Chapter VII: Part I: The Primary Varieties of the Human Species (4)

In respect to the former, the Ugrians are the first people wherein we find the original Paganism in more tribes than one; so that it can be studied in its minute differences, as well as in its general character. Its essential identity, however, is remarkable. The Supreme Deity is Yumel, Yubmel, Yumala, or some slightly modified name; and that from the Morduin country to Lapland. Except this notice of the extent to which similarity of creed, as well as similarity of language, connects the Ugrians, no further remarks will be made at present.

The _Runot_ is the name for the popular poems of Finlanders. In few nations are they more numerous. In none more carefully collected. I believe that the chief one partakes of the nature of an epic, and relates the wars between the Laps and Finlanders. Others are short, lyrical, and adapted to music. The term _Runot_ (the plural form) is suspiciously similar to the Scandinavian word, _Runa_, with a not dissimilar meaning (_furrow_, _carving_, _letter_, _spell_, _verse_, _poem_). Finland archæologists, however, repudiate this, and claim it as an indigenous word, on the strength of certain derivative forms, like _runionecka_=_poet_. This is not conclusive. Nor is it necessary for the main fact, which is the existence of a home-grown poetical literature of more than average merit, and implying musical taste for the Finlandic portion of the Ugrian branch--of the Turanian group--of the Altaic Mongolidæ.

FOOTNOTES:

[9] In Greek, _Rhæmata_=words.

[10] Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.

[11] Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, vol. vi. part 2.

[12] Prichard, vol. iv.

[13] "The Chinese as they are," p. 319.

[14] Prichard, vol. iv.

[15] Prichard, vol. iv.

[16] Buchanan, Asiatic Researches.

[17] Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, vol. iv. part 2.

[18] Such are the primitive habits, still in use from the Konki to the Monash and which are most worthy of study and record, as being primitive and as being common to two people, the Bodo and Dhimál, though abandoned by the Kámrúpian and most numerous branch of the Bodo.

[19] Ai or Aya is the goddess Kámákyá of Kanirup, _vis genetrix naturæ_, typed by the Bhaga or Yoni.

[20] _Dhámi_, in Bodo. _Dom_, in other allied dialects.

[21] Decline and Fall, vol. viii.

[22] Klaproth, Memoires relatifs à l'Asie, iii.

[23] Zeuss, v. _Avari_.

[24] Decline and Fall, vol. v.

[25] Lucian, Toxaris 31. From Zeuss, v. _Alani_.

[26] 1. The determination of the language to which the name of any nation mentioned in history belongs is of primary importance. Perhaps there is not one fourth of the tribes described by writers, either ancient or modern, whereof the name is native; _e.g._, the terms _Welsh_ and _German_ are unknown in _Wales_ and _Germany_; whilst an Englishman is a _Saxon_ in the Principality and in Ireland. For ascertaining whether a name be native or not the two following rules are useful.

_Rule 1._ When two different nations speak of a third by the same name the _primâ facie_ evidence is _in favour_ of that name being the native one.

_Rule 2._ When one nation speaks of two others under the same name, the _primâ facie_ evidence is _against_ that name being the native one.

Thus, according to Rule 1, if a Chinese and a Greek each call a tribe which invades their country, _Hun_, it is nearly certain that the invading tribe called itself _Hun_ also. Of course, in cases, where the two nations using the common term might have borrowed it one of another, or from a third language, the probabilities are modified. Still the general rule holds good.

The second rule may be illustrated by the term _Welsh_. It is given by the nations of the Gothic stock to the Cambrians of Wales, the Italians of Italy, and the Wallachians of Wallachia. We _know_ that with none of these it is native. I consider, however, that, given the geographical position of Germany, Wales, Italy, and Wallachia, the same might have been _inferred_.

[27] Wrangell, from Prichard, vol. iv.

[28] Transactions of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, 1846.

[29] Ermann, from Prichard, vol. iv.

[30] Reise um der Erde.

[31] _Saxon (German) wine._

[32] Asia Minor and Thrace.

[33] Many parts of Russia.

[34] Germania, 45.

[35] Zeuss, _v._ _Finni_, and p. 157.

B.

DIOSCURIAN MONGOLIDÆ.

The term Dioscurian is taken from the ancient sea-port Dioscurias. Here it was that the chief commerce between the Greeks and Romans, and the natives of the Caucasian range took place. According to Pliny,[36] it was carried on by one hundred and thirty interpreters, so numerous were the languages. Without raising the number thus high, the great multiplicity of mutually unintelligible tongues is still one of the characteristics of the parts in question. And this fact has determined the application of the term. To have used the word _Caucasian_ would have been correct, but inconvenient. It is already _mis_-applied in another sense, _i.e._, for the sake of denoting the so-called Caucasian race, consisting, or said to consist, of Jews, Greeks, Circassians, Scotchmen, ancient Romans, and other heterogeneous elements. In this sense it has been used in more than one celebrated work of fiction. In such, and in such only, it is otherwise than out of place.

DIOSCURIAN NATIONS AND TRIBES.

_Physical Conformation._--Modified Mongol.

_Languages._--Paurosyllabic,[37] agglutinate; of all the
tongues _not_ Seriform, the nearest approaching to an aptotic
state.

_Area._--The range of Mount Caucasus.

_Chief Divisions._--1. The Georgians. 2. The Lesgians. 3. The
Mizjeji. 4. The Irôn. 5. The Circassians.

In few, perhaps, in no part of the present volume, am I on more debateable ground than the present. So long has the term Caucasian been considered to denote a type of physical conformation closely akin to that of the Iapetidæ, (_i.e._, preeminently European,) that to place the Georgians and Circassians in the midst of the Mongolidæ, is a paradox. Again, the popular notions founded upon the physical beauty of the tribes under notice, are against such a juxtaposition; the typical Mongolians, in this respect, having never been mentioned by either poet or painter in the language of praise.

Lastly, it so happens that some of the latest researches in comparative philology have been undertaken with the special object of making the philological position of the Dioscurians coincide with their anatomical one, _i.e._, of proving that the languages of the Georgians and the Irôn are to be connected with that of the Greeks and Latins, just as was the case with their skeletons.

For the sake of laying before the reader the amount of fact and argument, in contradistinction to the amount of mere opinion, that is opposed by the position here assumed for the Dioscurians, I will analyse the grounds for the current belief under two heads:--

1. _The connexion of the Dioscurian nations with those of Europe, as determined by the evidence of Physical Conformation._--The really scientific portion of these anatomical reasons consists in a single fact; which was as follows.--Blumenbach had a solitary Georgian skull; and that solitary Georgian skull was the finest in his collection: that of a Greek being the next. Hence it was taken as the type of the skull of the more organized divisions of our species. More than this, it gave its name to the type, and introduced the term _Caucasian_. Never has a single head done more harm to science than was done in the way of posthumous mischief, by the head of this well-shaped female from Georgia. I do not say that it was not a fair sample of all Georgian skulls. It might or might not be. I only lay before critics the amount of induction that they have gone upon.

2. _The connexion of the Dioscurian nations with those of Europe as determined by the evidence of language._--Here I can only give a sample of the philology which would connect the Georgian with the Indo-European tongues. It consists in the proof that the Georgian numerals are the same as the Latin, Greek, Sanskrit, Gothic, Slavonic, and Lithuanic.

English. Georgian. Mingrelian.[38] Suanic.[38] Lazic.[38]

_One_ erthi arthi es`gu ar.
_Two_ ori shiri jeru dzur.
_Three_ sami sumi semi dshumi.
_Four_ othchi otchi wors`tcho atch.
_Five_ chuthi chuthi wochus`i chut.
_Six_ ekhwssi apchs'ui usgwa as`.
_Seven_ s'widi 'sqwithi is`gwit s`kit.
_Eight_ rwa ruo ara ovro.
_Nine_ zehru c`choro c`chara c`choro.
_Ten_ athi withi je`st wit.

