Chapter VI: Part 6

APELLES (a-pel'[=e]z), the most famous of the painters of ancient Greece and of antiquity, was born in the fourth century B.C., probably at Colophon. Ephorus of Ephesus was his first teacher, but attracted by the renown of the Sicyonian school he went and studied at Sicyon. In the time of Philip he went to Macedonia, and there a close friendship between him and Alexander the Great was established. The most admired of his pictures was that of Venus rising from the sea and wringing the water from her dripping locks. His portrait of Alexander with a thunderbolt in his hand was no less celebrated. He died about the end of the century. Among the anecdotes told of Apelles is the one which gave rise to the Latin proverb, 'Ne sutor ultra crepidam'--'Let not the shoemaker go beyond the shoe'. Having heard a cobbler point out an error in the drawing of a shoe in one of his pictures he corrected it, whereupon the cobbler took upon him to criticize the leg, and received from the artist the famous reply.

AP'ENNINES (Lat. _Mons Apenninus_), a prolongation of the Alps, forming the 'backbone of Italy'. Beginning at Savona, on the Gulf of Genoa, the Apennines traverse the whole of the peninsula and also cross over into Sicily, the Strait of Messina being regarded merely as a gap in the chain. The average height of the mountains composing the range is about 4000 feet, and nowhere do they reach the limits of perpetual snow, though some summits exceed 9000 feet in height. Monte Corno, called also Gran Sasso d'Italia (Great Rock of Italy), which rises among the mountains of the Abruzzi, is the loftiest of the chain, rising to the height of 9541 feet, Monte Majella (9151) being next. Monte Gargano, which juts out into the Adriatic from the _ankle_ of Italy, is a mountainous mass upwards of 5000 feet high, completely separated from the main chain. On the Adriatic side the mountains descend more abruptly to the sea than on the western or Mediterranean side, and the streams are comparatively short and rapid. On the western side are the valleys of the Arno, Tiber, Garigliano, and Volturno, the largest rivers that rise in the Apennines, and the only ones of importance in the peninsular portion of Italy. They consist almost entirely of limestone rocks, and are exceedingly rich in the finest marbles. On the south slopes volcanic masses are not uncommon. Mount Vesuvius, the only active volcano on the continent of Europe, is an instance. The lower slopes are well clothed with vegetation, the summits are sterile and bare.

APENRADE (ae'pen-rae-de), a seaport in Schleswig-Holstein, on a fiord of the Little Belt, beautifully situated, and carrying on a considerable fishing industry. Pop. 7800.

APE'RIENT, a medicine which, in moderate doses, gently but completely opens the bowels: examples, castor-oil, Epsom salts, senna, &c.

APET'ALOUS, a botanical term applied to flowers or flowering-plants which are destitute of petals or corolla.

APHANIP'TERA, an order of wingless insects, composed of the different species of fleas. See _Flea_.

APHA'SIA (Gr. _a_, not, and _phasis_, speaking), in pathology, a symptom of certain morbid conditions of the nervous system, in which the patient loses the power of expressing ideas by means of words, or loses the appropriate use of words, the vocal organs the while remaining intact and the intelligence sound. There is sometimes an entire loss of words as connected with ideas, and sometimes only the loss of a few. In one form of the disease, called _aphemia_, the patient can think and write, but cannot speak; in another, called _agraphia_, he can think and speak, but cannot express his ideas in writing. In a great majority of cases, where post-mortem examinations have been made, morbid changes have been found in the left frontal convolution of the brain.

APHE'LION (Gr. _apo_, from, and _h[=e]lios_, the sun), that point of the orbit of the earth or any other planet which is remotest from the sun.

APHE'MIA. See _Aphasia_.

APHIDES (af'i-d[=e]z). See _Aphis_.

Cabbage-leaf Plant-louse (_Aphis brassicae_)--1, 2. Male, natural size and magnified. 3, 4, Female, natural size and magnified.]

APHIS, a genus of insects (called plant-lice) of the ord. Hemiptera, the type of the family Aph[)i]d[=e]s. The species are very numerous and destructive. The _A. rosae_ lives on the rose; the _A. fabae_ on the bean; the _A. hum[)u]li_ is injurious to the hop, the _A. granaria_ to cereals, and _A. lanig[)e]ra_ or woolly aphis equally so to apple trees. The aphides are furnished with an inflected beak, and feelers longer than the thorax. In the same species some individuals have four erect wings and others are entirely without wings. The feet are of the ambulatory kind, and the abdomen usually ends in two horn-like tubes, from which is ejected the substance called honey-dew, a favourite food of ants. (See _Ant_.) The aphides illustrate parthenogenesis; hermaphrodite forms produced from eggs produce viviparous wingless forms, which again produce others like themselves, and thus multiply during summer, one individual giving rise to millions. Winged sexual forms appear late in autumn, the females of which, being impregnated by the males, produce eggs.

APHO'NIA (Gr. _a_, not, and _ph[=o]n[=e]_, voice), in pathology, the greater or less impairment, or the complete loss of the power of emitting vocal sound. The slighter and less permanent forms often arise from extreme nervousness, fright, and hysteria. Slight forms of structural aphonia are of a catarrhal nature, resulting from more or less congestion and tumefaction of the mucous and submucous tissues of the larynx and adjoining parts. Severer cases are frequently occasioned by serous infiltration into the submucous tissue, with or without inflammation of the mucous membrane of the larynx and of its vicinity. The voice may also be affected in different degrees by inflammatory affections of the fauces and tonsils; by tumours in these situations; by morbid growths pressing on or implicating the larynx or trachea; by aneurisms; and most frequently by chronic laryngitis and its consequences, especially thickening, ulceration, &c.

