Chapter II: Part 2

ANASTOMO'SIS, in animals and plants, the inosculation of vessels, or the opening of one vessel into another, as an artery into another artery, or a vein into a vein. By means of anastomosis, if the course of a fluid is arrested in one vessel it can proceed along others. It is by anastomosis that circulation is re-established in amputated limbs, and in aneurism when the vessel is tied.

ANATH'EMA, originally a gift hung up in a temple (Gr., _anatith[=e]mi_, to lay up), and dedicated to some god, a votive offering; but it gradually came to be used for _expulsion_, _curse_. The Roman Catholic Church pronounces the sentence of anathema against heretics, schismatics, and all who wilfully pursue a course of conduct condemned by the Church. The subject of the anathema is declared an outcast from the Church, all the faithful are forbidden to associate with him, and the utter destruction of his body and soul is foretold.

ANAT'IDAE, a family of swimming birds, including the Ducks, Swans, Geese, &c.

ANATO'LIA (from Gr. _anatol[=e]_, the sunrise, the Orient), the modern name of Asia Minor (q.v.).

ANATOLIAN RAILWAY. See _Bagdad Railway, Turkey_.

ANATOMY

ANAT'OMY, in the literal sense, means simply a cutting up, but is now generally applied both to the art of dissecting or artificially separating the different parts of an organized body (vegetable or animal) with a view to discover their situation, structure, and economy; and to the science which treats of the internal structure of organized bodies. By means of the dissection of the human body the surgeon and physician acquire the knowledge of the geography of the territory in which all their professional operations are carried on. _Comparative anatomy_ is the science which compares the anatomy of different classes or species of animals, as that of man with quadrupeds, or that of quadrupeds with fishes. The anatomy of an animal may be studied from various standpoints: with relation to the succession of forms which it exhibits from its first stage to its adult form (_developmental_ or _embryotical anatomy_); with reference to the general properties and structure of the tissues or textures (_general anatomy_, _histology_); with reference to the changes in structure of organs or parts produced by disease and congenital malformations (_morbid_ or _pathological anatomy_); or with reference to the function, use, or purpose performed by the organs or parts (_teleological_ or _physiological anatomy_). According to the parts of the body described, the different divisions of human anatomy receive different names; as, _osteology_, the description of the bones; _myology_, of the muscles; _arthrology_, of the ligaments and sinews; _splanchnology_, of the viscera or internal organs, in which are reckoned the lungs, stomach, and intestines, the liver, spleen, kidneys, bladder, pancreas, &c. _Angiology_ describes the vessels through which the liquids in the body are conducted, including the blood-vessels, which are divided into arteries and veins, and the lymphatic vessels, some of which absorb matters from the bowels, while others are distributed through the whole body, collecting juices from the tissues and carrying them back into the blood. _Neurology_ describes the system of the nerves and of the brain; _dermatology_ treats of the skin.--Among anatomical labours are particularly to be mentioned the making and preserving of anatomical preparations. Preparations of this sort can be preserved (1) by macerating the body so as to obtain the bones of the skeleton; or (2) by treating the body or some part of it with alcohol, formalin, or other preservative, which renders its tissues imperishable.

Among the ancient writers or authorities on human anatomy may be mentioned Hippocrates the younger (460-377 B.C.), Aristotle (384-322 B.C.), Herophilus and Erasistratus of Alexandria (about 300 B.C.), Celsus (53 B.C.-A.D. 37), and Galen of Pergamus (A.D. 130-200), the most celebrated of all the ancient authorities on the science. From his time till the revival of learning in Europe in the fourteenth century anatomy was checked in its progress. In 1315 Mondino, professor at Bologna, first publicly performed dissection, and published a _System of Anatomy_ which was a textbook in the schools of Italy for about 200 years. In the sixteenth century Fallopio of Padua, Eustachi of Venice, Vesalius of Brussels, Varoli of Bologna, and many others, enriched anatomy with new discoveries. In the seventeenth century Harvey discovered the circulation of the blood, Asellius discovered the manner in which the nutritious part of the food is conveyed into the circulation, while the lymphatic system was detected and described by the Dane T. Bartoline. Among the renowned anatomists of later times we can only mention Malpighi, Boerhaave, William and John Hunter, the younger Meckel, Bichat, Rosenmueller, Quain, Sir A. Cooper, Sir C. Bell, Carus, Joh. Mueller, Gegenbaur, Owen, and Huxley.

Until 1832 the law of Great Britain made very insufficient provision for enabling anatomists to obtain the necessary supply of subjects for dissection. An Act of some years previously had, it is true, empowered a criminal court, when it saw fit, to give up to properly-qualified persons the body of a murderer after execution for dissection. This, however, was far from supplying the deficiency, and many persons, tempted by the high prices offered for bodies by anatomists, resorted to the nefarious practice of digging up newly-buried corpses, and frequently, as in the case of the notorious Burke and Hare of Edinburgh, to murder. To remedy these evils a statute was passed in 1832, which was intended to make provision for the wants of surgeons, students, or other duly-qualified persons, by permitting, under certain regulations, the dissection of the bodies of persons who die friendless in alms-houses, hospitals, &c. The Act also appointed inspectors of anatomy, regulated the anatomical schools, and required persons practising the operations to obtain a licence. Relatives may effectually object to the anatomical examination of a body even though the deceased had expressed a desire for it.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: D. J. Cunningham, _Textbook of Anatomy_; J. Quain, _Elements of Anatomy_; A. M. Buchanan, _Manual of Anatomy_; A. Thomson, _Anatomy for Art Students_.

ANAXAG'ORAS, an ancient Greek philosopher of the Ionic school, born at Clazomenae, in Ionia, probably about 500 B.C. When only about twenty years of age he settled at Athens, and soon gained a high reputation, and gathered round him a circle of renowned pupils, including Pericles, Euripides, Socrates, &c. At the age of fifty he was publicly charged with impiety and condemned to death, but the sentence was commuted to perpetual banishment. He thereupon went to Lampsacus, where he died about 428. Anaxagoras belonged to the atomic school of Ionic philosophers. He held that there was an infinite number of different kinds of elementary atoms, and that these, in themselves motionless and originally existing in a state of chaos, were put in motion by an eternal, immaterial, spiritual, elementary being, _Nous_ (Intelligence), from which motion the world was produced. His conception of _Nous_ as the first cause of movement marks a great advance in the history of philosophical thought, for he thus placed spirit above matter. The stars were, according to him, of earthy materials; the sun a glowing mass, about as large as the Peloponnesus; the earth was flat; the moon a dark, inhabitable body, receiving its light from the sun; the comets wandering stars.