One=_Es`gu_, Suanic=_êka_, Sanskrit; _jek_, Persian, the ἑκα- in ἑκά-τερος, and ἕκ-αστος, Greek.

One=_erthi_, Georgian; _arthi_, Mingrelian; _ar_, Lazic. Here the forms are different from the Suanic _esg`u_, and have a different origin. _Esgu_ is a true cardinal, just as _one_ is a true cardinal. The Georgian, Mingrelian, and Suanic forms, are not originally cardinal, but derivative from the ordinal, just as would be the case in English, if, instead of saying _one_, _two_, &c., we said, _first_, _second_, &c. Now the root of the ordinal cardinal of the Georgian, Mingrelian, and Lazic _ar_, is the πρ- in the Greek, πρῶ-τος, the _p-r-_ in the Lithuanic _pir-mas_, the _fr-_ in the Mœso-Gothic, _fr-ums_, and the _pr-_ in the Sanskrit _pr-atamas_; the initial _p_ having been lost, just as the initial _s_ in the Sanskrit _sru_,=to _flow_, is lost in the Greek ῥέω, and the Latin _ruo_. Hence, _arti_=, by _rati_ metathesis, just as the Lithuanic _pirmas_=the Latin _primus_. The _t_ is the τ of πρῶ-τ-ος.

Two=_Ori_, Georgian; _dva_, Sanskrit; δι-, Greek; _duo_, Latin, &c.

_Three_=_sami_, Georgian; _dschumi_, Lazic; _tre_, Sanskrit; τρία, Greek; _tres_, Latin; _three_, English, &c. Here _t_ becomes _s_, _r_ is ejected, and _m_ is added, upon the assumption of _reflected ordinal_.[39]

_Four_=_wors`tcho_, Suanic. A transposition of _tchowors_=the Sanskrit _ćatvâras_.--Here, remember the Gothic and Welsh forms, _fidvôr_, and _pedwar_, respectively.

_Five_=_wochus`i_, Suanic. The _wo-_ of this form is the _pa-_ of the Sanskrit _pa-nća_, whilst the _-chu-_ is the _ća_ of the same word. The _-t-_ is the _t_ of the Slavonic forms, _fya-tj_=five; _ses-tj_=six; _devja-ti_=nine, and _desja-ti_=ten.

_Six_=_ekhwssi_, Georgian=_sas_, Sanskrit; _csvas_, Zend; _achses_, Trôn.

_Seven_=_swidi_, Georgian. A transposition of _siwdi_=_supta_, Sanskrit; _septem_, Latin; ἕπτα, Greek, &c. It is stated of the numbers _six_ and _seven_ that "their Indo-European origin is preeminently capable of proof."

_Eight_=_rwa_, _ruo_, &c.=_as`ta_, Sanskrit. Here the _s_ is lost, as in Hindostani, and Bengali, _ât`_, and _ât_; _t_ becomes _d_; and _d_ is changed to _r_.

The numeral _nine_ is let alone.

_Ten_=_jest_, Suanic=_das`a_, Sanskrit.

I do not say that there may not be letter-changes which make all this feasible. There may or may not be. I only lay before critics, the amount of change assumed.

In 1845, I announced, at the meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, that the closest philological affinity of the Dioscurian languages was with the Aptotic ones. This I had brought myself to believe from a comparison of the _words_ only. Soon afterwards, Mr. Norriss, of the Asiatic Society, instead of expressing surprise at my doctrine, said that, upon _grammatical_ grounds, he held the same opinion.

How far these views are founded on fact, may be seen from the forthcoming samples of two Dioscurian grammars, and of a short Dioscurian vocabulary, compared with those of the Seriform tongues. The two together form but a small fraction of the evidence that can be adduced. It is as much, however, as is admissible in a work like the present.

Physiological objections, based upon the symmetry of shape, and delicacy of complexion, on the part of the Georgians and Circassians, I am, at present, unable to meet. I can only indicate our want of osteological data, and remind my reader of the peculiar climatologic conditions of the Caucasian range; which is at once temperate, mountainous, wooded, and in the neighbourhood of the sea--in other words, the reverse of all Mongol areas hitherto enumerated. Perhaps, too, I may limit the extent of such objections _as a matter of fact_. It is only amongst the chiefs where the personal beauty of the male portion of the population is at all remarkable. The tillers of the soil are, comparatively speaking, coarse and unshapely.

GEORGIANS.

_Divisions._--1. Eastern Georgians. 2. Western Georgians. 3.
South-western Georgians. 4. Northern Georgians.

EASTERN GEORGIANS.

_Locality._--The head-waters of the Kur.

_Name._--Cartulinian, from the Province called Carthueli, the
ancient Iberia. The Cartulinian dialect is the Georgian of
Teflis, and the Georgian of the Georgian literature.

_Alphabet._--Peculiar. Probably derived from the Armenian.

WESTERN GEORGIANS.

_Localities._--Guriel, Imeretia, and Mingrelia, _i.e._, the
valley of Phasis.

_Name._--Mingrelian.

_Language._--More like the Lazic than it is to either the
Cartulinian or the Suanic.

SOUTH-WESTERN GEORGIANS.

_Locality._--Lazistan.

_Geographical Limits._--From the promontory of Kyemer-Burnu,
east of Rizeh, east of Trebizond to the mouth of the Tchorok,
south of Batoum. Not further than the Tchorok inland.

_Political Relations._--Subject to Turkey.

_Religion._--Mahometan; converted about 1580, A.D. Previously
(at least in the reign of Justinian) Christians of the Greek
Church.

_Alphabet._--Arabic. Native literature none or scanty.
Sub-dialects numerous, according to Rosen one for almost every
valley. Greek words intermixed; some, probably, of considerable
antiquity.

NORTHERN GEORGIANS.

_Locality._--The head-waters of the Tzchenistoquali, or
Lasch-churi; the Hippus of the ancients.

_Name._--Suanic.

_Conterminous with_ the Northern Mingrelian dialects of the
Georgian, and the Absné dialect of the Circassian. Less like
any of the other Georgian dialects than they are to each other.
The Suanians call--

Themselves, _S`wan_.
The Caratschai Turks, _Ows_.
The Absné, _Mibchaz_.
The Irôn, _Sawi-ar_.
The East Georgians, _M`karts_.
The West Georgians, _Mimrel_.
The Mingrelians, _Mumgrel_.

_Descent._--As the Georgians may reasonably be considered to be the aborigines of the locality which they, at present, inhabit, they come before us as an ancient people. The Greek poet, who first sung of the Argonauts, knew, at least, enough of Colchis to make it a local habitation for his heroine--though that was not knowing much. The earliest navigator of the Euxine knew more; for, possibly, at a period anterior to the colonization of Asia Minor, he knew it as a real land. The Ægyptians, at the time of Herodotus, knew enough of it to claim it as a conquest of the great Sesostris. With this claim the question of _purity_ of the Georgian race commences.

Two separate and definite immigrations have been supposed to have introduced into Colchis new ethnological elements.

