Chapter IX: Part I: The Primary Varieties of the Human Species (6)

I agree, too, in the comparison between these constitutions and those forms of European feudalism wherein the right of free citizens first began to be respected. I am also well prepared to believe that, however much the _written_ constitution may have in it the elements of self-developed political freedom, the _details_ of its working may be unsatisfactory; as we are especially informed is the case. When I find that each rajah is said to possess the power of life and death over his retainers, I find a statement that requires much explanation before it can be made compatible with the asserted freedom of the people at large. So also I observe, that the office as _pangawa_ is, practically, hereditary--a great limitation to a true tribunicial authority.

An element of confusion, rather than a restraint upon individual freedom, is to be found in the principle upon which the _aru matoah_ is elected. The six rajahs must be unanimous. Failing this, one of them, the _aru beting_, with the support of the _pangawas_, and the council of forty, may nominate. Furthermore, during the vacancy, the _aru beting_ acts as the _locum tenens_, but only within certain limits. He is no _aru matoah_ in the eyes of the other Bugis kingdoms, so that he is no _aru matoah_ for any matters of what may be called _foreign policy_.

As unanimity is rare, and as the _aru beting_ has an interest in keeping the tenure of supreme power in abeyance, disputed elections continually interfere with the peace of the Bugis states; from whence it follows, as a necessary consequence, that the powers of the six hereditary rajahs increase at the expense of the powers of the _aru matoah_; a process by which the government becomes a close oligarchy, rather than an elective monarchy.

As a foundation for a constitution like the preceding, tenacity of the purity of blood must, necessarily, be a leading element. It exists in Celebes to the fullest extent. Though men may marry in a caste below the one they belong to, women are limited to their own. The practice here is more equalizing than the rule.

In Bugis polygamy, separate wives have separate establishments, and years may elapse without husband or wife having any communication with one another. Still, unless a divorce--procurable on light grounds--be effected, the marriage continues.

To the highest offices of the state, even to that of _aru matoah_, women are eligible; so much so that, at the present moment, four out of six of the hereditary rajahs are females.

* * * * *

"The strangest custom I have observed (_i.e._ among the Bugis) is, that some men dress like women, and some women like men; not occasionally, but all their lives, devoting themselves to the occupations and pursuits of their adopted sex. In the case of males, it seems that the parents of a boy, upon perceiving in him certain peculiarities of habit and appearance, are induced thereby to present him to one of the rajahs, by whom he is received. These youths acquire much influence over their masters. It would appear, however, from all I could learn, that the practice leads among the Bugis to none of those vices that constitute the opprobrium of Western Europe."[57]

By allowing ourselves to argue from the sanctity attributed by many ancient nations (_e.g._ the Greeks and Germans) to the female character, and by comparing the form which this strange custom takes in Borneo, where it is connected with the sacerdotal office, we arrive at a plausible explanation. Among the Sea Dyaks "their doctor, or magician, or both combined, is a man set apart for that office, who is thereafter considered as a woman. _She_, or _he_ marries a husband, adopts children, dresses as a female, and lives amongst the women, performing the domestic duties peculiar to the sex. The principal occupation is curing people by divers charms, driving away the devil and evil spirits. It must be allowed that the whole constitution of this office is an example of gross superstition; but the ceremonies attendant on it are in themselves inoffensive. A branch of a tree is fixed on the house; around it white cloth is wrapped; and near this spot the spathe of the betel or areca tree is placed (the spathe being indispensable); then the people assemble, and with unseemly noises rattling shells and beating gongs proclaim their joy and satisfaction.

"The office itself is called 'Manang;' and no particular age is specified, the 'Manang' being young or old, as chance may determine. The present occupier of this important post became so when quite a child, and he is now well stricken in years, and much respected by his tribe."[58]

THE MOLUCCAS.

_First Group._--Ternati, Tidor, Mortay (or Morintay), Gilolo.

_Second Group._--Banda, and other small islands.

_Third Group._--Amboyna, Ceram, Buru, Saparua, &c.

The inhabitants of these groups, or clusters, fall under the three heads which we are now prepared to expect.

1. _Mahometan Malays._--The influence of the Mahometan Malays had organized rajahships in the Moluccas anterior to their discovery, A.D. 1521. Of these, the most important was that of Ternati; the territory of which extends over Tidor, Gilolo, Mortay, and part of Celebes.

2. _A population of the character of the Bugis_, _i.e._ the population of the Archipelago, as developed by the influence of the sea-coast and the commerce that it evolved.

3. _A population of the interior of the Dyak_(?) _type._--Respecting these last I have not the definite information I could wish for. Small as are some of the islands--Amboyna and Tidor--tribes inferior and subordinate to the natives of the coasts and town, have been ascribed to the interior. Forrest states that these are Papua. This they are likely enough to be. Still it would not be surprising if they were light-coloured, and of the Dyak type.

Since the publication of Sir Stamford Raffles' tabulated vocabularies for these parts, I have looked in vain for any vocabulary representing a language other than the Malay. The Guebé vocabulary of Durville is Malay, and the Amboyna and Ceram vocabularies of Roorda van Eysingen are Malay.

The European influences have been Portuguese in the first instance. Afterwards and, at present, Dutch. Chinese settlements also are numerous.

Eastward of the Molucca Islands we come to New Guinea and the islands in its immediate neighbourhood. These belong to another department of the subject. The division at present to be noticed is the Philippine portion of the Malay area. This lies northward to the parts already described, and may have received its population by any one (or more than one) of the following lines of connexion.

1. _The Long island of Palawan._--Luçon, Mindoro, Busvagaon, Calamian, Palawan, Balabac, _North-western Borneo_.

2. _The Sulu Archipelago._--Mindanao, Basilian, the Sulus, _North-eastern Borneo_.

3. _Sangir and the islands to the north and south of it_--Mindanao, Serangani, Sangir, Siao, the Guning Tellu country in the _North-east of Celebes_.

4. _Mindanao, Serangani Salibabo, Gilolo_: Gilolo being equidistant between Celebes and Papua.

The first of these lines is the most probable.

PALAWAN.

Palawan, or Paragoa, is mentioned more from its prominence
as a continuity of Borneo than for the sake of description.
It is little known: partially under the Spaniards, partially
independent.

THE SÚLÚS.