APH'ORISM, a brief, sententious saying, in which a comprehensive meaning is involved, as 'Familiarity breeds contempt'; 'Necessity has no law'.

APHRODITE (af-ro-di't[=e]), the goddess of love among the Greeks; counterpart of the Roman Venus. A festival called Aphrodisia was celebrated in her honour in various parts of Greece, but especially in Cyprus. See _Venus_.

APHTHAE (af'th[=e]), a disease occurring especially in infants, but occasionally seen in old persons, and consisting of small white ulcers upon the tongue, gums, inside of the lips, and palate, resembling particles of curdled milk: commonly called _thrush_ or _milk-thrush_.

A'PIA, the chief place and trading centre of the Samoa Islands, on the north side of the Island of Upolu. It has a wireless station.

A'PIARY (Lat. _apis_, a bee), a place for keeping bees. The apiary should be well sheltered from strong winds, moisture, and the extremes of heat and cold. The hives should face the south or south-east, and should be placed on shelves 2 feet above the ground, and about the same distance from each other. There is no place for handling bees like the open air in suitable weather, and for this reason bee-houses, or bee-sheds, formerly in use, are not much in vogue now. As to the form of the hives and the materials of which they should be constructed there are great differences of opinion. The old dome-shaped straw _skep_ is still in general use among the cottagers of Great Britain. Its cheapness and simplicity of construction are in its favour, while it is excellent for warmth and ventilation; but it has the disadvantage that its interior is closed to inspection, and the honey can only be got out by stupefying the bees with the smoke of the common puff-ball or chloroform, or by fumigating with sulphur, which entails the destruction of the swarm. Wooden hives of square box-like form are now gaining general favour among bee-keepers. They usually consist of a large breeding chamber below and two sliding removable boxes called 'supers' above for the abstraction of honey without disturbing the contents of the main chamber. It is of great importance that the apiary should be situated in the neighbourhood of good feeding grounds, such as gardens, clover-fields, or heath-covered hills. When their stores of honey are removed, the bees must be fed during the winter and part of spring with syrup or with a solution consisting of 2 lb. loaf-sugar to a pint of water. In the early spring slow and continuous feeding (a few ounces of syrup each day) will stimulate the queen to deposit her eggs, by which means the colony is rapidly strengthened and throws off early swarms. New swarms may make their appearance as early as May and as late as August, but swarming usually takes place in the intervening months. See _Bee-keeping_, _Hives_.

APIC'IUS, Marcus Gabius, a Roman epicure in the time of Augustus and Tiberius, who, having exhausted his vast fortune on the gratification of his palate, and having _only_ about L80,000 left, poisoned himself that he might escape the misery of plain diet. The book of cookery published under the title of _Apicius_ was written by one Caelius, and belongs to a much later date.

A'PION, a Greek grammarian, born in Egypt, lived in the reigns of Tiberius, Caligula, and Claudius, A.D. 15-54, and went to Rome to teach grammar and rhetoric. Among his works, one or two fragments only of which remain, was one directed against the Jews, which was replied to by Josephus.

A'PIOS, a genus of leguminous climbing plants, producing edible tubers on underground shoots. An American species (_A. tuber[=o]sa_) has been used as a substitute for the potato, but its tubers, though numerous, are small.

A'PIS, a bull to which divine honours were paid by the ancient Egyptians, who regarded him as a symbol of Osiris. At Memphis he had a splendid residence, containing extensive walks and courts for his entertainment, and he was waited upon by a large train of priests, who looked upon his every movement as oracular. He was not suffered to live beyond twenty-five years, being secretly killed by the priests and thrown into a sacred well. Another bull, characterized by certain marks, as a black colour, a triangle of white on the forehead, a white crescent-shaped spot on the right side, &c., was selected in his place. His birthday was annually celebrated, and his death was a season of public mourning. See _Animal Worship_.

A'PIS, a genus of insects. See _Bee_.

A'PIUM, a genus of umbelliferous plants, including celery.

APLACEN'TAL. See _Placenta_, _Marsupialia_, and _Echidna_.

APLANAT'IC. See _Optics_, _Photography_.

APLYSIA. See _Sea-hare_.

APOC'ALYPSE (Gr. _apokalypsis_, a revelation), the name given to the last book of the New Testament, in the English version called _The Revelation of St. John the Divine_. Although a Christian work, the _Apocalypse_ belongs to a class of literature dealing with eschatological subjects and much in vogue among the Jews of the first century B.C. It is generally believed that the _Apocalypse_ was written by the apostle John in his old age (A.D. 95-97) in the Isle of Patmos, whither he had been banished by the Roman Emperor Domitian. Anciently its genuineness was maintained by Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian, and many others; while it was doubted by Dionysius of Alexandria, Cyril of Jerusalem, Chrysostom, and, nearer our own times, by Luther. The _Apocalypse_ has been explained differently by almost every writer who has ventured to interpret it, and has furnished all sorts of sects and fanatics with quotations to support their creeds or pretensions. The modern interpreters may be divided into three schools--namely, the _historical school_, who hold that the prophecy embraces the whole history of the Church and its foes from the time of its writing to the end of the world; the _Praeterists_, who hold that the whole or nearly the whole of the prophecy has been already fulfilled, and that it refers chiefly to the triumph of Christianity over Paganism and Judaism; and the _Futurists_, who throw the whole prophecy, except the first three chapters, forward upon a time not yet reached by the Church--a period of no very long duration, which is immediately to precede Christ's second coming. See _Bible_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: R. H. Charles, _Studies in the Apocalypse_; F. C. Burkitt, _Jewish and Christian Apocalypses_.