1. _The settlement from Ægypt under the reign of the Great Sesostris._

In §§ 103-105, of his Second Book, Herodotus writes thus:--Sesostris "overturned both the Scythians and the Thracians; and here, in my mind, the Ægyptian army reached its furthest point. Thus far the pillars in question appear; beyond, there are none. From these parts he turned back, and when he came to the river Phasis, I am unable to say truly, which of two things occurred; whether the King himself, having separated a portion of his army, left it as a settlement in the country, or whether some of his soldiers, harassed by their wanderings, stayed behind on that river. For the Colchians are evidently Ægyptians. I say this, having observed it myself, before I heard from any one else. And, whilst I was considering it, I asked both; and the Colchians remembered the Ægyptians better than Ægyptians the Colchians. The Ægyptians said, that they thought that the Colchians were from the army of Sesostris. This is what I guessed myself, from the fact of their being both black-skinned and curly-haired. This, however, goes for nothing. Others are so also. The main reason is that the Colchians, the Ægyptians, and the Æthiopians are the only men who originally practised circumcision: since the Phœnicians and the Syrians of Palestine confess that they learned it of the Ægyptians; whilst the Syrians about the rivers Thermodon and Parthenius, and the Macrones, who are their neighbours, say that they learned it recently, from the Colchians. Come, now, I must mention another fact concerning the Colchians, wherein they resemble the Ægyptians. They and the Ægyptians are the only ones who work flax in the same way. And the whole manner of life and language are mutually alike. The flax from Colchis is called by the Greeks, _Sardonicon_: that from Ægypt, _Ægyptian_."

As no external evidence will make it probable that the Georgians, _as a nation_, are of Ægyptian origin, and as, on the other hand, Herodotus speaks from personal observation, the exact truth is not easily attainable. Probably, there was an Ægyptian colony on the Black Sea. Possibly--though not probably--the Colchians were not Dioscurian aborigines, but immigrants.

2. _The Orpelian settlement from China._--In the thirteenth century, according to those who are most willing to allow a comparatively high antiquity to Armenian literature, a work was composed in Armenian, by Stephen, Archbishop of Siounia. In this, it is stated that a noble family, called _Ouhrbélêan_, or Orpelian, entered Georgia, settled on the frontiers of Orpeth, and became the founders of one of the great families of Georgia; to which family the historian himself belonged. Finally, it is added, that this family came from _Djenasdan_ or _China_. This is probably a mere tradition; one which, even if true, would denote an immigration wholly unconnected with the real ante-historical relations between Caucasus and the Seriform area.

The _true_ elements of intermixture with the Georgian family have been Greek, Persian, Armenian, Turk, and Russian; as may be collected from the history of the country. The amount of Lesgian, Irôn, Mizjeji, and Circassian blood is uncertain.

The safest view to be taken of the history of Georgian civilization is to remember that, different as may be the languages of Georgia and Armenia, the political history and the local relations are alike, and have generally been so. The Christianity of Georgia was from Armenia; so was its literature; so also its alphabet--although in their present rounded form its letters are very unlike the square and angular characters of Armenia.

THE LESGIANS.

_Locality._--Eastern Caucasus, or Daghestan.

_Name._--No native _general_ name. Called by the Circassians
Hhannoatshe; by the Tshetshentsh, Suéli.

_Dialects._--1. Avar, spoken by the tribe who call themselves
Marulan,=mountaineers, from Marul=mountain. Falling into the
Anzukh, Tshari, Andi, Kabutsh, Dido(?), Unso(?) sub-dialects.
2. Kasikumuk. 3. Akush--sub-dialect Kubitsh. 4. Kura of South
Daghestan.

THE MIZJEJI.

_Locality._--West and north-west of the Lesgians.

_Name._--Not native.

_Divisions._--1. Galgai, Halha, or Ingúsh. 2. Kharabulakh or
Arshte. 3. Tshetshentsh. 4. Tushi.

THE IRÔN.

_Locality._--Central Caucasus; conterminous with the Mizjeji on
the East, the Georgians on the south, the Circassians on the
north, and Imeretia on the west.

_Name._--Called by themselves Irôn, by the Georgians, Osi
(Plural Oseti).

As the single skull of the Georgian female did all the mischief in the physiological ethnography of Caucasus, an Irôn vocabulary has been the prime source of error in the way of its philology. Klaproth considered that the number of words common to the Irôn[40] and Persian languages was sufficient to place the former amongst the Indo-European languages. More than this, there were historical grounds for believing that the Irôn was the ancient language of Media[41]--also of the Alani of the later Roman empire. No man believed all this more than the present writer until the appearance of Rosen's sketch of the Irôn (_Ossetic_) grammar. He now believes that the Irôn is more Chinese than Indo-European.

Assuming, however, that Klaproth's position is correct, it follows that as the Georgian is undoubtedly akin to the Irôn, it may be Indo-European also. This is the view taken by Professor Bopp, from whose work, in favour of this position of the Georgian, the criticism relating to the numerals was taken. The method is as exceptionable as the result. If the Georgian be Indo-European, the Chinese is Indo-European also; and if the vaunted laws concerning the permutation and transition of letters lead to such philological leger-de-main as is to be found in more than one work of the German school, our scholarship is taking a retrograde direction.

However, the character of the Irôn grammar is as follows:--

The declension of nouns is simple; being limited to two numbers and four cases. Herein the inflection expressive of number can be separated from the inflection expressive of case--as _fid_-i=_of a father_, _fid-t`_-i=_of fathers_. Furthermore, the sign of case _follows_ that of number. Such is the structure of case and number in Irôn, and such the _sequence_ of the respective inflections expressive of each.

_Singular._ _Plural._

_Nom._ fid[42] fid-t`-a
_Gen._ fid-i fid-t`-i
_Dat._ fid-én fid-t`-am
_Abl._ fid-éi fid-t`-éi.

_Nom._ moi[43] moi-t`a
_Gen._ moi-i moi-t`i
_Dat._ moi-én moi-t-am
_Abl._ moi-éi moi-t`-éi.

The comparative degree is formed by the addition of -_dar_; as _chorz_=_good_, _chorz-dar_=_better_. This has an Indo-European look. Compare it with the -τερ of the Greek comparatives. No superlative inflection.

The true personal pronouns (_i. e._, those of the two first persons) are as follows;--

A.

1. _Az_=_I_. Defective in the oblique cases.

2. _Man_, or _ma_--Defective in the nominative singular.

A.

_Sing._ _Plural._
_Nom._ ---- mach
_Gen._ man-i mach-i
_Dat._ man-an mach-én
_Accus._ man mach
_Abl._ man-éi mach-éi.

B.

_Nom._ di si-mach
_Gen._ daw-i[44] si-mach-i
_Dat._ daw-on si-mach-én
_Accus._ daw si-mach
_Abl._ da-wéi si-mach-éi.

The signs of the persons are considered to be eminently Indo-Germanic. They are _-in_, _-is_, _-i_; _-am_, _-ut`_, _-inc`_; _e. g._

Qus-_in_ = aud-_io_ Qus-_am_ = aud-_imus_
Qus-_is_ = aud-_is_ Qus-_ut`_ = aud-_itis_
Qus-_i_ = aud-_it_ Qus-_inc`_ = aud-_iunt_.

I am as little prepared to deny as to affirm the likeness.

The addition of the sound of _t_ _helps_ to form the Irôn preterite. I say _helps_, because if we compare the form _s-ko_-t-_on_=_I made_, with the root _kan_, or the form _fé-qus_-t-_on_=_I heard_, with the root _qus_, we see, at once, that the addition of _t_ is only a _part_ of an inflection. Nevertheless, I am as little prepared to deny as to affirm its identity with the Persian _d_.

Beyond this, the tenses become complicated; and that because they are evidently formed by the agglutination of separate words; the so-called imperfect being undoubtedly formed by affixing the preterite form of the word _to make_; thus used as an auxiliary. The perfect and future seem similarly formed, from the auxiliary=_be_.

This may be collected from the following paradigms.

1.

Root, _u_, &c., = _be_. (_Auxiliar._)
_Plural_--_Present_, st-am, st-ut, i-st-i = _sumus_, _estis_, _sunt_.
_Singular_--_Preterite_, u-t-an, u-t-as, u-d-i = _fui_,
_fuisti_, _fuit_.
_Singular_--_Future_, u-gín-an, u-gín-as, u-gén-i = _ero_,
_eris_, _erit_.
_Imperative_ fau = _esto_.