These are also stepping-stones from Borneo. They are Malay; and
the headquarters of a Malay power; the most piratical of these
seas. The Sultan of Sulu is the terror of the Dyaks of Borneo.
He is also the sovereign of part of that island, of part of
Palawan, and of the Cayagan group. I only know the short Sulu
vocabulary of Rienzi.

THE PHILIPPINES.

_Divisions._--1. The southern island of Magindano, or Mindanao.
2. The northern island of Luçon, or Luçonia. 3. The Bissayan
Archipelago between the two. Of this last, the most important
islands are Mindoro, Samar, Leyte, Panay, and the Isola de
Negros.

_Population._--Malay and Negrito.

Although at the present moment the aboriginal population of the Philippines may be studied in detail, such detail will be avoided; and no more than four leading points will be noticed.

1. _The Blacks of the Philippine group._--The existence of tribes darker coloured than the generality, is one of the earliest of the observations on these parts; and its confirmation one of the latest facts in modern ethnology.

Beginning at the island of Mindanao, we find, in Mallat,[59] the names of the following tribes--Dumagas, Malanaos, Manabos, and Tagabaloys. These are not described in detail, but are said to belong to the same type with the Negroes of the Bissayan Archipelago and Luçonia. They constitute the still savage tribes of the forests and mountains.

In the Archipelago our knowledge becomes more distinct, though still imperfect. The Blacks of Lasso were visited by Lafond Lurcy. They were nearly naked, with hair like cotton, very slim, and very undersized. Dr. Prichard makes these Negritos members of a group which he calls the _puny Negroes of the Archipelago_.

What Lafond Lurcy writes coincides with the statements of Mallat; who speaks of the Blacks of the type in question as being very Negro in feature, with the nose _peu épaté_, and with the hair _crépu_.

The _Isola de Negros_ takes its name from the greater proportion of the population being of this character, _i.e._ black, after the manner of the African.

In Luçonia, however, a second type appears.

IGOROTS.

Taller than the southern Blacks; more copper-coloured than
black; eyes oblique; frontal sinuses much developed; hair
harsh, hard, lank, and bright-black. Painted; tattooed on their
hands with a figure like the sun.

BUSIKS.

More agricultural than the Igorots. Tattooed.

BUSAOS.

Milder in temper than the Igorots; tattooed on the arms only;
pierced and enlarged ears.

ITETEPANES.

Small, and short; black; flat-nosed; eyes less oblique than
those of the Igorots; hair straight.

All this verifies the statement of the Abbate Bernardo del Fuente,[60] according to which there are two varieties of Philippine Blacks, one with long, fine, and glossy, and one with crisped hair.

2. _The Philippine languages._--Of these the most important are the Tagala, the Bissayan, the Pampango, the Iloco, and the Abac. Of the Bissayan there are several dialects: the Mindanao, the Samar, the Iolo, the Bohol. The structure of the Tagala has been particularly studied by Humboldt. It represents the Malay in its most complex form; and is essentially agglutinate in respect to its inflection.

All the numerous Philippine dialects and languages are fundamentally Malay. Those of the Blacks are but little known. Still, as far as our knowledge extends, the philological phenomenon is the same as with the Samang of the Malayan Peninsula. The difference in language is less than the difference of form and colour.

3. _The Extent of Hindu influences._--These are less in the Philippines than in Celebes, and much less than in Java and Bali. Still the Philippines have a native alphabet, and this native alphabet has the same origin with the alphabets of Sumatra, Java, and Celebes; _viz._ the Hindu Devanagari.

4. _The remains of the original mythology._--I give what I know of this in the following note from Marsden's Sumatra,[61] where it is inserted from Thevenot, for the sake of illustrating that of Sumatra.

"The chief deity of the _Tagalas_ is called _Bathala mei Capal_, and also _Dinata_; and their principal idolatry consists in adoring those of their ancestors who signalised themselves for courage or abilities; calling them _Humalagar_, i.e. _manes_. They make slaves of the people who do not keep silence at the tombs of their ancestors. They have great veneration for the crocodile, which they call _nono_, signifying grandfather, and make offerings to it. Every old tree they look upon as a superior being, and think it a crime to cut it down. They worship also stones, rocks, and points of land, shooting arrows at these last as they pass them. They have priests, who, at their sacrifices, make many contortions and grimaces, as if possessed with a devil. The first man and woman, they say, were produced from a bamboo, which burst in the island of _Sumatra_; and they quarrelled about their marriage. The people mark their bodies in various figures, and render them of the colour of ashes; have large holes in their ears; blacken and file their teeth, and make an opening, which they fill up with gold. They used to write from top to bottom, till the Spaniards taught them to write from left to right. Bamboos and palm-leaves serve them for paper. They cover their houses with straw, leaves of trees, or bamboos split in two, which serve for tiles. They hire people to sing and weep at their funerals; burn _benzoin_; bury their dead on the third day in strong coffins, and sometimes kill slaves to accompany their deceased masters. They held the _caiman_, or alligator, in great reverence, and when they saw him they called him _nono_, or grandfather, praying with great tenderness that he would do them no harm; and, to this end, offered him of whatever they had in their boats, throwing it into the water. There was not an old tree to which they did not offer divine worship, especially that called _balete_; and even at this time they have some respect for them. Beside these they had certain idols inherited from their ancestors, which the Tagalas called _anito_, and the Bissayans, _divata_. Some of these were for the mountains and plains, and they asked their leave when they would pass them. Others for the corn-fields; and to these they recommend them, that they might be fertile, placing meat and drink in the fields for the use of the _anitos_. There was one of the sea, who had care of their fishing and navigation; another of the house, whose favour they implored at the birth of a child, and under whose protection they placed it. They made _anitos_ also of their deceased ancestors, and to these were their first invocations in all difficulties and dangers. They reckoned amongst these beings all those who were killed by lightning or alligators, or had any disastrous death, and believed that they were carried up to the happy state, by the rainbow, which they call _balan-gao_. In general, they endeavoured to attribute this kind of divinity to their fathers, when they died in years; and the old men, vain with this barbarous notion, affected in their sickness a gravity and composure of mind, as they conceived, more than human, because they thought themselves commencing _anitos_. They were to be interred at places marked out by themselves, that they might be discovered at a distance and worshipped. The missionaries have had great trouble in demolishing their tombs and idols; but the Indians, inland, still continue the custom of _pasing tubi sa nono_, or asking permission of their dead ancestors, when they enter any wood, mountain, or corn-field, for hunting or sowing; and if they omit this ceremony, imagine their _nonos_ will punish them with bad fortune.