ANAXIMAN'DER, an ancient Greek (Ionic) philosopher, was born at Miletus in 611 B.C., and died 547. The fundamental principle of his philosophy is that the source of all things is an undefined substance infinite in quantity. The firmament is composed of heat and cold, the stars of air and fire. The sun occupies the highest place in the heavens, has a circumference twenty-eight times larger than the earth, and resembles a cylinder, from which streams of fire issue. The moon is likewise a cylinder, nineteen times larger than the earth. The earth has the shape of a cylinder, and is placed in the midst of the universe, where it remains suspended. His philosophy is thus a step in advance of the theories of Thales, the conception of the Infinite, however vague, being superior to the idea of water constituting the first principle of all things. Anaximander occupied himself a great deal with mathematics and geography. To him is credited the invention of geographical maps and the first application of the _gnomon_ or style fixed on a horizontal plane to determine the solstices and equinoxes.

ANAXIMENES (an-aks-im'e-n[=e]z) OF MILETUS, an ancient Greek (Ionic) philosopher, according to whom air was the first principle of all things. Finite things were formed from the infinite air by compression and rarefaction produced by eternally existent motion; and heat and cold resulted from varying degrees of density of the primal element. He flourished about 550 B.C.

ANBURY (an'be-ri) (called also CLUB-ROOT and FINGERS AND TOES), a disease in turnips, in which knobs or excrescences are formed on the root, which is then useless for feeding purposes. Some authorities distinguish anbury proper from 'fingers and toes' in turnips, setting it down as a distinct disease due to a fungus, while in the other case the roots simply assume a bad habit of growth through some unknown influence.

ANCACHS ([.a]n-k[.a]ch'), a department of Peru, between the Andes and the Pacific; area, 16,562 sq. miles. Capital Hararaz. Pop. 500,000.

ANCESTOR-WORSHIP, an ancient and widespread practice, displayed in its most characteristic form in modern China and ancient Rome, which apparently was based upon the belief that dead parents or ancestors, represented by images or 'ancestral tablets', could be revived by appropriate ceremonies, such as burning incense or offering libations, and give the benefit of their wisdom to their descendants who performed the vitalizing ritual and asked for their advice upon, or their sanction for, actions affecting the welfare of the family. The earliest deity was a dead king (Osiris), whose advice was sought by his son and successor. Hence in primitive religions, in which an endless variety of modifications of these more ancient beliefs has arisen, ancestor-worship may take the form of pious devotion to an actual ancestor or to a supernatural deity. As many of the most ancient gods were identified with animals, the dead ancestor, or his soul, is believed by many peoples to become incarnate in the appropriate animal, which is accorded the special veneration of a god or supernatural adviser, and set apart as sacred. Ancestor-worship still survives in a great variety of forms among various peoples.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. B. Tylor, _Primitive Culture_; F. B. Jevons, _Introduction to the History of Religion_; D. G. Brinton, _Religions of Primitive Peoples_.

ANCHISES (an-k[=i]'s[=e]z), the father of the Trojan hero Aeneas, who carried him off on his shoulders at the burning of Troy and made him the companion of his voyage to Italy. This voyage, which is not mentioned in the Homeric legend, is described by Virgil in his _Aeneid_. He died at Drepanum, in Sicily.

AN'CHOR, an implement for holding a ship or other vessel at rest in the water. In ancient times large stones or crooked pieces of wood heavily weighted with metal were used for this purpose. The anchor now used is of iron, formed with a strong _shank_, at one extremity of which is the _crown_, from which branch out two _arms_, terminating in broad _palms_ or _flukes_, the sharp extremity of which is the _peak_ or _bill_; at the other end of the shank is the _stock_ (fixed at right angles to the plane of the arms), behind which is the _ring_, to which a cable can be attached. The principal use of the stock is to cause the arms to fall so as one of the flukes shall enter the ground. Many anchors are made nowadays without a stock. The anchors of the largest size carried by men-of-war are the _best_ and _small bowers_, the _sheet_, and the _spare_, to which are added the _stream_ and the _kedge_, which are used for anchoring in a stream or other sheltered place and for warping the vessel from one place to another. Many improvements and novelties in the shape and construction of anchors have been introduced within recent times. The principal names connected with those alterations are those of Lieutenant Rodgers, who introduced the _hollow-shanked anchor_ with the view of increasing the strength without adding to the weight; Porter, who made the arms and flukes movable by pivoting them to the stock instead of fixing them immovably, causing the anchor to take a readier and firmer hold, and avoiding the chance of the cable becoming foul; Trotman, who further improved on Porter's invention; and M. Martin, whose anchor is of very peculiar form, and is constructed so as to be self-canting, the arms revolving through an angle of 30deg either way, and the sharp points of the flukes being always ready to enter the ground.

AN'CHORITES, or AN'CHORETS (Gr. _anachor[=e]tai_, persons who have withdrawn themselves from the world), in the early Church a class of religious persons who generally passed their lives in cells, from which they never removed. Their habitations were, in many instances, entirely separated from the abodes of other men, sometimes in the depth of wildernesses, in pits or caverns; at other times several of these individuals fixed their habitations in the vicinity of each other, but they always lived personally separate. The continual prevalence of fierce wars, civil commotions, and persecutions at the beginning of the Christian era must have made retirement and religious meditation agreeable to men of quiet and contemplative minds. This spirit, however, soon led to fanatical excesses; many anchorites went without proper clothing, wore heavy chains, and we find at the close of the fourth century Simeon Stylites passing thirty years on the top of a column without ever descending from it, and finally dying there. In Egypt and Syria, where Christianity became blended with the Grecian philosophy and strongly tinged with the peculiar notions of the East, the anchorites were most numerous; in Europe there were comparatively few, and on the development and establishment of the monastic system they completely disappeared. See _Asceticism_.