2.

_Root_, k'an = _make_. (_Auxiliar._)
_Preterite_, = s-k`o-t-on,[45] s-k`o-t-ai, s-k`o-t-a = _feci_,
_fecisti_, _fecit_.

3.

_Root_, kus = _hear_.

INDICATIVE.

_Sing._ _Plural._

_Present_, 1. Qus-_in_ Qus-_am_.
2. Qus-_is_ Qus-_ut`_
3. Qus-_i_ Qus-_inc`_.

INDICATIVE.

_Sing._ _Plural._

_Imperfect_, 1. Qus-_ga_-_k`o_-t-_on_ Qus-_ga_-_k`o_-t-_am_
2. Qus-_ga_-_k`o_-t-_ai_ Qus-_ga_-_k`o_-t-_at`_
3. Qus-_ga_-_k`o_-t-_a_ Qus-_ga_-_k`o_-t-_oi_

_Perfect_, 1. fé-_qus_-t-_on_ fé-_qus_-t-_am_
2. fé-_qus_-t-_ai_ fé-_qus_-t-_at`_
3. fé-_qus_-t-_a_ fé-_qus_-t-_oi_

_Future_, 1. bai-_qus_-_g'in_-_an_ bai-_qus_-_g'i_-_stam_
2. bai-_qus_-_g'in_-_as_ bai-_qus_-_g'i_-_stut`_
3. bai-_qus_-_g'én_-_i_ bai-_qus_-_g'i_-_sti_

CONJUNCTIVE.

_Present_, 1. qus-_on_ qus-_am_
2. qus-_ai_ qus-_at`_
3. qus-_ai_ qus-_oi_

_Imperfect_, 1. qus-_ga_-_k`an_-_on_ qus-_ga_-_k`an_-_am_
2. qus-_ga_-_k`an_-_ai_ qus-_ga_-_k`an_-_at`_
3. qus-_ga_-_k`an_-_a_ qus-_ga_-_k`an_-_oi_

IMPERATIVE.

1. ---- bai-_qus_-_am_
2. bai-_qus_ bai-_qus_-_ut`_
3. bai-_qus_-_a_ bai-_qus_-_oi_

INFINITIVE, qus-_in_.

_Participles_, Qus-_ag_, qus-_gond_, qus-_in_-_ag_.

It may safely be said, that no Dioscurian language is _more_ Indo-European than the Irôn.

CIRCASSIANS.

_Locality._--West Caucasus.

_Divisions._--1. True Circassians, calling themselves _Adigé_.
2. Absné.

_Sub-divisions_ of the Absné. 1. Absné. 2. Tepanta (or
Altekesek).

It may safely be said that no Dioscurian language is _less_ Indo-European than the Circassian. Such being the case, its grammar forms a proper complement to that of the Irôn.

In respect to its sounds, it has the credit, even in Caucasus, of being the most harsh and disagreeable language of the Caucasian area; consonants being accumulated, and hiatus being frequent.

The declensional inflections are preeminently scanty. In English substantives there is a sign for the possessive case, and for none other. In Absné there is not even this--_ab_=_father_, _ácĕ_=_horse_; _ab ácĕ_=_father's horse_, (verbally, _father horse_). In expressions like these, position does the work of an inflection.

Judging from Rosen's example, the use of prepositions is as limited as that of inflections, _sara s-ab ácĕ ist`ap I my-father horse give_, or _giving am_; _abna amus`w izbit_=_wood bear see-did_=_I saw a bear in the wood_; _awinĕ wi as`wkĕ_=(in) _house two doors_; _ácĕ sis`lit_=(on) _horse mount-I-did_.

Hence declension begins with the formation of the plural number. This consists in the addition of the syllable _k`wa_.

_Acĕ_ = _horse_; _ácĕ-k`wa_ = _horses_.
_Atsla_ = _tree_; _atsla-k`wa_ = _trees_.
_Awinĕ_ = _house_; _awinĕ-k`wa_ = _houses_.

In the pronouns there is as little inflection as in the substantives and adjectives, _i. e._ there are no forms corresponding to _mihi_, _nobis_, &c.

1. When the pronoun signifies possession, it takes an inseparable form, is incorporated with the substantive that agrees with it, and is _s-_ for the first, _w-_ for the second, and _i-_ for the third person singular. Then for the plural it is _h-_ for the first person, _s`-_ for the second, _r-_ for the third: _ab_=father;

_S-ab_ = _my father_; _h-ab_ = _our father_.
_W-ab_ = _thy father_; _s`-ab_ = _your father_.
_T-ab_ = _his (her) father_; _r-ab_ = _their father_.

2. When the pronoun is governed by a verb, it is inseparable also; and similarly incorporated.

3. Hence, the only inseparable form of the personal pronoun is, when it governs the verb. In this case the forms are:

_Sa-ra_ = I _Ha-ra_ = we
_Wa-ra_ = thou _S`a-ra_ = ye
_Ui_ = he _U-bart`_ = they.

In _sa-ra_, _wa-ra_, _ha-ra_, _s`a-ra_, the _-ra_ is non-radical. The word _u-bart`_ is a compound.

The ordinal=first is _achani_. This seems formed from _aka_=one.

The ordinal=second is _agi_. This seems unconnected with the word _wi-_=_two_; just as in English, _second_ has no etymological connection with _two_.

The remaining ordinals are formed regularly, by prefixing to the radical part of their respective cardinals, _-a_, and affixing _-nto_.

_Cardinals._ _Ordinals._

3, Chi-_ba_[46] A-chi-_nto_
4, P`s`i-_ba_ A-p`s`i-_nto_
5, Chu-_ba_ A-chu-_nto_
6, F-_ba_ F-_into_
7, Bis`-_ba_ Bs-_into_
8, Aa-_ba_ A-a-_nto_
9, S`-_ba_ S`b-_into_
10, S`wa-_ba_ Sw-_ento_.

In the Absné verbs the distinction of time is the only distinction denoted by any approach to the character of an inflection; and here the change has so thoroughly the appearance of having been effected by the addition of some separate and independent words, that it is doubtful whether any of the following forms can be considered as true inflections. They are _compounds_; _i. e._ forms like _can't_, _won't_, _I'll_ (=_I will_), rather than forms like _speaks_, _spoke_, τέ-τυφ-α, &c.

_Root_, C'wisl = _ride_ (equit-o).

1. _Present_, C'wis`l-_ap_ = I _ride_[47] (equit-o).
2. _Present_, C'wis`l-_oit_ = _I am riding_.
_Imperfect_, C'wis`l-_an_ = _equitabam_.
_Perfect_, C'wis`l-_it_ = _equitavi_.
_Plusquamperfect_, C'wis`l-_chén_ = _equitaveram_.
_Future_, C'wis`l-_as˙t_ = _equitabo_.

The person and number is shown by the pronoun. And here must be noticed a complication. The pronoun appears in two forms:--

1st. In full, _sara_, _wara_, &c.

2nd. As an inseparable prefix; the radical letter being prefixed and incorporated with the verb. It cannot, however, be said that this is a true inflection.

1.

_Sing._ 1. _sara s-c'_wisl-_oit_ = _I ride_
2. _wara u-c'_wisl-_oit_ = _thou ridest_
3. _ui i-c'_wisl-_oit_ = _he rides_.

2.

_Plur._ 1. _hara ha-c'_wisl-_oit_ = _we ride_
2. _s`ara s`-c'_wisl-_oit_ = _ye ride_
3. _ubart r-c'_wisl-_oit_ = _they ride_.