"Their notions of the creation of the world, and formation of mankind, had something ridiculously extravagant. They believed that the world at first consisted only of sky and water, and between these two, a glede; which, weary with flying about, and finding no place to rest, set the water at variance with the sky, which, in order to keep it in bounds, and that it should not get uppermost, loaded the water with a number of islands, in which the glede might settle and leave them at peace. Mankind, they said, sprang out of a large cane with two joints, that, floating about in the water, was at length thrown by the waves against the feet of the glede, as it stood on shore, which opened it with its bill, and the man came out of one joint, and the woman out of the other. These were soon after married by consent of their god, _Bathala Meycapal_, which caused the first trembling of the earth; and from thence are descended the different nations of the world."

THE BABYANIS.

_Locality._--Due north of Luçon.

THE BASHIS.

_Locality._--Due north of the Babyanis.

I have no details respecting the Babyanis and the Bashis. They have been noticed, however, as forming the tract from Luçon to--

FORMOSA.

_Name._--Chinese Taï-ouan, originally Toung-fan.

_Political Relations._--Western side, subject to China. Eastern
side independent.

_Languages._--Numerous dialects. The only known vocabulary,
Malay.

_Authority._--Klaproth. Description de Formose, Melanges
Asiatiques, p. 195.

The knowledge of the island of Formosa on the part of the Chinese begins no earlier than the year 1430 A.D.; and its oldest name in Chinese, _Toung-fan_, means _barbarians of the East_. The later name means the _Bay of Heights_.

This term is explained by the geological structure of the island. It is bisected from north to south by a line of mountains, upon which snow lies during November and December. This range is a line of demarcation in ethnology as well as politics. West of it we have the district that pays tribute to the Chinese, and in which there is a standing Chinese army, and a number of Chinese immigrants--chiefly employed in the rice cultivation. In the mountains themselves, and to the east of them, are the Aborigines. These are said to approach the Negro type, and to differ from one another in language--a fact that we are now prepared to expect rather than to discredit. Their arms are the dart and bow; and their swiftness of foot is described by the Chinese as being equal to that of the swiftest dogs.

They are Malayan in stock, and apparently but little mixed. The Japanese, and the Lúchú on the northern part of the island, and the Dutch on the present Chinese locality seem to have been their chief visitors. Neither held their ground permanently.

That an island so near as Formosa should have been so long unknown to the Chinese, surprises Klaproth; who reasonably thinks that it was known at an earlier period, but known under a different name. The more so, as the Pescadores islands, half-way between, are within sight of the mainland.

It is safe to consider that the population of Formosa is a continuance of the population of Luçon, and the Bashi islands. Of the island Lang-khiao, at the southernmost end of Formosa, I find, in Klaproth, an express statement that it is inhabited, and that its inhabitants are great breeders of sheep.

Of the Pescadores the original population is unknown. From what I collect from Klaproth, the natives were removed in 1387, A.D., by the Chinese, and transplanted elsewhere. How far this was, partial or complete, is uncertain. At present they are inhabited--probably by the Chinese, who replaced the exiles of 1387.

* * * * *

There can be but little doubt that Formosa was peopled from the northern part of Luçonia; in which case its inhabitants represent the stock of the Igorots, Busiks, &c., as modified by a more northern position, and by Chinese rather than Malay elements.

With Formosa we reach the northernmost limits of the Malays in this direction. The Lúchú islands, north of Formosa, have their affinities with Japan, and Japan has its affinities with the North and West, rather than with the South and East.

THE POLYNESIANS.

_Area._--From the small islands to the west of the Pelews
to Easter Island, west and east. From the Mariannes and the
Sandwich Islands north, to New Zealand south.

_Physical Conformation._--Modified Protonesian. Stature,
perhaps, taller; tendency to corpulence more common; colour
oftener approaching that of the European; hair often waved or
curling; nose frequently aquiline.

_Nutrition._--But little azotized; saccharine and amylaceous.

_Aliment._--Preeminently vegetable, the coco-nut, the taro, the
banana. Fish.

_Negative Characters._--Little, or no, use of the bow and
arrow; considered to be a differential point between Polynesia
and Kelænonesia.

_Conditions of Social and Physical Development._--Absence of
large animals, either as beasts of burden or as food. Nearly
general absence of rice and pulse. Intercourse entirely by
means of canoes. Between Polynesia and Protonesia little or
none. Between the different portions of Polynesia limited or
partial. Malay and Hindu influences obscure. Present influences
European; of recent date.

_Religion._--Paganism, apparently indigenous. Uniform in its
general character over a great extent.

_Languages._--Allied to each other, and mutually intelligible
over large areas. Grammatical structure akin to the Tagala.
Malay words numerous and evident.

_Divisions._--1. Micronesian Branch. 2. Proper Polynesian
Branch.

Reasons will now be given for drawing a distinction between the Micronesians and the Proper Polynesians, and also for taking the Micronesians first in order. In the former I follow Prichard. In the latter I believe my arrangement is singular.

1. MM. Dumont Durville and Lesson, to whose observations on this, as in many other portions of oceanic ethnology, much of our information is due, have agreed in disconnecting the natives of the Western Oceanic Islands from those of the Eastern; insisting upon a difference of language, and a difference in physical conformation. Nay more, they would connect them with the Mongols of the Continent. To give prominence to this difference of opinion on the part of judges so well qualified as the two investigators in question, was Pilchard's reason for thus separating the Archipelago of the Pacific into two sections.

For my own part I consider that the grounds of difference set forth by MM. Lesson and Dumont Durville, although insufficient to establish the double position of an _affinity_ with the Mongolians, and of a _no_-affinity with the Polynesians, are sufficient to justify the sub-division of the kind in question. The absence, in Micronesia, of certain Polynesian customs, and the modified form of others are additional reasons.

2. The reason for taking the Micronesian branch before the Proper Polynesian, involves the following question--What was the line of population by which the innumerable islands of the Pacific, from the Pelews to Easter Island, and from the Sandwich Islands to New Zealand became inhabited by tribes, different from, but still allied to, the Protonesian Malays?--That line, whichever it be, where the continuity of successive islands is the greatest, and, whereon the fewest considerable interspaces of ocean are to be found.

This is the general answer, _à priori_; subject to modification from the counterbalancing phenomena of winds, or currents unfavourable to the supposed migration.

