated in the eighth and ninth centuries A.D., and the formulæ used in them are similar to those found in Egypt.

* * * * *

The list of ancient sites, etc., appended does not pretend to be complete. Those who wish for further information are referred to the following authorities, which may be supplemented from the bibliography; but they must remember that the study of these antiquities is still in its infancy.

[Sidenote: Authorities.]

(1.) _Discoveries._—Cailliaud, “Voyage à Méroé,” Paris, 1826; Hoskins, “Travels in Ethiopia,” London, 1833; Lepsius, “Denkmäler,” Berlin, 1842, etc.

(2.) _Special Memoirs._—Ferlini, “Relation Historique,” 1838; Maspero, “Études de Mythologie et d’Archéologie Egyptiennes,” III, Paris, 1898; Heinrich Schäfer, “Die Aetiopische Königsinschrift des Berliner Museums,” Leipzig, 1901.

(3.) Much valuable information may be obtained also from the large histories of Egypt by Maspero, Budge, and Petrie, and from the handbooks published by Murray, Bædeker, and Cook (“The Nile,” by Dr. Budge). Illustrations and slight descriptions of some of the antiquities have been published by J. Ward in the “Monthly Review” for August, 1902, and May, 1903, and of the gold mines in the prospectuses issued by the companies prospecting.

Space does not suffice to give details of all the antiquities: a bare list must suffice. The initials given below are as follows:—Murray’s Handbook of Egypt, 1900 (M.); Dr. Budge’s “The Nile,” 1901 (B.N.); Lepsius “Denkmäler,” 1842 (L.); Cailliaud’s “Voyage à Méroé, 1820” (C.); Rawlinson’s Egypt (Story of the Nation Series) (R.); Dr. Budge’s “A History of Egypt,” 1902 (B.E.); Hoskins, 1833; J. Ward (articles in “Monthly Review,” August, 1902, and May, 1903, with illustrations) (W.).

_Antiquities on or near the Nile Banks._

About 2 miles above Halfa, on the west bank, is an ancient Egyptian site with several temples.

[Sidenote: Abu Sir.]

Five and a half miles above the same town, on the west bank, is the rock of Abu Sir. The chief historical interest of this spot (from which a fine view of the 2nd Cataract is obtained) is the variety of names inscribed on it, reaching back several hundred years.

[Sidenote: Matuka. B.C. 2760? or 2430?]

Three miles south of Abu Sir are remains of the fortress and small temple of Matuka, built by Usertsen I of the Twelfth Dynasty.

On a large island opposite are the remains of a similar fortress and on another small island to the south are the ruins of a Coptic church called Darbe (M. 983)

[Sidenote: Semna and Kumma. B.C. 2320? B.C. 1600? B.C. 2300.]

Forty-three miles south of Halfa are the fortress temples of Semna and Kumma, built by Usertsen III. Rebuilt and extended by Thothmes III of the Eighteenth Dynasty. In good preservation. Amenemhat III also marked the rise of the Nile here (B.N. 489, 490; B.E. iii, 46, 48, etc., iv, 94, vi, 187, and _vide_ p. 222).

[Sidenote: Amara. B.C. 1000?]

At Amara are important ruins of a temple with sculptured columns (L.; B.N. 491).

At Selima Oasis, 55 miles west of Sagiet El Abd, are remains of old convents, built out of still older remains, on which there are unknown inscriptions. (_Vide_ p. 203.)

[Sidenote: Sai. B.C. 1660-1600?]

At Sai Island, 130 miles from Halfa, are remains of a town and Coptic church, and of cemeteries, also of a temple with inscriptions of Thothmes III and Amenhotep I (Eighteenth Dynasty).

[Sidenote: Sedinga. B.C. 1800.]

At Sedinga, 6 miles further, are the ruins of a fine temple by Amenhotep III, a column and a cemetery (B.E. iv, 111).

[Sidenote: J. Dush. B.C. 1620?]