_Original area._--The northward extension of the present Circassian area is limited by the Russians and the Nogay Turks. Now, as each of these areas has _encroached_, it is reasonable to believe that, at an earlier period, Circassian tribes may have extended further northward than at present. At the same time we must be careful not to carry them too far; otherwise we infringe the area of the Scythians, Sarmatians, and other nations of antiquity; who, whatever else they were, were not very likely to have been Circassian. Some point between the Cuban and the Don is the likeliest limit for the most northern Circassians. The old line of frontier on the Caucasian side is incapable of determination.

Amongst the ancestors of the present Circassians are, most probably, the Zychi (Achæi), Abasgi, Heniochi, Cercetæ, Makropogones, Sindians, &c.

* * * * *

The question as to the original population of the country which now separates the nearest point of the Dioscurian area from the Seriform, will be considered in the section upon the distribution of the Iranian portion of the Indo-European division of the Iapetidæ. The following is a selection of words common to the Dioscurian and Aptotic languages:--

[48]·_English_, sky
·Circassian, _whapeh_, _wuafe_
·Aka, _aupa_
·Khamti, _fa_

_English_, sky
·Absné, _kaukh_
Altekesek, _hak_
·Akush, _kaka_
·Burmese, _kydukkhe_

_English_, sky
·Tshetshentsh, _tulak_
·Koreng, _talo_
·Khoibú, _thullung_

_English_, sun
Georgian, _mse_
Mingrelian, _bsha_
Suanic, _mizh_
·Kuanchua, _zhi_
Sianlo, _suu_

·_English_, fire
·Absné, _mza_
Circassian, _mafa_
·Khamti, _fai_
Siam, _fai_
Aka, _umma_
Abor, _eme_
Burmese, _mi_
Karyen, _me_
Manipur, _mai_
Songphu, _mai_
Kapwi, &c., _mai_

·_English_, day
·Tshetshentsh, _dini_
Ingúsh, _den_
Kasikumuk, _kini_
·Koreng, _nin_
Jili, _tana_
Singpho, _sini_

_English_, day
·Andi, _thyal_
·Garo, _salo_

_English_, moon
Georgian, _twai_=_month_
Suanic, _twai_
·Moitay, _ta_

·_English_, star
·Kasikumuk, _zuka_
·Garo, _asake_
Jili, _sakan_
Singpho, _sagan_

·_English_, hill
·Kasikumuk, _suntu_
·Chinese, _shan_

·_English_, earth
·Absné, _tshullah_
Altekesek, _tzula_
·Kapwi, _talai_
Khoibú, _thalai_

_English_, earth
·Andi, _zkhur_
·Mishimi, _tari_

_English_, earth
·Dido, _tshedo_
·Koreng, _kadi_

·_English_, snow
·Lesgian, _asu_
Circassian, _uas_
Abassian, _asse_
·Chinese, _siwe_

·_English_, salt
·Lesgian (3), _zam_
·Chinese, _yan_

_English_, salt
·Kabutsh, _tshea_
Dido, _zio_
Kasikumuk, _psu_
Akush, _dze_
·Tibetan, _tsha_

_English_, dust
·Tshetshentsh, _tshen_
·Chinese, _tshin_

·_English_, sand
·Avar, _tshimig_
·Tibetan, _bydzoma_
·Circassian, _pshakhoh_
·Chinese, _sha_

·_English_, leaf
·Tshetshentsh, _ga_
Ingúsh, _ga_
·Chinese, _ye_

·_English_, tree
·Mizjeji (3), _che_
Circassian, _dzeg_
·Chinese, _shu_

·_English_, stone
·Andi, _hinzo_
·Siamese, _hin_

_English_, sea
Georgian, _sgwa_
Chinese, _shuy_=_water_
Tibetan, _çi_=_do_.
Món, _zhe_=_do_.
Ava, _te_=_do_. (5)

·_English_, river
·Anzukh, _or kyare_
Avar, _hor_, _khor_
·Champhung, _urai_

_English_, river
·Abassian, _aji_
·Tibetan, _tshavo_.

_English_, river
·Altekesek, _sedu_
Absné, _dzedu_
·Songphu, _duidai_

·_English_, water
·Avar, _htlem_, _htli_
Anzukh, _htlim_
Tshari, _khim_
Kabutsh, _htli_
Andi, _ht`len_
Dido, _tli_

_English_, water
Kasikumuk, _sin_
Akush, _shen_
Kubitsh, _tzun_, _sin_
·Singpho, _ntsin_
Jili, _mchin_
Mainpur, _ising_

_English_, water
·Absné, _dzeh_
·Songphu, _dui_
Kapwi, _tui_
Tankhul, _tu_

_English_, water
·Mizjeji (3), _chi_
·Garo, _chi_

·_English_, rain
·Andi, _za_
Ingúsh, _du_
Abassian, _kua_
·Chinese, _yu_

·_English_, summer
·Tushi, _chko_
Mizjeji, _achke_
Chinese, _chia_

·_English_, winter
·Anzukh, _tlin_
Andi, _klinu_
Kasikumuk, _kintul_
Akush, _chani_
Absné, _gene_
·Tibetan, _r gun_
Chinese, _tung_

·_English_, cow
·Circassian, _bsa_
·Tibetan, _r shu_

·_English_, dog
·Avar, _choi_
Andi, _choi_
Dido, _gwai_
Kubitsh, _koy_
Circassian, _khhah_
·Chinese, _keu_
Tibetan, _kyi_

·_English_, horse
·Lesgian (5), _tshu_
Circassian, _tshe_, _shu_
·Tibetan, _r dda_

·_English_, bird
·Avar, _hedo_
·Tankhul, _ata_

_English_, bird
·Andi, _purtie_
·Abor, _pettang_
Aka, _put'ah_

·_English_, fish
·Avar (3), _tshua_
Circassian, _bbzheh_
·Khamti, _pa_
Siamese, _pla_
Aka, _ngay_
Abor, _engo_
Burmese, _nga_
Karyen, _nga_
Singpho, _nga_
Songphu, _kha_
Mishimi, _ta_
Maram, _khai_
Luhuppa, _khai_
Tankhul, _khi_
Anam, _khi_

·_English_, flesh
·Kabutsh, _kho_
Abassian, _zheh_
·Chinese, _shou_
Tibetan, _zhsha_

·_English_, egg.
·Tshetshentsh, _khua_
·Khamti, _khai_
·Siamese, _khai_

_English_, egg
·Kabutsh, _tshemuza_
·Mishimi, _mtiumaie_

_English_, egg
·Akush, _dukhi_
·Garo, _to`ka_

·_English_, son
·Mizjeji (3), _ua_, _woe_
·Tibetan, _bu_

·_English_, hair
·Kasikumuk, _tshara_
·Jili, _kara_
·Singpho, _kara_

_English_, hair
·Avar, _sab_
Anzukh, _sab_
Tshari, _sab_
·Burmese, _shaben_
Manipur, _sam_
Songpho (6), _sam_

_English_, hair
·Tshetshentsh, _kazeresh_
·Karyen, _khosu_
·Tankhul, _kosen_

_English_, head
Georgian, _tawi_
Lazic, _ti_
Tuanic, _tchum_
Chinese, _teu_, _seu_
Anam, _tu d`u_
Ava, _kang_ (5)

_English_, head
Andi, _mier_, _maær_
Assam, _mur_

_English_, head
Absné, _kah_, _aka_
Altekesek, _zeka_
Karien, _kho_
Manipur, _kok_
Tankhul, _akao_

·_English_, mouth
·Lesgian, _kall_
·Chinese, _keu_
Anamese, _kau_
Tibetan, _ka_

_English_, mouth
·Tushi, _bak_
·Teina, _pak_

_English_, mouth
·Georgian, _piri_
Mingrelian, _pidehi_
Tuanic, _pil_
·Ava, _parat_ (4)