Now this answer, when applied to the geographical details regarding the distribution of land and sea in the great Oceanic area, indicates the following line--New Guinea, New Ireland, the New Hebrides, the Figis, and the Tonga group, &c. From hence the Navigators' Isles, the Isles of the Dangerous Archipelago, the Kingsmill, and other groups, carry the frequently-diverging streams of population over the Caroline Islands, the Ladrones, the Pelews, Easter Island, &c.

This view, however, so natural an inference from a mere land-and-sea survey, is complicated by the ethnological position of the New Guinea, New Ireland, and New Hebrides population. These are _not_ Protonesian, and they are _not_ Polynesian. Lastly, they are _not_ intermediate to the two. They _break_ rather than propagate the continuity of the human stream; a continuity which exists geographically but fails ethnologically.

The recognition of this conflict between the two probabilities, has determined me to consider the Micronesian Archipelago, as that part of Polynesia which is the part most likely to have been first peopled; and hence comes a reason for taking it first in order.

THE MICRONESIAN BRANCH OF THE POLYNESIAN STOCK.

_Area._--The Pelew, Caroline, Marianne Islands. The Tarawan
group. As far south as about 7° S. L.

_Physical Conformation._--More Mongolian, in the limited sense
of the term, than the proper Polynesian. Varieties both of hair
and complexion.

_Language._--Dialects, probably, mutually intelligible.
Probably unintelligible to the Proper Polynesians.

_Political relations._--Partly independent; partly subject to
Spain.

_Religion._--Paganism and Romanism.

_European intermixture._--Chiefly Spanish.

_Negative characters._--Absence of the _tabu_ under the form in
which it appears in Polynesia. Use of the drink called _kava_
either restricted, or modified. Considered to be differential
points between Micronesia and Polynesia.

In these negative characters (of which, however, it is doubtful whether the exact extent has been ascertained), superadded to the fact, of the Micronesian dialects forming a separate language unintelligible to the Polynesian, and to the difference--real or supposed--in their physical appearance, lie good and sufficient reasons for considering the Micronesians to form a separate division. To which may be added, considerable differences in the way of creed and mythology.

LORD NORTH'S ISLAND.

_Locality._--Latitude 3° 2´ N. Longitude 131° 4´ E.

_Population._--About three or four hundred.

_Physical conformation._--Complexion, light copper, lighter
than that of the Malays or Pelew islanders. Face broad,
cheek-bones high, nose flattened.

_Pantheon._--Chief deity _Yaris_. Progenitor _Pita-kat_.

The account of Horace Holden,[62] an American sailor, who, with eleven others, reached the island of Tobi, in a boat, and who was detained there two years, is our only source of information for this important locality--_the nearest point of contact between Polynesia and Protonesia_.

No tribes have a harder struggle for existence. During the whole of Holden's residence, only five turtle were taken; fish being also scanty. Hence coco-nuts and the taro formed the chief food. It is reasonable, as well as charitable, to refer the churlishness of their tempers to this state of indigence. Perhaps, also, it is the reason why the men, as compared with the women, take a fair share of the labour of cultivation--a custom rare in other parts of Polynesia.

The effects of hunger in reducing the population are seconded by those of war. And here, the only weapons are the spear and club--_no bows and no arrows_.

The houses "are built of small trees and rods, and thatched with leaves. They have two stories, a ground-floor, and a loft, which is entered by a hole or scuttle through the horizontal partition or upper floor.

"For ornament they sometimes wear in their ears, which are always bored, a folded leaf; and round their necks a necklace made of the shell of the coco-nut, and a small white sea-shell."

All this merely connects them with the Micronesians. The tradition respecting _Pita-kat_ is more important. He "came many years ago from the island of Ternati, and gave them their religion, and such simple arts as they possessed."

SONSORAL.--JOHANNES ISLAND.

_Locality._--West of the Pelews. Nearest point to the
Philippines.

THE PELEW GROUP.

_Synonym._--Palaos.

_Chief Islands._--Corror, Babelthouap, Pelelion.

_Native quadrupeds._--Rats.

_Vegetable products._--Coco-nut, bread-fruit, yam, batata,
taro, ebony, sugarcane, orange, banana, bamboo, paper-mulberry.
Rice and pulse wanting.

The paucity of quadrupeds, and the abundance of tropical vegetables is common to the Pelew Islands, and the whole of Polynesia. Hence, it is mentioned once for all. The chief exception, however, is an important one. The _hog_ will be found to be _partially_ distributed; and the partial character of its distribution has been one of the instruments of ethnological criticism (especially in the hands of the French naturalists), by means of which the order of succession in which the different islands have been peopled has been investigated.

CLUSTER OF GOULOU.[63]

_Direction._--North-east from the Pelews.

_Locality._--Between the Pelews and the--

CLUSTER OF YAP. OULUTHY OR EGOY ISLANDS. THE MARIANNES.

_Synonym._--Ladrones.

_Name of Natives._--Chamorros.

_Chief islands._--Guam, Rota, Tinian.

_Physical appearance of Natives._--Stature higher than that of
the other islanders, tendency to corpulence greater.

_Intermixture._--Considerable, _i.e._ with Polynesians,
Philippine islanders, Spaniards.

Rota and Tinian are remarkable for containing the remains of massive stone buildings; the original use of which is wholly unknown to the present natives. The same phenomenon will be repeated in Tonga-tabú and Easter Island.

The Mariannes form the most northern portion of Micronesia. The direction will now be due east from the cluster of Goulou; about mid-way between the Pelews and Yap.

OULUTHY GROUP.

_Synonym._--Egoy Islands.

LAMOURSEK AND SATAWAL GROUPS.

_Direction._--West to east.

_Extent._--From 140° to 15° E. L. from Paris. Under 5° N. L.

_ Particular islands._--Lamoursek, Satawal, Faroilep (the most
northern), Aurupig (the most southern).

PROPER CAROLINE GROUP.

_Direction._--From the Lamoursek and Satawal group fifteen
degrees westward.

_Particular islands._--Hogoleu, Lougounor, Pounipet, Ualan.

A distinction which will often be applied in Polynesian ethnology may now be made. It is the difference between the geological structure of the different islands. Whether they are what is called _high_ or _low_ is important. In the high islands, where the structure is primitive, metamorphic, or volcanic, the conditions for social development are more favourable than in the low islands, of a coralline structure. In these last the food is less abundant, the sun more scorching, and, generally, the complexion of the inhabitants _darker_.

Again, the inhabitants of the low islands are generally at peace amongst themselves: those of the high islands at war.