ANCHOVY (an-ch[=o]'vi), a small fish of the Herring family, all the species, with exception of the common anchovy (_Engraulis encrasich[)o]lus_) and _E. meletta_ (both Mediterranean species), inhabitants of the tropical seas of India and America. The common anchovy, so esteemed for its rich and peculiar flavour, is not much larger than the middle finger. It is caught in vast numbers in the Mediterranean, and frequently on the coasts of France, Holland, and the south of England, and pickled for exportation. A favourite sauce is made by pounding the pickled fish in water, simmering for a short time, adding a little cayenne pepper, and straining the whole through a hair-sieve.

ANCHO'VY-PEAR (_Grias caulifl[=o]ra_), a tree of the nat. ord. Myrtaceae, a native of Jamaica, growing to the height of 50 feet, with large leaves and large white flowers, and bearing a fruit somewhat bigger than a hen's egg, which is pickled and eaten like the mango, and strongly resembles it in taste.

ANCHU'SA. See _Alkanet_.

ANCHYLO'SIS. See _Ankylosis_.

ANCIENT LIGHTS, in English law, windows or other openings which have been in existence for at least twenty years, and during that time have enjoyed the access of light without interruption, go that a right is established against the obstruction of the light by a neighbouring proprietor.

ANCILLON ([.a][n.]-s[=e]-y[=o][n.]), Jean Pierre Frederic, an author and statesman of French extraction, born at Berlin in 1767 (where his father was pastor of the French reformed church); died there in 1837. He became professor of history in the military academy at Berlin, and in 1806 he was charged with the education of the crown-prince. He successively occupied several important offices of state, being at last appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs. He wrote on philosophy, history, and politics, partly in French, partly in German.

ANCKARSTROEM. See _Ankarstroem_.

ANCO'NA, a seaport of Italy, capital of the province of the same name, on the Adriatic, 130 miles N.E. of Rome, with harbour works begun by Trajan, who built the ancient mole or quay. A triumphal arch of white marble, erected in honour of Trajan, stands on the mole. Ancona is a station of the Italian fleet, and the commerce is increasing. The town is indifferently built, but has some remarkable edifices, among others, the cathedral. There is a colossal statue of Count Cavour. Ancona is said to have been founded about four centuries B.C., by Syracusan refugees. It fell into the hands of the Romans in the first half of the third century B.C., and became a Roman colony. Pop. 68,430. The province has an area of 748 sq. miles. Pop. 333,381.

ANCONA FOWL. See _Poultry_.

ANCRE (ae[n.]-kr), Concino Concini, Marshal and Marquis d', was a native of Florence, and on the marriage of Marie de' Medici to Henri IV, in 1600, came in her suite to France, where he obtained rapid promotion, more especially after the assassination of the king (1610). He became successively Governor of Normandy, Marshal of France, and last of all, Prime Minister. Being thoroughly detested by all classes, at last a conspiracy was formed against him, and he was shot dead on the bridge of the Louvre in 1617.

ANCRE, BATTLE OF. This battle was the final one in the British offensive in France in 1916. It began on 13th Nov. after a two day's preliminary bombardment of the German salient, on both sides of the River Ancre, from Beaumont-Hamel to St. Pierre Divion. One area of extraordinary strength was the Y ravine which stretches from Beaumont-Hamel plateau towards the river. The assaults on both banks of the river were vigorous and determined. A fierce struggle was waged in the Y ravine, which Scottish troops ultimately cleared with the bayonet. Beaumont-Hamel having fallen, the British line was extended well beyond it. Further gains were made on the following day. The prisoners captured numbered 7200. This brilliant action paved the way for further successes in the spring.

AN'CUS MAR'CIUS, according to the traditionary history of Rome the fourth king of that city, who succeeded Tullus Hostilius, 638, and died 614 B.C. He was the son of Numa's daughter, and sought to imitate his grandfather by reviving the neglected observances of religion. He is said to have built the wooden bridge across the Tiber known as the Sublician, constructed the harbour of Ostia, and built the first Roman prison.

ANCY'RA. See _Angora_.

ANDALU'SIA (Sp. _Andalucia_), a large and fertile district in the south of Spain, bounded N. by Estremadura and New Castile, E. by Murcia, S. by the Mediterranean Sea, and W. by Portugal and the Atlantic; area, about 33,777 sq. miles, comprising the modern provinces of Seville, Huelva, Cadiz, Jaen, Cordova, Granada, Almeria, and Malaga. It is traversed throughout its whole extent by ranges of mountains, the loftiest being the Sierra Nevada, many summits of which are covered with perpetual snow (Mulahacen is 11,678 feet). Minerals abound, and several mines have been opened by English companies, especially in the province of Huelva, where the Tharsis and Rio Tinto copper-mines are situated. The principal river is the Guadalquivir. The vine, myrtle, olive, palm, banana, carob, &c., grow abundantly in the valley of the Guadalquivir. Wheat, maize, barley, and many varieties of fruit grow almost spontaneously; besides which, honey, silk, and cochineal form important articles of culture. The horses and mules are the best in the Peninsula; the bulls are sought for bull-fighting over all Spain; sheep are reared in vast numbers. Agriculture is in a backward state, and the manufactures are by no means extensive. The Andalusians are descended in part from the Moors, of whom they still preserve decided characteristics. Andalusia is still famous for its bull-fighters. Pop. 3,828,916.

ANDALUSIAN FOWL. See _Poultry_.

AN'DAMANS, a chain of islands on the east side of the Bay of Bengal, the principal being the North, Middle, South, and Little Andamans. Middle Andaman is about 60 miles long, and 15 or 16 miles broad; North and South Andaman are each about 50 miles long. The Andamanese, about 1315 in number (1911), are mostly in a state of nature, living almost naked in the rudest habitations. They are small (generally much less than 5 feet), well-formed, and active, skilful archers and canoeists, and excellent swimmers and divers. These islands have been used since 1858 as a penal settlement by the Indian Government, the settlement being at Port Blair, on South Andaman. Here rice, coffee, pineapples, nutmegs, &c., are grown, while the jungle has been cleared off the neighbouring hills. The natives in the vicinity of the settlement have become to some extent civilized. The climate is humid, but the settlement is healthy. Pop. 18,000.