APOCALYPTIC NUMBER, the mystic number 666 found in _Rev._ xiii, 18. As early as the second century ecclesiastical writers found that the name Antichrist was indicated by the Greek characters expressive of this number. By Irenaeus the word _Lateinos_ was found in the letters of the number, and the Roman Empire was therefore considered to be Antichrist. Protestants generally believe it has reference to the Papacy, and, on the other hand, Catholics connect it with Protestantism. It is, however, almost certain that the number refers to Nero, for by transliterating the Greek _Kaisar Neron_ into Hebrew, and adding together the sums denoted by the Hebrew letters, we obtain the number 666.

APOCAR'POUS, in botany, a term applied to such fruits as are the produce of a single flower, and are formed of one carpel, or a number of carpels free and separate from each other.

APOC'RYPHA (Gr., 'things concealed or spurious'), a term applied in the earliest churches to various sacred or professedly inspired writings, sometimes given to those whose authors were unknown, sometimes to those with a hidden meaning, and sometimes to those considered objectionable. The term is specially applied to the fourteen undermentioned books, which were written during the two centuries preceding the birth of Christ. They were written, not in Hebrew, but in Greek, and the Jews never allowed them a place in their sacred canon. They were incorporated into the Septuagint, and thence passed to the Vulgate. The Greek Church excluded them from the canon in 360 at the Council of Laodicea. The Latin Church treated them with more favour, but it was not until 1546 that they were formally admitted into the canon of the Church of Rome by a decree of the Council of Trent. The Anglican Church says they may be read for example of life and instruction of manners, but that the Church does not apply them to establish any doctrine. All other Protestant churches in Britain and America ignore them. The following fourteen books form the Apocrypha of the English Bible: The first and second _Books of Esdras_, _Tobit_, _Judith_, the rest of the _Book of Esther_, the _Wisdom of Solomon_, the _Wisdom of Jesus the son of Sirach_, or _Ecclesiasticus_, _Baruch the Prophet_, the _Song of the Three Children_, _Susanna and the Elders_, _Bel and the Dragon_, the _Prayer of Manasses_, and the first and second _Books of Maccabees_. Besides the Apocryphal books of the Old Testament there are many spurious books composed in the earlier ages of Christianity, and published under the names of Christ and his apostles, or of such immediate followers as from their character or means of intimate knowledge might give an apparent plausibility to such forgeries. These writings comprise: 1st, the _Apocryphal Gospels_, which treat of the history of Joseph and the Virgin before the birth of Christ, of the infancy of Jesus, and of the acts of Pilate; 2nd, the _Apocryphal Acts of the Apostles_; and 3rd, the _Apocryphal Apocalypses_, none of which have obtained canonical recognition by any of the churches.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Wace, _The Apocrypha_; Porter, in Hastings' _Bible Dict._, i, pp. 111-23; W. D. F. Oesterley, _Book of the Apocrypha_; R. H. Charles, _Religious Development between the Old and the New Testaments_.

APOCYNA'CEAE, a nat. ord. of dicotyledonous plants, having for its type the genus Apoc[)y]num or dog-bane. The species have opposite or sometimes whorled leaves without stipules; the corolla monopetalous, hypogynous, and with the stamens inserted upon it; fruit two-celled. The plants yield a milky juice, which is generally poisonous; several yield caoutchouc, and a few edible fruits. The bark of several species is a powerful febrifuge. To the order belongs the periwinkle (Vinca). See _Cow-tree_, _Periwinkle_, _Oleander_, _Tanghin_.

AP'ODA. See _Proteolepadidae_.

AP'ODAL FISHES, the name applied to such malacopterous fishes as want ventral fins. They constitute a small natural family, of which the common eel is an example.

APO'DOESIS, in grammar, the latter member of a conditional sentence (or one beginning with _if_, _though_, &c.) dependent on the condition or _prot[)a]sis_; as, if it rain (_protasis_) I shall not go (_apodosis_).

AP'OGEE (-j[=e]; Gr. _apo_, from, and _g[=e]_, the earth), that point in the orbit of the moon or a planet where it is at its greatest distance from the earth; also the greatest distance of the sun from the earth when the latter is in _aphelion_.

APOL'DA, a town of Germany, in Saxe-Weimar, at which woollen goods are extensively manufactured. Pop. 22,610.

APOLLINA'RIANS, a sect of Christians who maintained the doctrine that Christ had a human body and a human sensitive soul, but no human rational mind, the Divine Logos (the Word) taking the place of the mind, and that God was consequently united in him with the human body and the sensitive soul. Apollinaris, the author of this opinion, was, from A.D. 362 till at least A.D. 382, Bishop of Laodicea, in Syria, and a zealous opposer of the Arians. As a man and a scholar he was highly esteemed, and was among the most popular authors of his time. He formed a congregation of his adherents at Antioch, and made Vitalis their bishop. The _Apollinarians_, or _Vitalians_, as their followers were called, soon spread their settlements in Syria and the neighbouring countries, established several societies, with their own bishops, and one even in Constantinople; but many adherents drifted away to Monophysitism, and the sect soon became extinct.