_English_, mouth
·Kubitsh, _mole_
·Khoibú, _mur_
Maring, _mur_

_English_, mouth
·Andi, _kol_, _tkol_
Lesgian (3), _kaal_
·Manipur, _chil_

·_English_, eye
·Andi, _puni_
·Chinese, _yan_

·_English_, ear
·Avar, _een_, _ain_, _en_
Anzukh, _in_
Tshari, _een_, _ein_
Andi, _hanka_, _andika_
·Burmese, _na_
Karien, _naku_
Singpho, _na_
Songphu, _anhukon_
Kapwi, _kana_
Koreng, _kon_
Maram, _inkon_
Champhung, _khunu_
Luhuppa, _khana_
Tankhul, _akhana_
Khoibú, _khana_

·_English_, tooth
·Lesgian (3), _sibi_
Avar, _zavi_
Circassian, _dzeh_
·Tibetan, _so_
Chinese, _tshi_

·_English_, tongue
·Circassian, _bbse_
Absné, _ibs_
·Tibetan, _rdzhe_
Chinese, _shi_

·_English_, foot
·Kasikumuk, _dzhan_
·Khamti, _tin_

_English_, foot
·Mizjeji (3), _kog_, _koeg_
·Manipur, _khong_
Tankhul, _akho_

_English_, foot
·Andi, _tsheka_
Kubitsh, _tag_
Jili, _takkhyai_
Garo, _jachok_

_English_, foot
Georgian, _pechi_
Maplu, _pokâ_=_leg_

_English_, finger
Mingrelian, _kiti_
Moitay, _khoit_=_hand_
Play, _kozu_=_do_.

_English_, hand
·Georgian, _chéli_
Lazic, _ieh_
Mingrelian, _ché_
Suanic, _shi_
·Chinese, _sheu_

_English_, hand
·Andi, _katshu_
Kabutsh, _koda_
·Khoibú, _khut_
Manipur, _khut_

·_English_, blood
·Absné, _tsha_, _sha_
Tshetshentsh, _zi_
Ingúsh, _zi_
·Singpho, _sai_
Songpho, _zyai_
Kapwi, _the_
Maram, _azyi_
Champhung, _azi_
Luhuppa, _ashi_
Tankhul, _asu_

_English_, blood
·Dido, _é_
·Manipur, _i_
Khoibú, _hi_
Maring, _hi_
·Mizjeji (3), _zi_

_English_, blood
Tshetshentsh, _yioh_
Circassian, _tlih_
Chinese, _chiue_

_English_, skin
·_English_, skin
·Circassian, _ſteh_
·Chinese, _pi`_

_English_, skin
·Dido, _bik_
·Tibetan, _shbagsbba_

·_English_, bone
·Tshetshentsh, _dyackt_
Ingúsh, _tekhh_
Akush, _likka_
Tshari, _rekka_
·Khamti, _nuk_
Siamese, _kraduk_

_English_, great
·Georgian, _didi_
Mingrelian, _didi_
·Canton, _ta_
Kuanchua, _ta_, _da_
Tonkin, _drai_
Cochin-chinese, _dai_
Tibetan, _çe_
Ava, _kyi_ (5)
Play, _du_
Teina, _to_

_English_, bad
Mingrelian, _moglach_
Suanic, _choya_
·Chinese, _go gok_
Môn, _kah_
Ava, _makaung_ (4)
---- _gye_ (2)

·_English_, warm
·Ingúsh, _tau_
·Tibetan, _dzho_

·_English_, blue
·Mizjeji (3), _siene_
·Chinese, _zing_
Tibetan, _swongbba_

·_English_, yellow
·Circassian, _khozh_
Abassian, _kha_
·Chinese, _chuang_

·_English_, green
·Avar, _ursheria_
Anzukh, _ordjin_
Ingúsh, _send_
·Tibetan, _shjanggu_

_English_, below
Georgian, _kwewrt_, _kwerno_
Ava, _haukma_ (3)
Yo, _auk_
Passuko, _hoko_
Kolaun, _akoa_

·_English_, one
·Lesgian, _zo_
Akush, _za_
Andi, _sew_
Dido, _zis_
Kasikumuk, _zabá_
Mizjeji (3), _tza_
Abassian, _seka_
·Tibetan, _dzig_

_English_, three
·Georgian, _sami_
Lazic, _jum_
Mingrelian, _sami_
Suanic, _semi_
·Canton Chinese, _sam_
Kuanchua, _san_
Tonkin, _tam_
Tibetan, _sum_
Môn, _sum_
Ava (4), _thaum_
Siam (6), _sam_

_English_, four
·Abassian, _pshi-ba_
·Tibetan, _bshi_
Chinese, _szu_

_English_, five
Georgian, _chuthi_
Lazic, _chut_
Mingrelian, _chuthi_
Suanic, _wochu´si_
Ava, _yadu_ (4)

·_English_, six
·Tshetshentsh, _yatsh_
Ingúsh, _yatsh_
Tushi, _itsh_
·Tibetan, _dzhug_.

·_English_, nine
·Circassian, _bgu_
·Tibetan, _rgu_
Chinese, _kieu_

·_English_, ten
·Circassian, _pshe_
Abassian, _zheba_
·Tibetan, _bdzhu_
Chinese, _shi_

FOOTNOTES:

[36] Gibbon, Decline and Fall, chap. 52.

[37] From _pauros_=_few_, and _syllabæ_=_syllable_.

[38] Dialects of the Georgian.

[39] It is a general accredited fact, that in some cardinals we have the sign of the ordinal. Thus the _-m_ in _dece-m_, as compared with δέκα, is reasonably supposed to be the _-m-_ in _deci-m-us_.

[40] Quoted under the name _Ossetic_.

[41] Asia Polyglotta, vox, _Osseti_.

[42] Fid=_father_.

[43] Moi=_husband_.

[44] _Or_ dachi.

[45] Or fa-ko-t-on, &c.

[46] Non-radical.

[47] Or, _am in the habit of riding_.

[48] The different dots denote the different classes of languages--the first the English, the second the Dioscurian, the third the Aptotic dialects.

C.

THE OCEANIC MONGOLIDÆ.

The epithet _Oceanic_ is applied to this group because, with
the exception of the Peninsula of Malacca, the tribes belonging
to it are the inhabitants of _islands_ exclusively.

DIVISIONS.

1. THE AMPHINESIAN[49] STOCK.
2. THE KELÆNONESIAN[49] STOCK.

The ocean is the highway between tribe and tribe, or nation and nation, just in proportion as there is the skill, the experience, the courage and the necessary equipment for using it. As long as the mariner's compass was undiscovered the New World was isolated from the Old. To the Turk on the Hellespont, in the deficiency of even the rudest elements of water-transport, the narrow stream was an obstacle. Hence the unscientific character of all _a priori_ generalizations respecting the influence of land or water as the means of national intercommunication, or as elements of ethnographical dispersions. The desert, the prairie, or the ocean, are boundaries that limit, or paths that extend, the diffusion of tribes and nations, just in proportion as there is the camel, the horse, or the ship to make them available.

How nations may effect an extension over continuous tracts of land, has been seen in the examination of the Great Turk area; how nations may effect an extension where the land is disconnected, and where the ocean alone is the means of communication, will be seen in the examination of the great Oceanic area. These two forms of extension stand in strong contrast to one another.

The best way to appreciate the magnitude of the great Oceanic area, is to state that with the exception of the Mauritius, the Isle of Bourbon, Ceylon, the Seychelles, the Maldives, and the Laccadives in the Indian Ocean, and the Japanese empire with the islands to the north thereof, in the Chinese Sea, every inhabited spot of land in the Indian and Pacific Oceans is inhabited by tribes of one and the same race.

Or taking the localities more in detail, we may say that from Madagascar, on the west, to Easter Island, half way between Asia and America, and from Formosa to the north, to New Zealand southwards, in the great islands of Borneo, Sumatra, and New Guinea, in the almost continental extent of Australia, in groups like the Philippines and the Moluccas, and in scattered clusters like the Mariannes or the other islands of the South Sea, the race is one and the same--and that race _Oceanic_.