In the ethnology of the Paumoto Archipelago, this distinction will be repeated. So it will elsewhere.

LOUGOUNOR.

_Synonym._--Lougoullos. Mortlock island.

_Physical conformation._--Stature, above the average; colour,
_chestnut_, lips thick, beard long but thin, hair black,
long, thick, slightly curling (_un peu crépu_), sometimes
frizzy--Lütke, from Prichard.

_Language._--Allied to, but different from, the Ualan.

POUNIPET.

_Structure._--Volcanic.

_Population._--About two thousand.

_Physical Appearance._--Face broad and flat, nose flat, lips
thick, hair crisp. Colour, between chesnut and olive. Height,
average.--Lütke from Prichard.

UALAN.

The chief island of the Central Caroline group, or of the Caroline Islands in the more general sense of the term.

_Structure._--Volcanic.

_Physical conformation of the natives._--Stature average,
hair black, beard scanty, only in some cases thick, forehead
narrow, _eyes oblique_, nose somewhat flattened, face broad,
complexion clear yellow (citron), lightest in the case of the
chiefs.--_Lesson._

As the succession of islands now becomes less regular, and as the interval of sea between Ualan and the Archipelagoes east of it is considerable, it is necessary to consider the lines of passage between the proper Carolines and the Ralik and Radak chains to the north-west. These are two.

1. From Pounipet to the Isles of Brown; with Providence Isles half-way between.

2. From Ualan to the Radak chain, or Mulgrave's Islands.

ISLES OF BROWN.--RALIK CHAIN.

_Synonym._--Marshall's Islands.

RADACK CHAIN.

_Synonym._--Mulgrave's Islands.

The Radack and Ralik people are dark.

The direction is now south, and south-west, to an Archipelago lying under the Equator.

KINGSMILL'S GROUP. GILBERT ISLANDS. SCARBOROUGH ISLANDS.

_General name._--The Tarawan group.

_Latitude._--North and south of the Equator.

_Longitude._--Nearly that of the Fiji islands.

_Population._--Perhaps sixty thousand. In Drummond's Island six
thousand.

_Physical appearance._--Complexion dark copper. More
Protonesian than Polynesian. Cheek-bones projecting, nose
slightly aquiline. Average height five feet eight inches.

In Pitt Island, the most northern of the group, the natives are lighter in colour than the other islanders, taller, stronger, and better-limbed; with smooth bodies, oval faces, and regular and delicate features.

THE PROPER POLYNESIAN BRANCH OF THE POLYNESIAN STOCK.

_Area._--The Navigators, Society, Friendly, and other groups
of the Pacific. The Marquesas; the Dangerous Archipelago;
Easter Island; the Sandwich Isles; New Zealand, &c. With the
exception of the Sandwich Isles and New Zealand, south and
east of Micronesia. Nearer to Kelænonesia than to any part of
Protonesia.

_Physical conformation._--Maximum and, perhaps, average stature
higher than in Micronesia. Aquiline nose commoner. Varieties
both of hair and complexion. The former wavy and curled as well
as straight; sometimes chestnut-coloured. Skin, often fairest
in the parts nearest the Equator; becoming darker as the
distance increases. Oftener, also, darker in the coralline than
in the volcanic islands.

Face oval. Ears generally large.

Zygomatic development moderate. Occipito-frontal profiles
truncated behind, elevated at the vertex.

Nostrils generally spreading.

_Language._--Dialects mutually intelligible; probably
unintelligible to the Micronesians.

_Political relations._--Wholly independent, colonized, or
protected.

_Religion._--Paganism, Romanism, Protestantism, Imperfect
Christianity.

_European intermixture._--Chiefly English, American, and French.

_Habits._--The superstition of the _tabu_; the use of _kava_ as
a drink. See the notice of Micronesia. Cannibalism, tattooing,
circumcision, more or less, common.

With the view of saving repetition, a notice of the Polynesian mythology will precede the enumeration of the islands; for each and all of these the creed being, in its general principles, as truly one and the same as is the language, the same divinities appearing with the same functions and under similar, or but slightly-changed, denominations. Hence, sometimes the difference between two Pantheons is merely verbal. Generally, however, it is real. Even then, however, we find no new element; but one of two things. Either the same story appears in a varied form; or else some portion of the mythology which is but slightly prominent in one group of islands, takes unusual importance in another; the fundamental identity of character being manifest throughout.

Of the common elements of the general Polynesian creed the following are the most important; those which are most special, and least general or abstract, being taken first in order.

_The supernatural spirits that interfere directly with human concerns._--Mischievous beings, imps or goblins, that play so prominent a part in the superstitions of all countries, play a prominent part in those of Polynesia. These may appear under any out of a multiplicity of forms. There may be the spirit protective to a certain family; the spirit protective to a certain pursuit; the god of the sailor, the fisherman, or the tiller of the soil. Good they may do and mischief they may do--either in a material or an immaterial form, in their own shape or in the shape of sharks, lizards, storks, snipes, or any other dumb animal. From a belief of this kind to the superstition of omens is but a single step, so that rats that squeak, and comets that show their beards, and noses that sneeze, and birds that fly the wrong way, all become the expositors from Powers beyond those of mortality. Then the rock, and glen, and above all the volcano and earthquake, become palpable objects to be connected with a presiding divinity.

To these and to the like of these all the islanders look. Some look beyond them.

_Múoi_ (_Mawi_) is more man than God; the supporter, or rather the support, of the earth. This lies on the gigantic extension of his body; and earthquakes result from its movements. Where he is either more or less than the comparatively passive substructure of all things material, he is a wise wizard who foretells events; or else the maker rather than foundation-stone of the world. Just as Tangaloa did in the other parts of Polynesia, Mawi did in New Zealand. What this was will be soon seen.

_The Cosmogony._--The Polynesian world--how much beyond it is uncertain--was fished up from sea by Tangaloa; Tahiti was the first part that appeared. Just as its rocks showed above water, the line broke. However, the rock in which the hook stuck can still be seen in the island of Hoonga; and the family of Tuitonga, until very lately, were in possession of the hook. There was enough land, however, to be worth filling with human beings and human food. And this was done by Tangaloa.[64]

Such is the Tonga account. In New Zealand, as already stated, the artificer is changed; and Mawi does the work of Tangaloa. In Tahiti, and Samoa, the workman is the same, but the work different. The Tahitian Tangaloa formed the ocean from the sweat of his brow--so hard did he work in making the land. The Samoan sent down his daughter Tali, in the shape of a snipe, to survey the world below. As she saw nothing but sea, her father rolled down a stone which became one island, and another which became a second, and so on. The first growth of such islands were wild vines. These were pulled out of the ground, and heaped up to rot, so that worms were produced. Out of these worms grew men and women.