Six miles to the south is Jebel Dush, with a tomb contemporary with Thothmes III (B.N. 402).

[Sidenote: Solib. B.C. 1500.]

A mile further on is Solib, with the well-preserved remains of a magnificent temple by Amenophis III (L.; B.N. 492; B.E. iv, 59, etc.; Hoskins, etc.). Many treasures removed to Jebel Barkal.

[Sidenote: Sesebi. B.C. 1370 or 1275?]

Sesebi, opposite Dalgo, contains a ruined temple by Seti I, father of Rameses the Great. (L.; B.E. v, 9.)

In the district between Dalgo and Koya are several ancient workings for gold and copper, which account for the presence of rich temples near.

[Sidenote: Tombos.]

On the Island of Tombos, near Kerma, are granite quarries and one statue unfinished.

[Sidenote: Argo.]

On the Island of Argo (Arkaw) are ruins of a temple and of two granite statues lying on the ground (about 24 feet long, including pedestal), of Sebekhotep III, of the Thirteenth Dynasty, or else, more probably, of the Napata period.

[Sidenote: Karman.]

Near Argo, on the right bank at Karman are the ruins of a large town, and two large mud-brick tombs (B.N. 493, and L.), called Dafufa and Karman.

Six or seven miles south of New Dongola, on the right bank at a place named Kawa, is a delicate little Egyptian temple, date unknown, in good preservation. (Discovered and partially excavated by Colonel Hon. J. Colborne, 1885.)

Khandak marks the site of an ancient Egyptian town of which traces may be seen in the citadel.

South of Khandak are traces of Christian or older sites at Firgi and Khalewa on the west bank (Greek inscriptions have come from the latter), and on the east bank at Amentogo, Arab Hag (inscription from obelisk set up in Napata (?) by Piankhi) and a few miles east of Meganda, the last two in the Latte.

[Sidenote: Old Dongola.]

Old Dongola, now almost deserted, was the capital of the Christian kingdom of Dongola in the sixth century.

The upper floor of the fine church there is now used as a mosque. On a ridge between the church and the river are remains of ancient fortification. An obelisk of Piankhi, now at Cairo, the fellow to that at Arab Hag, was found here, but had been probably carried from Jebel Barkal. Some Christian inscriptions have been found here (_see_ “Journal of Theological Studies,” IV, p. 583).

[Sidenote: Kurru, Zuma, Tangasi.]

At Kurru and Zuma (east bank), and Tangasi, 7 to 10 miles from Merowe, are remains of large groups of pyramids (B.N. 496), a few of stone, others of mud-brick from which the stone casing has been removed.

On Gimeti Island are traces of a church.

[Sidenote: Merowe. B.C. 900 to B.C. 200.]

Merowe (north bank) and Abu Dom Sanam (south bank) mark the site of Napata (Nept or Nepita). The old city appears to have been on the south bank, and of considerable size (_vide_ p. 222). A few miles from the river on this bank, in low hills, are the remains of a number of rock-hewn tombs, and 3 or 4 miles up-stream from Abu Dom, on the north bank, lie the pyramids and ruins of the temples of Napata.

[Sidenote: Jebel Barkal.]

Jebel Barkal, 302 feet high, the “Holy Mountain” of the inscriptions, can be seen for many miles round; on the plain by the side of the hill are ruins of eight or nine pyramids, and on the rising ground are eight more, varying from 20 to 60 feet in height.

[Sidenote: Circa B.C. 700. Nuri.]

The principal temples are those of Taharka and Piankhi, close to Jebel Barkal. At Nuri, 7½ miles from Merowe, on the south bank, are the remains of 35 pyramids, solidly built, and probably of the Middle (?) Empire. At Wadi Ghazal are the remains of a fine Christian monastery. (B.N. 496-503; Cailliaud; Lepsius.)

[Sidenote: Belal.]

A few miles beyond Belal (foot of the 4th Cataract) and on the south bank are the remains of a Coptic church and fortified monastery.