ANDANTE ([.a]n-d[.a]n't[=a]; It., 'at a walking pace'), in music, denotes a movement somewhat slow, graceful, distinct, and soothing. The word is also applied substantively to that part of a sonata or symphony having a movement of this character. In Handel's music one often meets the expression _andante allegro_, which is equivalent to _andante con moto_.

ANDELYS, LES (l[=a]z [:a][n.]d-l[=e]z), two towns in France called respectively Grand and Petit Andely, distant half a mile from each other, in the department of Eure, on the right bank of the Seine, 19 miles S.E. of Rouen. Grand Andely dates from the sixth century, its church, built in the thirteenth century, is one of the finest in the department. Petit Andely owes its origin to Richard Coeur de Lion, who, in 1195, built here the Chateau Gaillard, in its time one of the strongest fortresses in France, but now wholly a ruin. Pop. 5530.

ANDENNE', a town of Belgium, province of Namur, on the right bank of the Meuse and 10 miles east of Namur; manufactures delftware, porcelain, tobacco-pipes, paper, &c. Pop. 7803.

ANDERNACH ([.a]n'der-n[.a]_ch_), a town of Rhenish Prussia, on the left bank of the Rhine, 10 miles N.W. of Coblentz, partly surrounded with walls. Pop. 9800.

AN'DERSEN, Hans Christian, a Danish novelist, poet, and writer of fairy tales, was born of poor parents at Odense, 2nd April, 1805. He learned to read and write in a charity school, from which he was taken when only nine years old, and was put to work in a manufactory in order that his earnings might assist his widowed mother. In his leisure time he eagerly read national ballads, poetry, and plays, and wrote several tragedies full of sound and fury. In 1819 he went to Copenhagen, but failed in getting any of his plays accepted, and in securing an appointment at the theatre, having to content himself for some time with unsteady employment as a joiner. His abilities at last brought him under the notice of Councillor Collin, a man of considerable influence, who procured for him free entrance into a Government school at Slagelse. From this school he was transferred to the university, and soon became favourably known by his poetic works. Through the influence of Oehlenschlaeger and Ingermann he received a royal grant to enable him to travel, and in 1833 he visited Italy, his impressions of which he published in _The Improvvisatore_ (1835)--a work which rendered his fame European. The scene of his following novel, _O. T._, was laid in Denmark, and in _Only a Fiddler_ he described his own early struggles. In 1835 appeared the first volume of his _Fairy Tales_, of which successive volumes continued to be published year by year at Christmas, and which have been the most popular and widespread of his works. Among his other works are _Picture-books without Pictures_--conversations of the author with the moon, who came to visit the poet in his garret; _A Poet's Bazaar_--the result of a voyage in 1840 to the East; and a number of dramas. In 1845 he received an annuity from the Government. He visited England in 1848, and acquired such a command of the language that his next work, _The Two Baronesses_, was written in English. In 1855 he published an autobiography, under the title _My Life's Romance_, an English translation of which, published in 1871, contained additional chapters by the author, bringing the narrative to 1867. Among his later works we may mention, _To Be or Not To Be_ (1857); _Tales from Jutland_ (1859); _The Ice Maiden_ (1863). He died 4th Aug, 1875, having had the pleasure of seeing many of his works translated into most of the European languages.

ANDERSON, a town of the United States, Indiana, on the west branch of White River, 32 miles north-east of Indianapolis, with various manufacturing works. Pop. 23,856.

ANDERSON, Elizabeth Garrett, M.D., born in 1836, maiden name Garrett, married Mr. J. S. Anderson of the Orient Line of steamers. She studied medicine, but met with many obstacles, the study of medicine by women being then discouraged on all hands; at last she was licensed to practise by the Apothecaries' Society in 1865, and afterwards passed examinations at the University of Paris and obtained the degree of Doctor of Medicine. From 1866 to 1890 she was senior physician to the New Hospital for Women; from 1876 to 1898 lecturer on medicine in the London School of Medicine for Women. She did much to aid in opening the medical profession to women. In 1908 she was elected Mayor of Aldeburgh, being the first woman to hold the position of mayor in England. She died on 17th Dec., 1917. Her daughter Louisa Garrett Anderson, born in 1873, went to France in 1914 as Joint Organiser of and Chief Surgeon to the Women's Hospital Corps, Voluntary Unit.

ANDERSON, James, a Scottish writer on political and rural economy, born at Hermiston in 1739, died in 1808. In 1790 he started the _Bee_, which ran to eighteen volumes, and contains many useful papers on agricultural, economical, and other topics. Some of his other publications, _Recreations in Agriculture_, _Natural History_, &c., contain anticipations of theories afterwards propounded by Malthus and Ricardo.

ANDERSON, John, F.R.S., professor of natural philosophy in the University of Glasgow, born 1726, died 1796. By his will he directed that the whole of his effects should be devoted to the establishment of an educational institution in Glasgow, to be denominated _Anderson's University_, for the use of the unacademical classes. According to the design of the founder, there were to be four colleges--for arts, medicine, law, and theology--besides an initiatory school. As the funds, however, were totally inadequate to the plan, it was at first commenced with only a single course of lectures on natural philosophy and chemistry. The institution gradually enlarged its sphere of instruction, coming nearer and nearer to the original design of its founder, the medical school in particular possessing a high reputation. In 1886 it was incorporated with other institutions to form the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College (now Glasgow Royal Technical College), Anderson's College medical school, however, retaining a distinct position.

ANDERSON, Joseph, Scottish antiquary, born in 1832, became a school teacher, was for some years newspaper editor, and in 1870 was appointed keeper of the National Museum of Antiquities, Edinburgh. His chief works embody the lectures delivered by him as Rhind lecturer in archaeology to the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland: _Scotland in Early Christian Times_, _Scotland in Pagan Times_, and the _Early Christian Monuments of Scotland_. He also edited _The Orkneyinga Saga_, _The Oliphants in Scotland_, and Drummond's _Ancient Scottish Weapons_. He died in 1916.