APOLLINA'RIS WATER, a natural aerated water, belonging to the class of acidulated soda waters, and derived from the Apollinarisbrunnen, a spring in the valley of the Ahr, near the Rhine, in Rhenish Prussia, forming a highly-esteemed beverage.

APOL'LO, son of Zeus (Jupiter) and Leto (Latona), who, being persecuted by the jealousy of Hera (Juno), after tedious wanderings and nine days' labour, was delivered of him and his twin sister, Art[)e]mis (Diana), on the Island of Delos. Skilled in the use of the bow, he slew the serpent Python on the fifth day after his birth; afterwards, with his sister Art[)e]mis, he killed the children of Niob[=e]. He aided Zeus in the war with the Titans and the giants. He destroyed the Cyclopes, because they forged the thunderbolts with which Zeus killed his son and favourite Asklepios (Aesculapius). According to some traditions he invented the lyre, though this is generally ascribed to Hermes (Mercury). The brightest creation of polytheism, Apollo is also the most complex, and many aspects of the people's life were reflected in his cult. He was originally the sun-god; and though in Homer he appears distinct from Helios (the sun), yet his real nature is hinted at even here by the epithet Phoebus, that is, the radiant or beaming. In later times the view was almost universal that Apollo and Helios were identical. From being the god of light and purity in a physical sense, he gradually became the god of moral and spiritual light and purity, the source of all intellectual, social, and political progress. He thus came to be regarded as the god of song and prophecy, the god that wards off and heals bodily suffering and disease, the institutor and guardian of civil and political order, and the founder of cities. His worship was introduced at Rome at an early period, probably in the time of the Tarquins. Among the ancient statues of Apollo that have come down to us, the most remarkable is the one called _Apollo Belvedere_, from the Belvedere Gallery in the Vatican at Rome. This statue was discovered at Frascati in 1455, and purchased by Pope Julian II, the founder of the Vatican museum. It is a copy of a Greek statue of the third century B.C., and dates probably from the reign of Nero.

APOLLODO'RUS, a Greek writer who flourished 140 B.C. Among the numerous works he wrote on various subjects, the only one extant is his _Bibliothec[=e]_, which contains a concise account of the mythology of Greece down to the heroic age.

APOLLO'NIUS OF PERGA, Greek mathematician, called the 'great geometer', flourished about 240 B.C., and was the author of many works, only one of which, a treatise on _Conic Sections_, partly in Greek and partly in an Arabic translation, is now extant.

APOLLO'NIUS OF RHODES, a Greek rhetorician and poet, flourished about 230 B.C. Of his various works we have only the _Argonautica_, an epic poem of considerable merit, though perhaps written with too much care and labour. It deals with the story of the Argonautic expedition.

APOLLO'NIUS OF TY'ANA, in Cappadocia, a Pythagorean philosopher who was born in the beginning of the Christian era, early adopted the Pythagorean doctrines, abstaining from animal food and maintaining a rigid silence for five years. He travelled extensively in Asia, professed to be endowed with miraculous powers, such as prophecy and the raising of the dead, and was on this account set up by some as a rival to Christ. His ascetic life, wise discourses, and wonderful deeds obtained for him almost universal reverence, and temples, altars, and statues were erected to him. He died at Ephesus about the end of the first century. A narrative of his strange career, containing many fables, with, perhaps, a kernel of truth, was written by Philostratus about a century later.

APOLLO'NIUS OF TYRE, the hero of a tale which had an immense popularity in the Middle Ages and which indirectly furnished the plot of Shakespeare's _Pericles, Prince of Tyre_. The story, originally in Greek, first appeared in the third century after Christ.

APOLL'OS, a Jew of Alexandria, who learned the doctrines of Christianity at Ephesus from Aquila and Priscilla, became a preacher of the gospel in Achaia and Corinth, and an assistant of Paul in his missionary work. Some have regarded him as the author of the _Epistle to the Hebrews_.

APOLL'YON ('the Destroyer'), a name used in _Rev._ ix, 11 for the angel of the bottomless pit.

APOLOGETICS (-jet'iks), this term, as used in Christian theology, does not carry with it the idea of excuse or regretful acknowledgment, but signifies a defensive or vindicatory statement, which accords with its meaning in the original Greek. In the conventional division of systematic theology apologetics comes first in order, and is followed by the disciplines of dogmatics and ethics, which expound Christian belief and Christian duty respectively. There is a tendency, however, in the more recent treatment of systematic theology, to include the defence or vindication of the various Christian doctrines within the dogmatic scheme, leaving to apologetics--in so far as it may be regarded as a separate discipline from dogmatics--the discussion of such general themes as religion and revelation, authority and inspiration, and the essence and truth of Christianity. Such discussions belong essentially to what is now often called philosophy of religion. The preference of the term philosophy of religion to that of apologetics is indicative at once of the wider theological outlook of our time and of the conciliatory, adaptable, and more sympathetic spirit in which the Christian apologist approaches the new thought and culture.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. B. Bruce, _Apologetics_; R. Mackintosh, _First Primer of Apologetics_; J. R. Illingworth, _Reason and Revelation_; A. E. Garvie, _A Handbook of Christian Apologetics_.

APOLOGUE (ap'o-log), a story or relation of fictitious events intended to convey some useful truths. It differs from a parable in that the latter is drawn from events that take place among mankind, whereas the apologue may be founded on supposed actions of brutes or inanimate things. Aesop's fables are good examples of apologues.