Add to all this, that those tribes which are found so widely spread over the face of the ocean, are so spread almost _exclusively_. They are not only _everywhere in the islands_, but they are well-nigh _nowhere on the continent_. In the Peninsula of Malacca, and on no other part of the main land of Asia, is an Oceanic tribe to be detected.

In an ethnographical distribution such as this, so remarkable for both its negative and positive phænomena, there is ample ground for speculation; and of this there has been abundance. I prefer, however, at present, to suggest a distinction between the Oceanic area of dispersion and the Turk.

In respect to the former, the _later_ the date we assign to it the more explicable are the phænomena; in other words, the more advanced the art of navigation the easier the extension from island to island.

The converse is the case with the latter. The earlier a land migration takes place, the less is the resistance of the nations around it, and, consequently, the greater the facilities of its propagation.

_Divisions of the Oceanic Mongolidæ._--I think that if we base our primary divisions of the great Oceanic stock upon difference of physical form, they will not be more than _two_; although, by raising the value of certain sub-divisions, the number may be raised to three, four, five, or six.

Now as the value of the members of the Oceanic groups is a point upon which there is a variety of opinion, and as the opinion of the present writer as to its unity as a whole, is at variance with the systems of ethnologists, with whom he is diffident of disagreeing, it will be well to take more than usual pains to give prominence to the leading facts upon which the current opinions are based; and for the sake of fuller illustration to carry the reader over the subject by two ways.

_A._ One class of the Oceanic islanders is yellow, olive, brunette, or brown, rather than black, with long black and straight hair; and when any member of this division is compared with a native of the continental portions of the world, it is generally with the Mongol.

_B._ Another class of the Oceanic islanders is black rather than yellow, olive, brunette, or brown; and when any member of this division is compared with a native of the continental portions of the world, it is generally with the Negro. As to the hair of this latter group, it is always long, sometimes strong and straight; but, in other cases, crisp, curly, frizzy, or even woolly. Upon these differences, especially that of the hair, we shall see, in the sequel, that sub-divisional groups have been formed.

The social, moral, and intellectual difference between these two classes, in their typical form, is, certainly, not _less_ than the physical--probably more. The _continuous_ geographical area is,--for the black division, New Guinea, Australia, Tasmania, New Ireland, and the islands between it and New Caledonia. For the brown division, all the rest of the Oceanic area,--Sumatra, Borneo, Java, the Moluccas, the Philippines, the South Sea Islands, the Carolines, &c.

Now this is one way of viewing the subject, and it is the way which gives us the contrast in the most marked manner; the typical instances of each group being put forward.

But another point of view limits the breadth of difference.

It may have been noticed by the reader, that in speaking of the area occupied by the black and brown nations respectively, I used the word _continuous_. This was done for the sake of preparing the way for a new series of facts. In many of the countries proper and peculiar to the brown or straight-haired occupants, there are to be found, side by side with them, darker complexioned fellow-inhabitants; blackish and black tribes; tribes with crisp hair; tribes with woolly hair; and tribes with hair and hue of every intermediate variety. Furthermore, wherever the two varieties come in contact, the black and blackish tribes are the lower in civilization; generally inhabiting the more inaccessible parts of their respective countries, and, in the eyes of even cautious theorists, wearing the appearance of being aboriginal.

1. _Names._--For the lighter-complexioned, straighter-haired type--_Malay_.

2. For the type that partakes of the character of the African Negro inhabiting New Guinea, Australia, and what may be called the continuous localities for the unmixed Black--_Negrito_.

3. The tribes with any or all of the Negrito characters, dwelling side by side with Malays in Malay localities, or in localities disconnected with the true Negrito area--_the Blacks of the Malayan area_.

I.

_AMPHINESIANS._

_Physical Conformation._--Modified Mongolian. Complexion,
different shades of brown or olive; rarely black. Hair black,
and straight; rarely woolly; oftener (but not often) wavy and
curling. Stature from about five feet three, to, perhaps, five
feet ten.

_Languages._--Generally admitted to contain a certain
proportion of Malay words.

_Area._--The Malayan Peninsula, the Indian Archipelago,
Polynesia, Madagascar. (?)

_Chief Divisions._--1. The Protonesians. 2. The Polynesians. 3.
The Malegasi.(?)

_PROTONESIAN BRANCH._

_Physical Conformation._--Colour---different shades of
brown and yellow. Face, flat; nose, short; eyes and hair,
black and straight; beard, scanty; stature, short. Frontal
profile, retiring; maxillary, prognathic; occipito-frontal,
brackykephalic; orbits, angular.

_Area._--Malayan Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, Timor, Borneo,
Celebes, the Moluccas, the Philippines, &c.

_Distribution._--With the exception of the Malayan Peninsula,
insular. Islands, large as well as small.

_Religion._--Paganism, Hinduism, and Mahometanism.

_Social and Physical Development._--Maritime, commercial, and
piratical; imperfect agriculture; never nomadic; partially
industrial. Foreign Influences--Arabic and Hindu.

_MALACCA._

_Locality._--The extremity of the Indo-Chinese Peninsula.

_Population._--Mahometan Malays; Blacks of the Malay area;
tribes of intermediate character, both physically and morally.

_Dates (real or supposed)._--The foundation of Singhapura
(Sincapore) 1160 A.D. The foundation of Malacca, 1252 or 1260
A.D. The introduction of Mahometanism, 1276 A.D.

_Alphabet._--Arabic. Limited to the Mahometan Malays.

Respecting the Peninsula of Malacca, the most important point is the fact of its being the only continental occupation of any Malay nation. This so naturally suggests the notion of it also being the original country of the numerous and widely-dispersed Malay tribes, that any refinement upon the current doctrine seems, at the first view, out of place. Nevertheless, there is so much room for the question as to whether Sumatra was peopled from Malacca, or Malacca from Sumatra, the island from the peninsula, or the peninsula from the island, that the claims for Malacca to be considered as the birthplace of the Malays will stand over until the details of Sumatra have been considered.

Whatever, however, may be the case with the antiquity of the people, the language of the peninsula is the standard Malay. According to Leyden, it is spoken in the greatest purity in the states of Kedah, Perak, Salangore, Killung, Johore, Iringano, and Pahang. At Patani it becomes conterminous with the Siamese. The alphabet is Arabic: the literary influences are Arabic also; and the highest degree of antiquity that can be assigned to any proper Malay work is the epoch of the introduction of Mahometanism, _i.e._ the thirteenth century. In stating this, I by no means imply that any extant is thus old: I only imply that none is likely to be older.

The proper Malays themselves, however, are not only a new people in the peninsula, but they consider themselves as such. All the inhabitants older than themselves they call _Orang Benua_, or _men of the soil_.

I will first give the names of the particular tribes, and afterwards introduce the more general terms expressive of the class; premising that, as a general rule, the _Orang Benua_ population live apart from the Malays, are found more in the interior than on the coast, are darker complexioned, and are wilder in their manners.

_Halas._--Tattooed, inhabiting the interior of Perak.

_Jokong, Belandas, Besisik._--Somewhat shorter than the Malays, although like them. Hair black, often with a rusty tinge; sometimes lank, generally matted and curly, but not woolly. Eye brighter and more active than that of the Malay, with the internal angle but little depressed. Forehead low, not receding. Beard scanty. Legs sturdy. Chest broad. Nostrils diverging.

The Benuas are divided into tribes, each under an elder, called _Batin_, there being under each Batin two subordinates, a Jennang and a Jurokra. The punishments are bloody, murder being punished by drowning, impaling, and exposure to the sun; adultery also being punishable, under certain circumstances, with death.