ANDERSON, Robert, M.D., Scottish biographical writer, born 1750, died 1830. He furnished biographical and critical notices for _A Complete Edition of the Poets of Great Britain_ (1792-5), and was for a time editor of the _Edinburgh Magazine_.

ANDERSSON, Carl Jan, an African traveller, born in Sweden in 1827, died in the land of the Ovampos, in Western Africa, in July, 1867. He published _Lake Ngami, or Discoveries in South Africa_ (London, 2 vols., 1856), and _The Okavango River_ (London, 1861). The observations of his last voyage were published in 1875 in _Notes of Travel in South Africa_.

ANDES (an'd[=e]z), or, as they are called in Spanish South America, CORDILLERAS (ridges) DE LOS ANDES, or simply CORDILLERAS, a range of mountains stretching along the whole of the west coast of South America, from Cape Horn to the Isthmus of Panama and the Caribbean Sea. In absolute length (4500 miles) no single chain of mountains approaches the Andes, and only a certain number of the higher peaks of the Himalayan chain rise higher above the sea-level; which peak is the highest of all is not yet settled. Several main sections of this huge chain are distinguishable. The Southern Andes present a lofty main chain, with a minor chain running parallel to it on the east, reaching from Tierra del Fuego and the Straits of Magellan, northward to about lat. 28deg S., and rising in Aconcagua to a height of 23,080 feet. North of this is the double chain of the Central Andes, enclosing the wide and lofty plateaus of Bolivia and Peru, which lie at an elevation of more than 12,000 feet above the sea. The mountain system is here at its broadest, being about 500 miles across. Here are also several very lofty peaks, as Illampu or Sorata (21,484 feet), Sahama (21,054 feet), Illimani (21,024 feet). Farther north the outer and inner ranges draw closer together, and in Ecuador there is but a single system of elevated masses, generally described as forming two parallel chains. In this section are crowded together a number of lofty peaks, most of them volcanoes, either extinct or active. Of the latter class are Pichincha (15,918 feet), with a crater 2500 feet deep; Tunguragua (16,685 feet); Sangay (17,460 feet); and Cotopaxi (19,550 feet). The loftiest summit here appears to be Chimborazo (20,581 feet); others are Antisana (19,260 feet) and Cayambe (19,200 feet). Northward of this section the Andes break into three distinct ranges, the east-most running north-eastward into Venezuela, the westmost running north-westward to the Isthmus of Panama. In the central range is the volcano of Tolima (17,660 feet). The western slope of the Andes is generally exceedingly steep, the eastern much less so, the mountains sinking gradually to the plains. The whole range gives evidence of volcanic action, but it consists almost entirely of sedimentary rocks. Thus mountains may be found rising to the height of over 20,000 feet, and fossiliferous to their summits (as Illimani and Sorata or Illampu). There are about thirty volcanoes in a state of activity. The loftiest of these burning mountains seems to be Gualateiri, in Peru (21,960 feet). The heights of the others vary from 13,000 to 20,000 feet. All the districts of the Andes system have suffered severely from earthquakes, towns having been either destroyed or greatly injured by these visitations. Peaks crowned with perpetual snow are seen all along the range, and glaciers are also met with, more especially from Aconcagua southwards. The passes are generally at a great height, the most important being from 10,000 to 15,000 feet. Railways have been constructed to cross the chain at a similar elevation. The Andes are extremely rich in the precious metals, gold, silver, copper, platinum, mercury, and tin all being wrought; lead and iron are also found. The llama and kindred species--the guanaco, vicuna, and alpaca--are characteristic of the Andes. Among birds, the condor is the most remarkable. The vegetation necessarily varies much according to elevation, latitude, rainfall, &c., but generally is rich and varied. Except in the south and north little rain falls on the western side of the range, and in the centre there is a considerable desert area. On the east side the rainfall is heavy in the equatorial regions, but in the south is very scanty or altogether deficient. From the Andes rise two of the largest water systems of the world--the Amazon and its affluents, and the La Plata and its affluents. Besides which, in the north, from its slopes flow the Magdalena to the Caribbean Sea, and some tributaries to the Orinoco. The mountain chain pressing so close upon the Pacific Ocean, no streams of importance flow from its western slopes. The number of lakes is not great; the largest and most important is that of Titicaca on the Bolivian plateau. In the Andes are towns at a greater elevation than anywhere else in the world, the highest being the silver-mining town of Cerro de Pasco (14,270 feet), the next being Potosi.

AN'DESIN, a kind of felspar containing both soda and lime, and named from being first obtained in the Andes.

AN'DESITE, a name given to a crystalline volcanic rock or group of rocks of very wide occurrence, consisting mostly of felspar mixed with other ingredients, especially hornblende and augite, often also hypersthene and mica, the four chief varieties being named accordingly. Andesite is often porphyritic in character, with large crystals of felspar scattered through it. These rocks are commonly eruptive products of volcanoes of the tertiary or more recent periods, and the name was given by C. L. von Buch on account of their prevalence in the lavas of volcanoes of the Andes. The Ochils and other hills of middle Scotland largely consist of andesite.

ANDIJAN', a town of Russian Turkestan, Ferghana, south of the Syr-Darya, a terminus of the Transcaspian Railway, 73 miles north-east of Khokand. Pop. 82,235.

ANDI'RA, a genus of leguminous American trees, with fleshy plum-like fruits. The wood is suitable for building purposes. The bark of _A. inermis_, or cabbage tree, is narcotic, and is used as an anthelminthic under the name of _worm-bark_ or _cabbage bark_. The powdered bark of _A. arar[=o]ba_ is used as a remedy in certain skin diseases, as herpes.

ANDIRON (and'[=i]-[.e]rn), a horizontal iron bar raised on short legs, with an upright standard at one end, used to support pieces of wood when burning in an open hearth, one andiron being placed on either side of the hearth.

ANDKHOO, or ANDKHOUI ([.a]nd-_h_[:o]', [.a]nd-_h_oe'i), a town of Afghanistan, about 200 miles south of Bokhara, on the commercial route to Herat. Pop. estimated at 15,000.