APOL'OGY, a term at one time applied to a defence of one who is accused, or of certain doctrines called in question. Of this nature is the _Apology of Socrates_ written by Plato; also a work with the same title sometimes attributed to Xenophon. The name passed over to Christian authors, who gave the name of apologies to the writings which were designed to defend Christianity against the attacks and accusations of its enemies, particularly the pagan philosophers, and to justify its professors before the emperors. Of this sort were those by Justin Martyr, Athenagoras, Tertullian, Tatian, and others.

APONEURO'SIS, in anatomy, a name of certain greyish-white shining membranes, composed of interlacing fibres, sometimes continuous with the muscular fibre, and differing from tendons merely in having a flat form. They serve several purposes, sometimes attaching the muscles to the bones, sometimes surrounding the muscle and preventing its displacement, &c. See _Anatomy_.

APOPHTHEGM (ap'o-them), a short pithy sentence or maxim. Julius Caesar wrote a collection of them, and we have a collection by Francis Bacon.

APOPH'YLLITE, a species of mineral of a foliated structure and pearly lustre, called also fish-eye stone. It belongs to the Zeolite family, and is a hydrated silicate of lime and potash, containing also fluorine.

AP'OPLEXY, sudden abolition of consciousness, followed after recovery of consciousness by persistent disturbance of sensation or voluntary motion, from suspension of the functions of the cerebrum, resulting from blocking or rupture of the blood-vessels of the brain. In a complete apoplexy the person falls suddenly, is unable to move his limbs or to speak, gives no proof of seeing, hearing, or feeling, and the breathing is stertorous or snoring, like that of a person in deep sleep. The premonitory symptoms of this dangerous disease are drowsiness, giddiness, dulness of hearing, frequent yawning, disordered vision, noise in the ears, vertigo, &c. It is most frequent between the ages of fifty and seventy. A large head, short neck, full chest, sanguine and plethoric constitution, and corpulency are generally considered signs of predisposition to it; but the state of the heart's action, with a plethoric condition of the vascular system, has a more marked influence. Out of sixty-three cases carefully investigated only ten were fat and plethoric, twenty-three being thin, and the rest of ordinary habit. The common predisposing causes are disease or senile changes in the blood-vessels and affections of the valves of the heart; but other factors may possibly play some part either as exciting or predisposing causes, such as long and intense thought, continued anxiety, habitual indulgence of the temper and passions, sedentary and luxurious living, sexual indulgence, intoxication, &c. More or less complete recovery from a first and second attack is common, but a third is almost invariably fatal.--Cf. Grasset, _Traite du systeme nerveux_.

APOSIOPE'SIS, in rhetoric, a sudden break or stop in speaking or writing, usually for mere effect or a pretence of unwillingness to say anything on a subject; as, 'his character is such--but it is better I should not speak of _that_', or Virgil's "Quos ego--sed motos praestat componere fluctus" (_Aen._ I, 135).

APOS'TASY (Gr. _apostasis_, a standing away from), a renunciation of opinions or practices and the adoption of contrary ones, usually applied to renunciation of religious opinions. It is always an expression of reproach. What one party calls _apostasy_ is termed by the other _conversion_. Catholics, also, call those persons _apostates_ who forsake a religious order or renounce their religious vows without a lawful dispensation.

A POSTERIO'RI. See _A priori_.

APOS'TLES (literally, persons sent out, from the Gr. _apostellein_, to send out), the twelve men whom Jesus selected to attend him during his ministry, and to promulgate his religion. Their names were as follows: Simon Peter, and Andrew his brother; James, and John his brother, sons of Zebedee; Philip; Bartholomew; Thomas; Matthew; James, the son of Alpheus; Lebbaeus his brother, called _Judas_ or _Jude_; Simon, the Canaanite; and Judas Iscariot. To these were subsequently added Matthias (chosen by lot in place of Judas Iscariot) and Paul. The Bible gives the name of apostle to Barnabas also, who accompanied Paul on his missions (_Acts_, xiv, 14). In a wider sense those preachers who first taught Christianity in heathen countries are sometimes termed apostles; for example, St. Denis, the apostle of the Gauls; St. Boniface, the apostle of Germany; St. Augustine, the apostle of England; Francis Xavier, the apostle of the Indies; Adalbert of Prague, apostle of Prussia Proper. During the life of the Saviour the apostles more than once showed a misunderstanding of the object of His mission, and during His sufferings evinced little courage and firmness of friendship for their great and benevolent Teacher. After His death they received the Holy Ghost on the day of Pentecost, that they might be enabled to fulfil the important duties for which they had been chosen. According to one interpretation of _Matthew_, xvi, 18, Christ seems to appoint St. Peter the first of the apostles; and the Pope claims supreme authority from the power which Christ thus gave to St. Peter, of whom all the Popes, according to the Catholic dogma, are successors in an uninterrupted line.

APOSTLES' CREED, a well-known formula or declaration of Christian belief, formerly believed to be the work of the apostles themselves, but it can only be traced to the fourth century. See _Creed_.