_The Happy Island._--In an island like their own, only more beautiful, live the higher gods, and the souls of chiefs, kings, and councillors. In Tonga this island is Bolotoo. It was once visited; but those who visited it died, having breathed its air.

_The residents and visitors of the Happy Island._--First amongst these are the gods themselves and their servants; not, however, Mawi--

The souls of the chiefs after death--

The souls of the councillors after death--

_Caste-system._--The list of the inhabitants of Bolotoo stops at a certain line of nobility. The people are the servants of the chiefs, and the servants of the chiefs have no share of enjoyment after death.

At this point, the mythology and the social constitution of the Polynesians act and react upon each other. Those who have no political rights in life, have no existence after death (or _vice versâ_); and the result is a system half caste, and half feudalism.

Whether the king or priest be paramount, depends upon their respective individual characters. There is room for the subtle brain as well as for the strong hand. So it is, as between king and chief. The vassalage is perfect or imperfect according to the strength of the parties. Whatever, however, may be the relative position of the king, the priest, or the chiefs, the people are sure of their thraldom; a thraldom to their _immediate_ superior, the chief.

Add to these elements of social subordination and insubordination, the existence of tribes and the influence of descent. A family may be descended from some god that took an earthly island for his residence. This will give it a precedence even over the kings.

From the feeling of pedigree, and from the belief that the nobler families become spirits after death, we have the belief in ghosts, and the reverence for the dead. Whoever studies the details of the Polynesian creeds and traditions will find abundant instances of this; and in such detail they should be studied. To exhibit them (as has just been attempted) in a _general_ point of view, can only be done by applying terms adapted to a different system, and, as such, only partially appropriate. It can only be done at the sacrifice of those special elements which give life and individuality to a description. Such, however, as it is, the previous sketch is the only one that could be admitted into a work like the present.

* * * * *

Beginning with the fourteenth degree S. L., the distribution of the Polynesian islands runs off in three different directions.

1. From west to east; _i.e._ from the Navigators' Islands to Easter Island.

2. North-east; to the Sandwich Islands in 20° N. L.

3. South-west; to New Zealand in 35° S. L.

NAVIGATORS' ISLANDS.

_Synonym._--Archipelago of Samoa.

_Islands._--Opoun, Leone, Sanfoue, Maouna, Oiolava, Pola.

_Complexion._--Dark bronze.

_Numbers._--According to Captain Wilkes, 56,000: of which
14,850 are Christians. Majority of the remainder attending the
missionary schools.

_Pantheon._--Tangaloa-lagi, Tamafaiga, Sinleo, Onafanna,
Mafuie, Salefu, Merua Fuana, Tinitini, Lamanau, Tuli, &c.

_Real or supposed peculiarities._--Use of the bow; which is
used also in De Peyster's island. Rare elsewhere.

THE TONGA GROUP.

_Synonym._--The Hapai Islands; the Friendly Islands.

ISLANDS. POPULATION.
Eooa 200
Hapai 4,000
Vavao 4,000
Keppell's Islan 1,000
Boscawen's Islan 1,300
Tonga-tabú 8,000
______
Total 18,500
______

Said to be on the increase. Number of Christians, about 4,500.

_Pantheon._--Múoi.--The Hotooas, Táli-y-tobú, Higooléo,
Tooboo-toti, Alaivaloo, Ali-ali, Tangaloa--Tangaloa's sons,
Toobó, and Váca-ácow-ooli, &c. Bolotoo=the Happy Island.

Term for the Tonga chiefs--_Egi_.
" " councillors--_Mataboulai_.
" " king--_How_.
" " lower classes--_Mooa_.
" " lowest--_Tooa_.

_Real or supposed peculiarities._--Infant sacrifices; the
cutting off of a finger on the death of relatives; domestic
architecture on a scale approaching that of Borneo. Remains of
stone architecture; probably the tombs of the chiefs.

HERVEY ISLES.

_Names._--Rarotonga, Atiu; Mangaia, Aitutaki, Mauke, Mitiaro,
Manuai.

_Population._--About fourteen thousand; of which one-half
belongs to Rarotonga.

AUSTRAL ISLANDS.

_Names._--Rimatara, Rurutu, Tupuai, Raivavai.

_Population._--About one thousand. Decreasing.

RAPA.

_Locality._--South of any island yet named, and isolated.

THE TAHITIAN GROUP.

_Synonym._--The Society Islands.

_Islands._--Ulietea, Otahá, Bolabola, Huaheine, Tabai, Maurua.

_Pantheon._--The Tii Maaraauta=the spirit reaching toward the
land. The Tii Maaraatai=the spirit reaching toward the sea.
Eatooa=gods in general. Tii Hina, Taaroa (= Tangaloa). Maui
Raiatea (the analogue of Bolotoo).

Terms for the Tahiti chiefs--Eree, or Tiara.
" " councillors--Manahounis.
" " lower classes--Toutous.

PAUMOTU.

_Meaning._--Cloud of islands.

_Synonym._--The Low Islands. Dangerous Archipelago.

_Structure._--Generally coralline.

Particular islands and groups--

AURA.

_Locality._--S. L. 15° 40´ W. L. 146° 30´ The most savage of
all the islands of the Archipelago, and the one that has most
rarely been visited with impunity.

CHAIN ISLAND.

_Locality._--S. L. 17° 30´ W. L. 45° 30´ Described as being
like Aura, to Captain Fitzroy, by Mr. Middleton, who had passed
some time on the island. Cannibals. Conquerors of the rest of
the Archipelago, except Aura. The first ship they had manned by
a black crew.

GAMBIER ISLANDS.

_Names._--Mangareva, Akena, Akamaru, Tarawari, &c.

_Structure._--Volcanic.

_Population._--About two thousand.

PITCAIRN ISLAND.

_Locality._--South of the Gambier group.

DUCIE'S ISLAND.

_Locality._--West of the Gambier group.

There is a great difference in physical conformation between the inhabitants of different members of the Paumotu group. Some are well-made, nearly on a level with the measurements of European, and with a "fine Asiatic countenance, with beards and mustaches, but no whiskers--men who might pass for Moors."[65] Others approach the character of the Negroes.