Opposite Hamdab Island, 6 miles further on, are the ruins of a pyramid.

[Sidenote: Berber.]

No further remains have been discovered for the next 250 miles or more. There is evidence that Berber was in the ancient days a starting point, as now, for caravans for Suakin, but there are no ancient remains, as far as is known.

[Sidenote: Island of Meroe and Bagarawiya. B.C. 400 to A.D. 250.]

On crossing the Atbara the “Island of Meroe” is entered, and at Bagarawiya, some 45 miles south of the Atbara, three important groups of pyramids, about 100 in all, are reached. These, also called the pyramids of Assur, lie about 3 miles from the river, and are the tombs of kings and princes of the old capital, which lay somewhere near Shendi. An important find of jewellery of the Roman period was made here by Signor Ferlini, an Italian doctor, in 1834. (B.N. 509-513; L.; Cailliaud; Ferlini; W.) Since then the tops of many pyramids have been damaged in similar searches.

About 29 miles south of Shendi, on the east bank, is the entrance to the Wadi Ban Nagaa, and near it is a village of that name. Three miles down the river are the ruins of a small ancient Nubian temple.

[Sidenote: Nagaa.]

Twenty-three miles south-east from the railway station of Wadi Ban Nagaa, and situated in a low waterless desert, are the extensive remains of an ancient town. The walls of six temples are still standing, at least in part, and the foundations of several others can be traced. Two of them are connected together by an avenue of rams. One of the temples is almost purely Roman in style, and belongs, perhaps, to the third century A.D.; others are transitional; these are in comparatively excellent preservation. (Description by Rev. L. Gwynne; B.N. 514, 515; Cailliaud [elaborate]; and W.). They were also visited by Wurt (1811), Demetrio (1822), Holroyd (1837), and Lepsius.

[Sidenote: El Sufra.]

Twelve miles north-east of Nagaa are the ruins of El Sufra, also called El Masurat, a group of buildings within walls, of the Roman period, with a Meroitic inscription (C.; L.; and Hoskins, and B.N. pp. 515-516). One and a-half miles off are some Christian temples (?) (B.N. p. 515). A road track leads south-east from Shendi _viâ_ Nagaa temples to Soba, and there are, it is reported, old temples on the way.

[Sidenote: Khartoum.]

There are no visible ruins of ancient temples at Khartoum, though it is known that it was the site of a large town (_vide_ p. 228). A colossal Christian (?) stone lamb has been brought here from Soba (W.).

[Sidenote: Soba.]

At Soba, believed to be the old capital of the Christian Kingdom of Alwa, built on the old Ethiopic site of “Sobas,” 13 miles from Khartoum and on the east bank of the Blue Nile, are some remains of granite pillars and of a Christian church, including a decorated base with a large cross carved on it (W.). Little is known about this. There is said to have been a bridge here over the Blue Nile.

_Miscellaneous._

[Sidenote: J. Geili.]

At Jebel Geili, 92 miles east from Khartoum, there is a carving in Meroitic style on a huge granite block at the south-eastern end of the hill, and on a neighbouring rock higher up the hill are the carved outlines of three horses (dates unknown).

[Sidenote: Koliteb.]

At Koliteb, 113 miles from Tokar, on one of the Kassala roads, there are ancient and rude carvings of men and camels on the rocks (Junker).

[Sidenote: Mamân.]

At Jebel Mamân, 201 miles from Suakin, on the “Ermenab” route to Kassala, there are some curious old Christian stone ruins and tombs (Schweinfurth; Z.A.E., 1865, p. 398).

[Sidenote: Sennar.]

Little or nothing of the old Sennar Kingdom is left.

At Geteina, on the White Nile, some inscribed bricks and pottery of the Christian period have been found. These are now preserved at Khartoum in the Gordon College Museum.

[Sidenote: El Ein.]

_Vide_ p. 211.

[Sidenote: W. Mogaddam.]