APOSTOL'IC, or APOSTOL'ICAL, pertaining or relating to the apostles.--_Apostolic Church_, the Church in the time of the apostles, constituted according to their design. The name is also given to the four churches of Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem, and is claimed by the Roman Catholic Church, and occasionally by the Episcopalians.--_Apostolic Constitutions_ and _Canons_, a collection of regulations attributed to the apostles, but generally supposed to be spurious. They appeared in the fourth century, are divided into eight books, and consist of rules and precepts relating to the duty of Christians, and particularly to the ceremonies and discipline of the Church.--_Apostolic fathers_, the Christian writers who during any part of their lives were contemporary with the apostles. There are five--Clement, Barnabas, Hermas, Ignatius, Polycarp.--_Apostolic king_, a title granted by the Pope to the kings of Hungary, first conferred on St. Stephen, the founder of the royal line of Hungary, on account of what he accomplished in the spread of Christianity.--_Apostolic see_, the see of the Popes or Bishops of Rome: so called because the Popes profess themselves the successors of St. Peter, its founder.--_Apostolic succession_, the uninterrupted succession of bishops, and, through them, of priests and deacons (these three orders of ministers being called the _apostolical orders_), in the Church by regular ordination from the first apostles down to the present day. All Episcopal churches hold theoretically, and the Roman Catholic Church and many members of the English Church strictly, that such succession is essential to the officiating priest, in order that grace may be communicated through his administrations.

APOSTOL'ICS, APOSTOLICI, or APOSTOLIC BRETHREN, the name given to certain sects who professed to imitate the manners and practice of the apostles. The last and most important of these sects was founded about 1260 by Gerhard Segarelli of Parma. They went barefooted, begging, preaching, and singing throughout Italy, Switzerland, and France; announced the coming of the kingdom of heaven and of purer times; denounced the papacy, and its corrupt and worldly church; and inculcated the complete renunciation of all worldly ties, of property, settled abode, marriage, &c. This society was formally abolished, 1286, by Honorius IV. In 1300 Segarelli was burned as a heretic, but another chief apostle appeared--Dolcino, a learned man of Milan. In self-defence they stationed themselves in fortified places whence they might resist attacks. After having devastated a large tract of country belonging to Milan they were subdued, A.D. 1307, by the troops of Bishop Raynerius, in their fortress Zebello, in Vercelli, and almost all destroyed. Dolcino was burned. The survivors afterwards appeared in Lombardy and in the south of France as late as 1368.

APO'STR[)O]PH[=E] (Gr., 'a turning away from'), a rhetorical figure by which the orator changes the course of his speech, and makes a short impassioned address to one absent as if he were present, or to things without life and sense as if they had life and sense. The same term is also applied to a comma when used to contract a word, or to mark the possessive case, as in 'John's book'.

APOTHECARIES' WEIGHT, the weight used in dispensing drugs, in which the pound (lb.) is divided into 12 ounces ([ounce]), the ounce into 8 drachms ([drachm]), the drachm into 3 scruples ([scruple]), and the scruple into 20 grains (grs.), the grain being equivalent to that in avoirdupois weight.

APOTH'ECARY, in a general sense, one who keeps a shop or laboratory for preparing, compounding, and vending medicines, and for the making up of medical prescriptions. In England the term was long applied (as to some little extent still) to a regularly licensed class of medical practitioners, being such persons as were members of, or licensed by, the _Apothecaries' Company_ in London. The apothecaries of London were at one time ranked with the grocers, with whom they were incorporated by James I in 1606. In 1617, however, the apothecaries received a new charter as a distinct company. They were not yet regarded as having the right to prescribe, but only to dispense, medicines; but in 1703 the House of Lords conferred that right on them, and they afterwards became a well-established branch of the medical profession. In 1815 an Act was passed providing that no person should practise as an apothecary in any part of England or Wales unless after serving an apprenticeship of five years with a member of the society, and receiving a certificate from the society's examiners. As in country places every practitioner must be to some extent an apothecary, this Act gave the society an undue influence over the medical profession. Dissatisfaction therefore long prevailed, but nothing of importance was done till the Medical Act of 1858, which brought the desired reform. The Apothecaries' Society, governed by a master, two wardens, and twenty-two assistants, has prescribed a course of medical instruction and practice which candidates for the licence of the society must pass through. Since 1874 apprenticeship has not been necessary.

APOTHE'CIUM, in botany, the receptacle of lichens, consisting of the spore-cases or asci, and of the paraphyses or barren threads.

APOTHEO'SIS (deification), a solemnity among the ancients by which a mortal was raised to the rank of the gods. The custom of placing mortals, who had rendered their countrymen important services, among the gods was very ancient among the Greeks. The Romans, for several centuries, deified none but Romulus, and first imitated the Greeks in the fashion of frequent apotheosis after the time of Caesar. From this period apotheosis was regulated by the decrees of the senate, and accompanied with great solemnities. Almost all the Roman emperors were deified.

APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS (ap-pa-l[=a]'chi-an), also called ALLEGHANIES, a vast mountain range in N. America extending for 1300 miles from Cape Gaspe on the Gulf of St. Lawrence, s.w. to Alabama. The system has been divided into three great sections: the _northern_ (including the Adirondacks, the Green Mountains, the White Mountains, &c.), from Cape Gaspe to New York; the _central_ (including a large portion of the Blue Ridge, the Alleghanies proper, and numerous lesser ranges), from New York to the valley of the New River; and the _southern_ (including the continuation of the Blue Ridge, the Black Mountains, the Smoky Mountains, &c.), from the New River southwards. The chain consists of several ranges generally parallel to each other, the altitude of the individual mountains increasing on approaching the south. The highest peaks rise over 6600 feet (not one at all approaching the snow-level), but the mean height is about 2500 feet. Lake Champlain is the only lake of great importance in the system, but numerous rivers of considerable size take their rise here. Magnetite, hematite, and other iron ores occur in great abundance, and the coal-measures are among the most extensive in the world. Gold, silver, lead, and copper are also found in small quantities, while marble, limestone, fire-clay, gypsum, and salt abound. The forests covering many of the ranges yield large quantities of valuable timber, such as sugar-maple, white birch, beech, ash, oak, cherry tree, white poplar, white and yellow pine, &c., while they form the haunts of large numbers of bears, panthers, wild cats, and wolves.