ANDOCIDES (an-dos'i-d[=e]z), an Athenian orator, born about 440 B.C., died about 393 B.C. He took an active part in public affairs, and was four times exiled; the first time along with Alcibiades, for profaning the Eleusinian mysteries. Several of his orations are extant, one called _On the Mysteries_ being the best.

ANDOR'RA, or ANDORRE', a small nominally independent State in the Pyrenees, south of the French department of Ariege, with an area of about 191 sq. miles. It has been a separate State for six hundred years, is governed by its own civil and criminal codes, and has its own courts of justice, the laws being administered by two judges, one of whom is chosen by France, the other by the Bishop of Urgel, in Spain. The little State pays an annual due of 960 francs to France, and 460 pesetas to the Bishop of Urgel. The chief industry is the rearing of sheep and cattle. The commerce is largely in importing contraband goods into Spain. The inhabitants, who speak the Catalan dialect of Spanish, are simple in their manners, their wealth consisting mainly of cattle and sheep. The village of Old Andorra is the capital. Pop. 5231.

AN'DOVER, a town in England, in Hants, 12 miles north by west of Winchester, with a fine church, and a trade in corn, malt, &c. Interesting Roman remains have been found in the vicinity. Pop. (1921), 8569.

AN'DOVER, a town in Massachusetts, 25 miles N.N.W. of Boston, chiefly remarkable for its literary institutions--Phillip's Academy, founded in 1778; the Andover Theological Seminary, founded in 1807; and Abbot Academy, a girls' school, founded in 1829. Pop. 7300.

ANDRASSY ([.a]n-drae'sh[=e]), Count Julius, Hungarian statesman, born 1823, died in 1890. He took part in the revolution of 1848, was condemned to death, but escaped and went into exile. He was appointed Premier when self-government was restored to Hungary in 1867; became imperial Minister for Foreign Affairs in 1871, but retired from public life in 1879.

ANDRASSY, Julius, Hungarian statesman, son of the preceding. He was born in 1860, and entered the Reichstag in 1884. He became Minister of the Interior in 1906, and retained that office until 1909. In 1912 he represented Austria at the conference on the Balkan question. In 1918 he was appointed Minister for Foreign Affairs, but soon resigned.

ANDRE (an'dr[=a]), Major John, adjutant-general in the British army during the American revolutionary war. Employed to negotiate the defection of the American general Arnold, and the delivery of the works at West Point, he was apprehended in disguise, 23rd Sept., 1780, within the American lines; declared a spy from the enemy, and hanged 2nd Oct., 1780. His remains were brought to England in 1821 and interred in Westminster Abbey, where a monument has been erected to his memory.

ANDREA DEL SARTO. See _Sarto_.

ANDREAE ([.a]n'dre-[=a]), Johann Valentin, German author, born 1586, died 1654. He was the author of numerous tracts, several of them of an amusing and satirical character. He was long believed to be the founder of the celebrated Rosicrucian order, an opinion that received a certain support from some of his works, but in all probability the real intention of the writer was to ridicule the folly of contemporary alchemists.

AN'DREASBERG, ST., a mining town of the Harz Mountains, in Prussia, 57 miles S.S.E. of Hanover. Pop. about 4000.

ANDREEV, Leonid Nicolaievitsh, Russian author, born in 1871, died in 1919. He studied law at the Universities of Moscow and Petrograd, but finding his practice unremunerative he became a police-court reporter for a daily paper. At the age of twenty-three he attempted suicide, driven to it by his miserable circumstances and struggle for existence. His first story, _About a Poor Student_, based upon his own experiences, attracted but little attention, and his literary career really began when Gorky discovered his talent. He was one of the most prolific Russian writers, the short story being his speciality. He was a mystic and a fatalist, like so many of his compatriots. His works include: _The Red Laugh_ (1905); _The Seven who were Hanged_ (1909); _Judas Iscariot and the Others_ (1910); _A Dilemma_ (1910); _Silence and Other Stories_, &c. His works have been translated into many European languages.

ANDREW, ST., brother of St. Peter, and the first disciple whom Christ chose. He is said to have preached in Scythia, in Thrace and Asia Minor, and in Achaia (Greece), and according to tradition he was crucified by order of the Roman governor Aegeas at Patrae, now Patras, in Achaia, on a cross of the form X (decussate cross), now known as a St. Andrew's cross. The Russians revere him as the apostle who brought the gospel to them; the Scots, as the patron saint of their country. The day dedicated to him is 30th Nov. The Russian order of St. Andrew was instituted by Peter the Great in 1698. For the Scottish Knights of St. Andrew or the Thistle, see _Thistle_.

AN'DREWES, Lancelot, an eminent and learned bishop of the English Church, born in London in 1555, died at Winchester 1626; was high in favour both with Queen Elizabeth and James I. In 1605 he became Bishop of Chichester; in 1609 was translated to Ely, and appointed one of the king's privy-councillors; and in 1618 he was translated to Winchester. He was one of those engaged in preparing the authorized version of the Scriptures. He left sermons, lectures, and other writings.

AN'DREWS, ST., an ancient city and parliamentary burgh in Fifeshire, Scotland, 31 miles north-east from Edinburgh; was erected into a royal burgh by David I in 1140, and after having been an episcopal, became an archiepiscopal see in 1472, and was for long the ecclesiastical capital of Scotland. The cathedral, now in ruins, was begun about 1160, and took 157 years to finish. The old castle, founded about 1200, and rebuilt in the fourteenth century, is also an almost shapeless ruin. In it James III was born and Cardinal Beaton assassinated, and in front of it George Wishart was burned. There are several other interesting ruins. The trade and manufactures are of no importance, but the town is in favour as a watering-place. Golf is much played here. Pop. 7597.--The _University of St. Andrews_, the oldest of the Scottish universities, founded in 1411, consists of the united colleges of St. Salvator and St. Leonard and the college of St. Mary, both at St. Andrews, and embraces also University College, Dundee. In 1579 the colleges of St. Salvator and St. Leonard were restricted to the teaching of arts and medicine, and that of St. Mary to theology. In 1747 the two former colleges were united by Act of Parliament. University College, Dundee, was founded in 1880. The united college of St. Salvator and St. Leonard has a principal (who is also principal of the university) and twelve professors, and the college of St. Mary has a principal and four professors. Degrees, open to women as well as men, are conferred in arts, divinity, science, medicine, and law; and the university also confers the diploma and title of L.L.A. (Lady Literate in Arts). The number of students is 420. In connection with the university is a library, founded in 1612 and containing about 150,000 printed volumes and 150 MSS. The university unites with the other three Scottish universities in returning three members to Parliament. Madras College or Academy, founded by Dr. Bell of Madras, the principal secondary school of the place, provides accommodation for upwards of 1500 scholars.