We know now the doctrine that this difference will engender; and we know the exception that it will call for. More than one writer have seen in Paumotu islanders specimens of a second race. More than one have seen only the same race under different conditions.

Now, Captain Beechey has found that this difference in the inhabitants coincides with the difference of the islands. The well-grown tribes of the Polynesian type are the tribes of the volcanic Islands, Pitcairn's and the Gambier group. The blacker variety is found on the low islands.

EASTER ISLAND.

_Synonym._--Teape.

_Locality_.--The most eastern island of Polynesia. Solitary.

In Easter Island there stood in the year 1722, and there stand now, statues of colossal proportions, sometimes on the level ground, sometimes on platforms of hewn stone, representing (or misrepresenting) the upper half of the human figure, with enormous ears, shapen out of lavas, some soft, and some too hard for any tool known to the present natives, objects of wonder to them, but not objects of worship.

That they are not objects of worship is inferred from the extent to which they are neglected. When fallen, or broken they are not repaired; neither are they connected with the burial-places.

These seem to have an existence in another form, in that of cylindrical heaps of stone; the meaning of which a native explained to M. de Langle by laying himself down on the ground, and then lifting his hands towards the sky.

The mystery of these statues is increased by a remark of Captain Beechey's. He had seen the like of them elsewhere; but he had seen them on uninhabited islands.

The eastern extremity of the Paumotu Archipelago points towards Easter Island; the northern line is the nearest point to--

THE MARQUESAS.

_Names._--Hivaoa, Tahuata, Fatuhiva, Easter=the south-eastern
group. Nukahiva, Uahuka, Uapou=the north-western.

_Population._--Perhaps two thousand.

The natives of the Marquesas are considered as the handsomest men of Polynesia.

The natives of the Marquesas are most at war with one another of all the Polynesians. Their chief island is intersected by a mountain-ridge; and the mountain-ridge (like most mountain-ridges) supplies a fierce body of quarrellers.

The natives of the Marquesas speak a greater variety of dialects (or sub-dialects) than the natives of any other group. This has engendered the doctrine that they were colonized from more quarters than one.

Distant though it be the Nukahiva group is the nearest point to--

THE SANDWICH ISLANDS.

_Names of islands according to the dialect or orthography
followed by Prichard._--Hawaii, Maui, Tahaurawe, Morokini,
Ranai, Morokai, Oahu, Tauai, Niihau, Taura.

_Names of the islands according to the dialect or orthography
followed by Simpson._--Hawaii, Mowee, Kakoolawe, Lanai,
Molokoi, Woahoo, Kanai, Niihau.

_Structure._--Volcanic.

_Physical appearance of the natives._--Height above the
average. Mouth square and heavy.

Extract from M. Chloris: "Les enfans, en venant au monde,
sont complêtement noirs; la jeune fille la plus jolie, et la
plus delicate, qui s'expose le moins à l'action de l'air et
du soleil, est noire; celles qui sont obligées de travailler
constamment à l'ardeur du soleil, sont presque de couleur
orangée." This orange tint is noticed by Mr. Simpson, who
describes the Hawaiians as intermediate to the black Negro and
the Red American--more, however, red than black.

The majority of the Polynesian islands present the phenomenon of an imperfect and recent civilization engrafted upon a state of comparative barbarism; and none more than the Hawaiian group. No area is, at once, so European and so Polynesian. Neither in any area are the influences more mixed. The population is mixed also. White and half-breeds constitute a large and increasing proportion of the population; the white being from England, from America, and from France.

This is the way in which the admixture of foreign blood takes place within the island itself. But it is not the only way. The Sandwich Islanders are themselves emigrants, and they are found upon the opposite coast of America; thus giving admixture to the Californian and Oregon Indians. They do the same in South America on the coast of Peru and Ecuador.

It is this determination of the Sandwich Islands to America, that gives us the phænomenon of the American and Oceanic admixture--a new and imperfectly studied form of union.

This dispersion of the Sandwich Islanders tells a story on more matters than one. It speaks to their enterprize, maritime capacity, and value as industrial assistants. This is what they are at home, and this is what they are abroad.

Since the discovery of the Sandwich Islands by Cook, the three great influences that have been at work, are--

1. The wars, and policy of Kamehamehu.
2. Missionary influences.
3. Commercial and political influences.

1. At the accession of Kamehamehu, as now, the system of caste that determines the social state of New Zealand, Tahiti, and other parts of Polynesia, regulated that of the Sandwich group. The chiefs, however, held but nominally under the sovereign. Each in his own island, was practically an independent ruler. The wars of Kamehamehu coerced the chiefs of the smaller islands, and left him the sovereign of a consolidated empire. This he administered in the spirit of a Pagan, and a conqueror. Of the god of the volcano and earthquake that had helped him to his early victories, he lived and died the constant worshipper and support.

By the further favour of the same, he hoped to reduce the Tahitian group; an idea that raises his assemblage of canoes to the dignity of a fleet. At any rate, the force for land, and the force for sea underwent an incipient organization in the reign of Kamehamehu.

Then again, he was not only a great merchant, but the only great merchant in his dominions. The chief export was the sandal-wood, which, bearing a high price in the China market, and growing chiefly on the more inaccessible mountains, could only be collected at the expense of grinding labour, and fatal suffering as the portion of the helot population. This decimated the islands as much, or even more, than his wars.

At the death of Kamehamehu a weak tyranny succeeded a strong one. The monopoly of the sandal-wood was divided between the chiefs; and the multitude of masters increased the amount of suffering. I am writing from what I find in Sir G. Simpson, and add that the extremes of bloodshed and oppression brought with them their own remedy. The coercion was too successful to leave an enemy to fight against; and the sandal-wood became too nearly exhausted to command its previous price of life and labour.

In 1819, the great father of his dynasty died; and his idols died with him. Pagan as he was himself, his nation had outgrown Paganism; and there was a _tabula rasa_ for any better creed.

2. With the reign of Liho-Liho began the influence of the missionaries--American, English, and French; the American and English with their respective forms of Protestantism, the French with Romanism. I have no inclination to meddle with the distasteful details of these mischievous contests. The ethnological result is the triple character of the influence now in operation. In politics, Hawaii is independent; independent and semi-constitutional; with its independence guaranteed by England, America, and France. In religion it is Protestant--with Romanism tolerated and something more; tolerated and making way amongst the people.