APPALACHICOLA (-chi-c[=o]'la), a river of the United States, formed by the Chattahoochee and Flint Rivers, which unite near the northern border of Florida; length, about 100 miles; it flows into the Gulf of Mexico, and is navigable.

APPAM, the name of a British merchant ship of the Elder-Dempster line captured by the German raiding cruiser _Moewe_ (Sea-gull) on 16th Jan., 1916. A German prize crew succeeded in bringing the _Appam_ westward, and was able to pass the British cordon off Chesapeake Bay and to reach Norfolk, Virginia. The vessel was carrying, among others, an ex-governor of Sierra Leone and some military officers from the west coast of Africa, but the passengers were at once released and allowed to return to England.

APPANAGE. See _Apanage_.

APPA'RENT, among mathematicians and astronomers, applied to things as they appear to the eye, in distinction to what they really are. Thus they speak of apparent motion, magnitude, distance, height, &c. The _apparent magnitude_ of a heavenly body is the angle subtended at the spectator's eye by the diameter of that body, and this, of course, depends on the distance as well as the real magnitude of the body; _apparent motion_ is the motion a body seems to have in consequence of our own motion, as the motion of the sun from east to west, &c.

APPARI'TION, according to a belief held by some, a disembodied spirit manifesting itself to mortal sight; according to the common theory an illusion involuntarily generated, by means of which figures or forms, not present to the actual sense, are nevertheless depicted with a vividness and intensity sufficient to create a temporary belief in their reality. Such illusions are now generally held to result from an over-excited brain, a strong imagination, or some bodily malady. In perfect health the mind not only possesses a control over its powers, but the impressions of the external objects alone occupy its attention, and the play of imagination is consequently checked, except in sleep, when its operations are relatively more feeble and faint. But in an unhealthy state of the mind, when its attention is partly withdrawn from the contemplation of external objects, the impressions of its own creation, or rather reproduction, will either overpower or combine themselves with the impressions of external objects, and thus generate illusions which in the one case appear alone, while in the other they are seen projected among those external objects to which the eyeball is directed. This theory explains satisfactorily a large majority of the stories of apparitions; still there are some which it seems insufficient to account for.--See _Crystal Gazing_, _Hypnotism_, _Spiritualism_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. Podmore, _Modern Spiritualism_; F. W. H. Myers, _Human Personality, and its survival of bodily Death_.

APPEAL', in legal phraseology, the removal of a cause from an inferior tribunal to a superior, in order that the latter may revise, and if it seem needful reverse or amend, the decision of the former. The supreme court of appeal for Great Britain is the House of Lords. Certain defects in connection with the settlement of appeals by this body were remedied by the Appellate Jurisdiction Act, 1876, while a new court of appeal was established as a division of the Supreme Court of Judicature. In Ireland there is also a Court of Appeal similar to that in England; while in Scotland the highest court is the Court of Session. From the decisions of the Indian and all colonial courts, and the courts of the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands, appeal may be made to the Privy Council. Appeals from the decisions of justices of a borough or county may be made to the quarter-sessions of either respectively, in cases of summary jurisdiction, or upon a point of law to divisional courts of the High Court of Justice, which was established at the same time as the Court of Appeal; from quarter-sessions, county and other inferior courts, to the High Court. In Scotland the Court of Session reviews the decisions of the county courts, there being an appeal from its decisions to the House of Lords.--In France the court of final appeal in all cases is the _cour de cassation_.--In the United States the system of appeals differs in different States.

APPEARANCE IN LAW is the first formal act incumbent on a defendant who intends to resist the claim in the writ or action served upon him. It consists usually in lodging in court a written notice stating simply that the defendant intends to dispute the claim. Failure to enter appearance within the prescribed time entails decree passing against the defendant in absence, but procedure exists in all courts for enabling such decrees to be recalled within a limited period. Appearance should be entered under protest if it is desired to dispute the jurisdiction of the court or the regularity of the writ.

APPENDICITIS, a disease which has become well known in recent times through the more accurate methods of diagnosis and the increased safety of surgical operation. It is caused by inflammation of the vermiform appendix, a narrow, hollow, worm-like body from 2 to 4 inches long, opening at one end into the large intestine and forming a cul-de-sac at the other. In appendicitis the inflammation begins in the appendix and frequently spreads to the neighbouring parts, causing inflammation of the caecum, a condition known as perityphlitis. The most frequent cause of appendicitis is a hard piece of insufficiently-digested food becoming lodged in the appendix. Occasionally orange pips, grape stones, &c., are the cause, though not so often as is popularly supposed.

The symptoms are: abdominal pain (especially low down at the right side), fever, nausea, vomiting, constipation; these varying according to the intensity of the attack. Three types are recognized:

1. A mild type, when the symptoms subside in a few days and the patient soon _appears_ to be in normal health.

2. A severe type, in which, if left alone, the appendix bursts into the abdominal cavity and death from general peritonitis results.