In the inheritance of property the custom of primogeniture prevails.

The sun, moon, and stars receive much of their regard; perhaps worship. The two superior spirits of whom they have the most definite conceptions, are named Dewas and Bilun.

A spirit has his abode in the loftiest mountains. The priests, whose power is proportionate to the superstition of the natives, are called Poyangs. The soul of a Poyang after death is believed to enter into the body of a tiger. They are adepts in the magic arts of Besawye, Chinderwye, and Tuju; this last enables them to kill their enemies by the force of spells, however distant. The Besawye consists in burning incense, muttering spells, and invoking, by night, the spirit of the mountains.

Their food is the product of the hunt, not of agriculture.

_Udai._--The inhabitants of the forests of the _northern_ part of the peninsula.

_Semang._--The same. Complexion dark; hair curly and matted, but not frizzled. This is what Mr. Newbold relates; premising that he had no opportunity of personally judging. Mr. Anderson and Sir S. Raffles describe this darkness of complexion in stronger terms.

The Semang of Quedah has the woolly hair, protuberant belly, thick lips, black skin, flat nose, and receding forehead of the Papuan.

The Semang of Perak is somewhat less rude, and speaks a different dialect.

More than one Malay informed Mr. Newbold that the Semangs were essentially the same as the Jokong; having the same hair, but a somewhat blacker skin.

They live in rude moveable huts, constructed of leaves and branches, scantily clothed, and fed from the produce of the chase, at which they are expert. Their government is that of chiefs or elders. The Malays accuse them of only interring the head, and of eating the rest of the body, in cases of death.

They dip their weapons in blood when ratifying a solemn oath.

White is the favourite; perhaps, the holy colour.

They are fond of music, and have two native instruments--one like a violin, one like a flute.

They use the sumpitan, having three modes of preparing the poison.

Their dead are _buried_, sometimes in a sitting posture; generally with their arrows, sumpitan, and their most familiar utensils in the same grave.

The remaining aborigines belong to the southern parts of the peninsula.

_Rayet Laut_, or _Orang Akkye_.--Differing from the tribes last described, only in so far as they are residents of the sea-coast, not of the interior.

SUMATRA.

The divisions political rather than ethnological--the most
important being the kingdom of Atchin, the Batta country, the
kingdom of Menangkabaw, Rejang, Lampong, and Palembang.

ATCHIN.

_Locality._--The Northern or North-Western parts of Sumatra;
conterminal with the Batta country.

_Religion._--Mahometan.

_Alphabet._--Arabic.

The Atchin stand apart from the other Sumatrans, from the extent to which the Arabs have modified them. The Atchin kingdom, which was powerful when first visited by the Portuguese, was of Arabic foundation, and it was through Atchin that the Mahometanism of the Mahometan Malays was propagated.

THE BATTAS.

_Locality._--South of the Atchin country, and nearly covering
the northern third of Sumatra. Conterminous with the Atchin and
Menangkabaw.

_Religion._--Mahometan.

_Alphabet._--Of Indian origin.

The Battas are somewhat shorter and fairer, than the other Sumatrans; polygamists; writing, according to Leyden, from the bottom of the page to the top; accredited cannibals.

MENANGKABAW.

_Locality._--The centre of Sumatra; the kingdom being at one
time extended over almost the whole island.

_Religion._--Mahometan.

_Alphabet._--Arabic.

_Language._--Malay of Malacca, or nearly so.

In its widest extent, the kingdom of Menangkabaw is a political rather than an ethnographical division. To make it ethnographical, it must be limited. In this sense it is conterminous with Atchin and the Battas on the north, extended from east to west, across the whole island in (at least) some portions of it, in others, probably interrupted in certain mountain localities of the centre, and probably interrupted between the river Jambi and Palembang.

Politically speaking, the minor kingdoms of Indrapura, Anak-sungei, Siak, and Passamang, have grown out of the breaking up of the great Menangkabaw kingdom. At present, its pure and almost typical Malayan character--at least as far as resemblance in language to the Malay of Malacca is concerned--is all that will be noticed.

REJANG.--LAMPONG.

_Locality._--South Sumatra; conterminal with the Menangkabaw
country and Palembang.

_Alphabets._--Of Indian origin.

Of all the Sumatrans, writes Marsden, the Lampongs have the strongest resemblance to the Chinese, particularly in the roundness of the face, and the form of the eye. They are the fairest people on the island, and the women are the tallest and best looking; they are also the most licentious. The Mahometanism of the Lampongs is imperfect; much of the old superstition remaining.

_The native Sumatran alphabets._--The alphabets of the Batta, Rejang, and Lampong tribes, are generally called _native_, although really of Indian origin. It can scarcely be said that they embody a literature; still their existence is an important fact. A Sumatran manuscript is made of the inner bark of a tree, prepared and made smooth, and cut into long strips of several feet in length. These are folded up afterwards so as to be square, when each square answers to the page of a book. For commoner purposes the outer rind of the bamboo is scratched with a style; often in a remarkably neat manner. The lines run from left to right, like the lines of the Hindus, and unlike those of the Arabs.

The preparation of the bark is to shave it smooth and thin, and then rub it over with rice-water.

The style is used for scratching bamboos. The pen is used for the more important writings on bark; this is a delicate twig, or the middle of some leaf. The ink is the root of the dammar pine, mixed with the juice of the sugar cane.

PALEMBANG.

_Locality._--North of Lampong, on the eastern side of the
island.

_Religion._--Mahometan.

_Political relations._--Subject to Java; and in a great degree,
a Javanese settlement.

The central parts of Sumatra are little known; the mountain chain, however, that runs from north to south in (about) 2° south latitude, has been visited by two Englishmen, Mr. C. Campbell and Lieutenant Dane. Their observations, which are to be found in Marsden's Sumatra,[50] apply to three elevated valleys--the Korinchi country, Serampei, and Sungei Tenang. I find in them no traces of any tribe different from those already mentioned in any important circumstance.

Just south of Sungei Tenang, and east of the Rejang country is Labun, a mountain district; whilst north of Palembang, and south of the River Jambi, on the eastern coast, is a flat country covered with wood and but thinly inhabited. Now, for those who look for the wildest varieties of the Sumatran tribes, these are the most likely localities. Accordingly, when Marsden made his inquiries as to the aborigines of the island, he heard of the Orang Gugu, and the Orang[51] Kubu.

Of these the Orang Gugu, from the parts about Labun, are the wildest and scarcest, being described as having their bodies covered with hair, and as being more _orang utan_ than human beings.

The Orang Kubu are said to be pretty numerous, belonging to the other district; _i.e._ the parts between the Jambi and Palembang. The worst that is said of these is, that they have a peculiar and unintelligible language, and that they feed indifferently on elephants, rhinoceroses, snakes, and monkeys.

A few small islands on the further side of Sumatra require notice.

_Enganho Island._--Natives described by Mr. Miller, in 1771, A.D., as taller and fairer than the Malays.

_Poggi Islanders, or people of Si Porah and Si Biru._--The manners of these people are those of the Battas, except that they are more rude; and that their custom of disposing of the dead is different. The Poggi Islanders deposit the corpse on a sort of stage in a place appropriated for the purpose, and strewing a few leaves over it, leave it to decay. Tattooing is common.

_The Pulo Batu, or Nias Islanders._--These are lighter in complexion and smaller in stature than the Malays. The custom of stretching the ears so as even to flap upon the shoulders, is general here. Every district, and there are upwards of fifty of them, is at war with its neighbour, and the export of slaves is the consequence.

_Orang Maruwi._--The small islands of Pulo Nako, close upon the western side of Nias, also Pulo Babi, and Pulo Baniak.--These are merely noticed for the sake of saying that their dialect is said to be unintelligible to the Nias and Poggi people, and that a minute distinction between them has been recognized.