3. The improvement of the agriculture of the Sandwich Islands is going on steadily. Silk and sugar are beginning to be grown; and a healthier trade is replacing the sandal-wood monopolies.

I have admitted the previous notice of the character of Hawaiian civilization for the sake of comparing it with the present state and actual prospects of the islands. Cook, when he visited them, put the population at four hundred thousand--an exaggeration. Perhaps it came to half as much. In 1832 and 1836, there were censuses; of which the result was as follows:--

POPULATION.

NAME. AREA. 1832. 1836.
Hawaii 4,600 45,792 39,364
Mowee 620 35,062 24,199
Lanai 100 1,600 1,200
Molokoi 190 6,600 6,000
Kakoolawe 60 80 80
Woahoo 530 29,755 27,809
Kanai 500 10,977 8,934
Niihau 90 1,047 995
----- ------- -------
Whole group 6,090 130,313 108,579
------ ------- -------

This gives us a reduction; a reduction which has increased by 1840. This, I suppose, is the one from which Prichard takes his numbers, for two of the islands--

For Maui 18,000
--- Woahoo 20,000

Emigration will not account for this decrease. This we may see at once, from the proportion in 1840--the figures and reasoning are Sir G. Simpson's--in the single island of Kanai, between that part of the population which was under, and that part which was above, eighteen years of age.

1ST DISTRICT. 2ND. DO. 3RD DO. 4TH DO.
Under eighteen 706 309 372 685
Above eighteen 2,229 1,043 1,178 2,134
------ ------ ------ ------
Total 2,935 1,352 1,550 2,819
------ ------ ----- ------

"Here," Sir G. Simpson continues, "is an average of one person under eighteen, to rather more than three persons above it--a state of things which would carry depopulation written on its very face, unless every creature, without exception, were to attain the good old age of seventy-five." To this we add a remark upon the bearing of the early period of marriages throughout Polynesia. Not _one_--but _two_--generations are included in the population under eighteen years; since before that time boys and girls have begun to have boys and girls of their own.

This disproportion accounts for the decrease. But what accounts for the disproportion?

In 1824, Mr. Stuart wrote that--"in those parts of the islands where the influence of the mission had not extended, two-thirds of the infants born perish by the hands of their own parents before attaining the first or second year of their age."

In 1840, there were found in Kanai out of 5,541 adults, only sixty-eight, and sixty-five women who had more than two children each, and that with a bounty, in the shape of an exemption from certain taxes, upon a number to that amount; whilst in Woahoo the births were sixty-one, the deaths one hundred and thirty-two.

Distant though it be, the Tahitian group is the nearest point to--

NEW ZEALAND.

_Native name of northern island._--Ikana, Mawi.

_Native name of southern island._--Tavai, Punamu.

_Native name of the language._--Maori.

CHATHAM ISLAND.

_Locality._--Twelve degrees east of New Zealand.

_Appearance of the natives._--Colour dark; so much so as to be
called by the New Zealanders, _Blafello=Black-fellow_, a term
adopted from the English.

Such are the larger islands and archipelagoes of Polynesia. To these must be added the following smaller groups.

UNION GROUP.

_Locality._--Five degrees due north of the Navigators' Islands.

_Names._--1. Bowditch Isle, or Fakaafo. 2. Duke of York's
Island, or Oatafu. 3. Duke of Clarence's Island, or Nukunono.

_Population._--About one thousand.

_Structure._--Coralline.

_Language._--Intelligible to the Samoans.

_Food._--Coco-nuts, pandanus-nuts, fish.

Although so near the Equator, the Fakaafo people are the fairest of the Polynesians.

VAITUPU GROUP.

_Name._--1. De Peyster I., or Nukufetau.
2. Tracy's I., or Vaitupu.
3. Ellice's I., or Funafati.

_Language._--Intelligible to the Samoans.

_Real or supposed peculiarity._--The bow used in De Peyster's
Island. Except in the Navigators' Isles; rare elsewhere.

These islands have importance as connecting Northern Polynesia with Southern Micronesia. The people are dark-coloured and bearded.

PENRHYNN ISLAND.

_Locality._--Midway between the Marquesas and Union Isles.
Inhabitants numerous as compared with the size of the island.

ROTUMA.

_Synonym._--Granville Island.

_Locality._--Lat. 12° 30´ N. Long. 177° 15´ E. Three hundred
miles from any other land.

COCO ISLAND.

TRAITOR'S ISLAND.

_Locality._--North of the Friendly Islands. Lat. 15° 50´ S.
Long. 174° W. _i.e._, between the Tonga and Samoan groups.

HORN ISLAND.

WALLIS ISLAND.

_Locality._--Between Rotuma and the Samoan Archipelago.

SAVAGE ISLAND.

_Locality._--Four degrees east of the Friendly group; _i.e._,
between the Tonga Isles and the Hervey and Austral groups.

TIKOPIA.

_Locality._---Lat. 12° 30´ S. Long. 169° E.

_Population._--About five hundred.

In Tikopia the locality is nearly Kelænonesian; whilst the physiognomy and language are Amphinesian; and of the two Amphinesian branches, most probably Polynesian.

On the other hand, they use the bow and arrow, and raise cicatrices by burning--both of which habits are Kelænonesian.

FOTUNA.

_Synonym._--Erronan. A few miles east from Tanna, a
Kelænonesian Island.

IMMER.

_Synonym._--Muia. _Ditto._

The locality creates the interest for these two islets. They are not only isolated from the other parts of Polynesia, but are portions of another geographical area.

FREE-WILL ISLAND.

_Locality._--Fifty minutes north of line, to the west (or
north-west) of New Guinea.

_Natives._--Copper-coloured, with long black hair.--_Carteret
from Prichard._

The natives of Free-will Island require further description. It is nearly certain that they are _Amphi_nesian--but whether Protonesian or Micronesian is uncertain. Laying aside, for the present, Madagascar, and the Fiji Islands, we shall find that the more important questions connected with the ethnology of Polynesia are as follows--

1. The affinities with Protonesia.

2. The differences between Polynesia Proper and Micronesia.

3. The extent to which one of these last-named divisions is more Protonesian than the other.

4. The details of the dispersion within the limits of a single division; Micronesia or Polynesia, as the case may be.

5. The _general_ dispersion and distribution.

6. The inferences arising from the existence of the darker coloured, and more Negrito-like population.

7. The date of the Polynesian dispersion.