_Vide_ Vol. II, route Gabra—Korti.

[Sidenote: W. El Fura.]

Just above the wells of El Fura are the remains of a large rectangular fort (about 60 by 50 yards), with massive stone walls some six feet high and eight to ten feet thick, with curious square projections, perhaps for flanking defence. It may belong to the same period as the great stone fortifications at Old Dongola and Khandak, but the masonry presents one curious feature not observed there, namely, the frequent use of stones with the long dimensions vertically placed. It would serve to command the wells on a road from Merowe to Napata.

[Sidenote: Tombs, Atbai.]

North of the Berber-Suakin road, Lieutenant Newcombe, R.E., reports some curious tombs. Two are near the Wadi Amur (E. Long. 36° 15″, N. Lat. 19° 15″), and one is close to the watershed of Khor Garrar (E. Long. 36° 40″, N. Lat. 20°). The ground plan of these tombs is octagonal; they were roofed apparently by a dome supported on a hexagonal (?) drum, and lit by plain rectangular windows. It is impossible to say whether they belong to the late Christian or the early Mohammedan period. The rounded battlement which crowns the corners of the eight walls is a common feature on Sheikhs’ tombs.

It only remains to point out that the surface of Sudan antiquities has barely been touched. It is hoped that as money becomes available more of the ancient history of the Sudan may be brought to light, and more particularly is it hoped that the meaning of the Nubian and Meroitic hieroglyph inscriptions may shortly be discovered.

The whole matter is being gradually taken up by the Sudan Government, but want of funds hampers the work.

The distinguished Egyptologist, Dr. Wallis Budge, of the British Museum, has already paid several visits to the country.

[Footnote 235: The contents of this are now preserved in the Gordon College Museum at Khartoum.]

[Footnote 236: Two cartouches on an altar preserved in Berlin enable us to recognise eight signs.]

=APPENDIX E.=

* * * * *

ETHNOLOGY OF THE SUDAN.

The wealth of the Nile Valley has at all times tempted invasion; the land presents no serious physical obstacles, and the people who live in the countries bordering it have always been unsettled and migratory. We expect, therefore, to find here a perfect babel of tongues and races. To mention invasions from the East alone and within the historic period, Africa has been overrun by the dynastic Egyptian, the Hyksos, the Abyssinians and the Arabs, and from the early cemeteries of Abydos archæologists have collected skulls which appear to show that from the time of the Stone Age four races at least have contributed to the population of Egypt. These races Kollmann[237] identifies as Punts, who were, perhaps, of Semitic origin, Nubians, Libyans, and Negroes, the last including several Pygmies and, to judge from their grave-offerings, some men of wealth and consideration. In the Sudan no detailed researches have been made in ancient burial-places, but we may confidently expect some day to read in the northern half the same story as in Egypt.

Invasion, moreover, is not the only disturbing element. The natives of the Sudan, even when they have adopted a more or less settled life, are great travellers: traffic in human flesh and conquest for the sake of human flesh have nowhere been pursued so long and so thoroughly. The native changes his abode without hesitation, and his love of strange women is passing Solomon’s. A hundred years ago Brown found Darfur full of Dongolawi traders. Fifty years ago the same race had turned their eyes to Kordofan and the Bahr El Ghazal, and wherever they go they intermarry with the women of the land. The Takruris have similarly in a peaceable way shifted their abode from Darfur to the province of Kassala within quite recent days.

Yet again, in the southern half we have seen within the last few centuries a succession of loosely-knit empires (Fungs, Shilluks, etc.) which carry the name and often the language of a single tribe over a wide area and then melt away, leaving behind only confusion to the ethnologist. What we know to have existed for the last thousand years, we can premise for the last fifty (?) thousand. So intricately mixed indeed is this southern half that the Nileland has been aptly described as the Negro _Potpourri_.

But there are mitigating circumstances which we must also take into account, otherwise the ethnologist would indeed be, of all men, the most hopeless.