AN'DREWS, Thomas, chemist, was born at Belfast in 1813; studied chemistry at Glasgow under Thomas Thomson, and for a short time in Paris; then medicine at Belfast, Dublin, and Edinburgh, taking the degree of M.D. at the last place. After practising and teaching chemistry for ten years in Belfast, he became vice-president of the Northern College there, which in 1849 was converted into Queen's College, and Andrews now became professor of chemistry in the college, a post which he held till 1879. He died in 1885, having received various academic distinctions in the course of his life. His name is associated with valuable researches on the heat of chemical combustion, and on the nature of ozone, but especially with the discovery of the existence of a critical temperature for every gas, above which it cannot be liquefied by any pressure, however great. He wrote many scientific papers, which have been published in a collective form by P. G. Tait and A. Crum Brown.

AN'DRIA, a town of South Italy, province of Bari, with a fine cathedral, founded in 1046; the Church of Sant' Agostino, with a beautiful Pointed Gothic portal; a college; manufactures of majolica, and a good trade. Pop. 53,274.

ANDROCLUS, or ANDROCLES, a Roman slave who once pulled a thorn out of a lion's paw and dressed the wound. Androclus was afterwards condemned to be thrown to the lions in the Circus Maximus, and encountered the same lion that he had helped; the beast, instead of attacking him, fawned on him and caressed him. The story is told by Aulus Gellius, _Noctes Atticae_, v, 14.

ANDROE'CIUM, in botany, the male system of a flower; the aggregate of the stamens.

ANDROMACHE (an-drom'a-k[=e]), in Greek legend, wife of Hector, and one of the most attractive women of Homer's _Iliad_. The passage describing her parting with Hector, when he was setting out to battle, is well known and much admired (_Iliad_, vi, 369-502). Euripides and Racine have made her the chief character of tragedies.

ANDROM'[)E]DA, in Greek mythology, daughter of the Ethiopian king Cepheus and of Cassiopeia. Cassiopeia having boasted that her daughter surpassed the Nereids, if not H[=e]ra (Juno) herself, in beauty, the offended goddesses prevailed on their father, Poseid[=o]n (Neptune), to afflict the country with a horrid sea-monster, which threatened universal destruction. To appease the offended god, Andromeda was chained to a rock, but was rescued by Perseus; and after death was changed into a constellation. The legend forms the subject of tragedies by Euripides and Sophocles, and Ovid introduced it into his _Metamorphoses_.

ANDROM'EDA. See _Ericaceae_.

ANDRONI'CUS, the name of four emperors of Constantinople.--ANDRONICUS I, Comnenus, born 1110, murdered 1185.--ANDRONICUS II, Palaeologus, born 1258, died 1332. His reign is celebrated for the invasion of the Turks.--ANDRONICUS III, Palaeologus the Younger, born 1296, died 1341.--ANDRONICUS IV, Palaeologus, reigned in the absence of John IV. In 1373 he gave way to his brother Manuel, and died a monk.

ANDRONI'CUS, Livius, the most ancient of the Latin dramatic poets; flourished about 240 B.C.; by origin a Greek, and long a slave. A few fragments of his works have come down to us.

ANDRONI'CUS of Rhodes, a peripatetic philosopher who lived at Rome in the time of Cicero. He arranged Aristotle's works in much the same form as they retain in present editions.

ANDRONI'CUS CYRRHESTES (sir-es't[=e]z), a Greek architect about 100 B.C., who constructed at Athens the Tower of the Winds, an octagonal building, still standing. On the top was a Triton, which indicated the direction of the wind. Each of the sides had a sort of dial, and the building formerly contained a clepsydra or water-clock.

ANDROPO'GON, a large genus of grasses, mostly natives of warm countries. _A. Schoenanthus_ is the sweet-scented lemon-grass of conservatories. Others also are fragrant.

AN'DROS (now ANDRO), one of the islands of the Grecian Archipelago, the most northerly of the Cyclades; about 25 miles long and 6 or 7 broad; area, 100 sq. miles. A considerable trade is done in silk, wine, olives, figs, oranges, and lemons. Andro or Castro, the capital, has a good port. Pop. 18,809.

ANDROS ISLANDS, a group of isles belonging to the Bahamas, lying south-west of New Providence, not far from the east entrance to the Gulf of Florida. The passages through them are dangerous. Pop. 7545.

ANDRUSSOVO, a Russian village in the government of Smolensk. A treaty was signed here between Poland and Russia (1667).

ANDUJAR ([.a]n-_d_oe-_h_aer'), a town in Spain, in Andalusia, 50 miles E.N.E. of Cordova, on the Guadalquivir, which is here crossed by a fine bridge; manufactures a peculiar kind of porous earthen water-bottles and jugs (_alcarazas_). Pop. 16,500.

AN'ECDOTE, originally some particular about a subject not noticed in previous works on that subject; now any particular or detached incident or fact of an interesting nature; a single passage of private life.

ANEGA'DA, a British West Indian island, the most northern of the Virgin group, 10 miles long by 4-1/2 broad; contains numerous salt ponds, from which quantities of salt are obtained. Pop. 200.

ANELECTRIC, a body not easily electrified.

ANELECTRODE, the positive pole of a galvanic battery.

ANEMOM'ETER (Gr. _an[)e]mos_, wind, _metron_, measure), an instrument for measuring the force and velocity of the wind. This force is usually measured by the pressure of the wind upon a square plate attached to one end of a spiral spring (with its axis horizontal), which yields more or less according to the force of the wind, and transmits its motion to a pencil which leaves a trace upon paper moved by clockwork. Various instruments have been devised for this purpose, but the one most commonly adopted by meteorological stations is after the type invented by Dr. Robinson of Armagh. It consists of four hemispherical cups A attached to the ends of equal horizontal arms, forming a horizontal cross which turns freely about a vertical axis B. By means of an endless screw carried by the axis a train of wheelwork is set in motion; and the indication is given by a hand which moves round a dial; or in some instruments by several hands moving round different dials like those of a gas-meter. It is found that the centre of each cup moves with a velocity which is almost exactly one-third of that of the wind. There are various other forms of the instrument, one of which is portable, and is especially intended for measuring the velocity of currents of air passing through mines, and the ventilating spaces of hospitals and other public buildings. The direction of the wind as indicated by a vane can also be made to leave a continuous record by various contrivances; one of the most common being a pinion carried by the shaft of a vane, and driving a rack which carries a pencil.

ANEM'[)O]N[=E] (Gr. _an[)e]mos_, wind), wind-flower, a genus of plants belonging to the Buttercup family (Ranunculaceae), containing about ninety species, found in temperate regions, three of them occurring in Britain: the white-flowered (_A. nemor[=o]sa_), the only one truly native; the blue-flowered (_A. apenn[=i]na_); and the yellow-flowered (_A. ranunculoides_), a common European species naturalized in some parts of Britain. Several species are cultivated as florists' flowers.

ANEMOPH'ILOUS, said of flowers that are fertilized by the wind conveying the pollen.

ANEM'OSCOPE, any contrivance indicating the direction of the wind; generally applied to a vane which turns a spindle descending through the roof to a chamber where, by means of a compass-card and index, the direction of the wind is shown.

ANEROID BAROMETER. See _Barometer_.

ANE'THUM, a genus of plants; dill.

ANEU'RIN, a poet and prince of the Cambrian Britons who flourished in the seventh century, author of an epic poem, the _Gododin_, relating the defeat of the Britons of Strathclyde by the Saxons at the battle of Cattraeth. See _Celtic Literature_.

AN'EURISM, or ANEURYSM (Gr. _aneurysma_, a widening), the dilatation or expansion of some part of an artery. Aneurisms arise partly from the too violent motion of the blood, and partly from degenerative changes occurring in the coats of the artery, diminishing their elasticity. They are therefore more frequent in the great branches; in particular, in the vicinity of the heart, in the arch of the aorta, and in the extremities, where the arteries are exposed to frequent injuries by stretching, violent bodily exertions, thrusts, falls, and contusions. An internal aneurism may burst and cause death.

ANGARA', a Siberian river which flows into Lake Baikal at its N. extremity, and leaves it near the S.W. end, joining the Yenisei as the Lower Angara or Upper Tunguska.

ANGEL (Gr. _angelos_, a messenger), one of those spiritual intelligences who are regarded as dwelling in Heaven and employed as the ministers or agents of God. To these the name of good angels is sometimes given, to distinguish them from bad angels, who were originally created to occupy the same blissful abode, but lost it by rebellion. The Old Testament represents them as messengers of the Divine will, and Christ spoke of them more than once (_St. Matt._ xviii, 10; _St. Luke_, xv, 10). Generally, however, Scripture speaks of angels with great reserve, Michael and Gabriel alone being mentioned by name in the canonical books, while Raphael is mentioned in the Apocrypha. The angels are represented in Scripture as in the most elevated state of intelligence, purity, and bliss, ever doing the will of God so perfectly that we can seek for nothing higher or better than to aim at being like them. There are indications of a diversity of rank and power among them, and something like angelic orders--Michael, Gabriel, Raphael, Uriel, &c., seraphim and cherubim. They are represented as frequently taking part in communications made from heaven to earth, as directly and actively ministering to the good of believers, and shielding or delivering them from evils incident to their earthly lot. That every person has a good and a bad angel attendant on him was an early belief, and is held to some extent yet. Roman Catholics, since St. Ambrosius, who died in 397, show a certain veneration or worship to angels, and beg their prayers and their kind offices. The New Testament, however, formally forbidding such veneration (_Col._ ii, 18, &c.), Protestants consider this unlawful.

ANGEL, a gold coin introduced into England in the reign of Edward IV, and coined down to the Commonwealth, so named from having the representation of the archangel Michael piercing a dragon upon it. It had different values in different reigns, varying from 6s. 8d. to 10s.

ANGEL-FISH, a fish, _Squat[=i]na ang[)e]lus_, nearly allied to the sharks, very ugly and voracious, preying on other fish. It is from 6 to 8 feet long, and takes its name from its pectoral fins, which are very large, extending horizontally like wings when spread. This fish connects the rays with the sharks, but it differs from both in having its mouth placed at the extremity of the head. It is common on the south coasts of Britain, and is also called _Monk-fish_ and _Fiddle-fish_.

ANGEL'ICA, a genus of umbelliferous plants, one of which, _A. sylvestris_, a tall plant bearing large umbels of white flowers tinged with pink, is common in wet places in Britain, and was formerly believed to possess _angelic_ properties as an antidote to poison, a specific against witchcraft, &c. The name is also given to an allied plant, the _Archangelica officin[=a]lis_, found on the banks of rivers and ditches in the north of Europe, once generally cultivated as an esculent, and still valued for its medicinal properties. It has a large fleshy aromatic root, and a strong-furrowed branched stem as high as a man. It is cultivated for its agreeable aromatic odour and carminative properties. Its blanched stems, candied with sugar, form a very agreeable sweetmeat, possessing tonic and stomachic qualities.

ANGELICO ([.a]n-jel'i-k[=o]), FRA, the common appellation of _Fra Giovanni da Fiesole_, one of the most celebrated of the early Italian painters. Born 1387, he entered the Dominican order in 1407, and was employed by Cosmo de' Medici in painting the monastery of St. Mark and the church of St. Annunziata with frescoes. These pictures gained him so much celebrity that Pope Nicholas V invited him to Rome to ornament his private chapel in the Vatican, and offered him the archbishopric of Florence, which Angelico declined. He died at, Rome 1455. He has been called the 'painter of seraphic dreams'. His works were considered unrivalled in finish and in sweetness and harmony of colour, and were made the models for religious painters of his own and succeeding generations.