3. Another type, in which the inflammation in the appendix leads to the formation of a localized abscess, sometimes of great size.

The treatment for the severe and for the abscess-forming types is essentially immediate operation; while for the mild type operation may either be performed at once or after the attack has passed off. Anyone who has had one attack of appendicitis is liable to have it repeated in a much severer form, hence the advisability of having the appendix removed after the first attack, however slight. During an attack, prior to surgical interference, complete rest in bed is essential. Abdominal pain should be treated with frequent hot fomentations, and the diet should be reduced to small quantities of fluid.

APPENZELL ([.a]p'pen-tsel), a Swiss canton, wholly enclosed by the canton of St. Gall; area, 162 sq. miles. It is divided into two independent portions or half-cantons, Outer-Rhoden, which is Protestant, and Inner-Rhoden, which is Catholic. It is an elevated district, traversed by branches of the Alps; Mount Saentis in the centre being 8250 feet high. It is watered by the Sitter and by several smaller affluents of the Rhine. Glaciers occupy the higher valleys. Flax, hemp, grain, fruit, &c., are produced, but the wealth of Inner-Rhoden lies in its herds and flocks--that of Outer-Rhoden in its manufactures of embroidered muslins, gauzes, cambrics, and other cotton stuffs; also of silk goods and paper. The town of Appenzell (Ger. _Abtenzelle_, abbot's cell) is the capital of Inner-Rhoden, on the Sitter, with about 4300 inhabitants. Trogen is the capital of Outer-Rhoden, Herisau the largest town (pop. 11,000). Pop. Outer-Rhoden, 60,000; Inner-Rhoden, 15,000.

APPERCEPTION. See _Metaphysics_.

AP'PETITE, in its widest sense, means the natural desire for gratification, either of the body or the mind; but is generally applied to the recurrent and intermittent desire for food. A healthy appetite is favoured by work, exercise, plain living, and cheerfulness; absence of this feeling, or defective appetite (_anorexia_), indicates diseased action of the stomach, or of the nervous system or circulation, or it may result from vicious habits. Depraved appetite (_pica_), or a desire for unnatural food, as chalk, ashes, dirt, soap, &c., depends often in the case of children on vicious tastes or habits; in grown-up persons it may be symptomatic of dyspepsia, pregnancy or chlorosis. Insatiable or canine appetite or voracity (_bulimia_) when it occurs in childhood is generally symptomatic of worms; in adults common causes are pregnancy, vicious habits, and indigestion caused by stomach complaints or gluttony, when the gnawing pains of disease are mistaken for hunger.

AP'PIAN, a Roman historian of the second century after Christ, a native of Alexandria, was governor and manager of the imperial revenues under Hadrian, Trajan, and Antoninus Pius, in Rome. He compiled in Greek a Roman history, from the earliest times to those of Augustus, in twenty-four books, of which only eleven have come down to us. Appian's style is not attractive, but he gives us much valuable information.

APPIA'NI, Andrea, a painter, born at Milan in 1754, died in 1817. As a fresco-painter he excelled every contemporary painter in Italy. He displayed his skill particularly in the cupola of Santa Maria di S. Celso at Milan, and in the paintings representing the legend of Cupid and Psyche prepared for the walls and ceiling of the villa of the Archduke Ferdinand at Monza (1795). Napoleon appointed him royal court painter, and portraits of almost the whole of the imperial family were painted by him.

APPIAN WAY, called _Regina Viarum_, the Queen of Roads: the oldest and most renowned Roman road, was constructed during the censorship of Appius Claudius Caecus (313-310 B.C.). It was built with large square stones on a raised platform, and was made direct from the gates of Rome to Capua, in Campania. It was afterwards extended through Samnium and Apulia to Brundusium, the modern Brindisi. It was partially restored by Pius VI, and between 1850 and 1853 it was excavated by order of Pius IX as far as the eleventh milestone from Rome.

APPIUS CLAUDIUS, surnamed _Caecus_, or the blind, a Roman patrician, elected censor 312 B.C., which office he held four years. While in this position he made every effort to weaken the power of the Plebs, and constructed the road and aqueduct named after him. He was subsequently twice consul, and once dictator. In his old age he became blind, but in 280 B.C. he made a famous speech in which he induced the senate to reject the terms of peace fixed by Pyrrhus. He is the earliest Roman writer of prose and verse whose name we know.

APPIUS CLAUDIUS CRASSUS, one of the Roman _decemvirs_, appointed 451 B.C. to draw up a new code of laws. He and his colleagues plotted to retain their power permanently, and at the expiry of their year of office refused to give up their authority. The people were incensed against them, and the following circumstances led to their overthrow. Appius Claudius had conceived an evil passion for Virginia, the daughter of Lucius Virginius, then absent with the army in the war with the Aequi and Sabines. At the instigation of Appius, Marcus Claudius, one of his clients, claimed Virginia as the daughter of one of his own female slaves, and the _decemvir_, acting as judge, decided that in the meantime she should remain in the custody of the claimant. Virginius, hastily summoned from the army, appeared with his daughter next day in the forum, and appealed to the people; but Appius Claudius again adjudged her to Marcus Claudius. Unable to rescue his daughter, the unhappy father stabbed her to the heart. The _decemvirs_ were deposed by the indignant people 449 B.C., and Appius Claudius died in prison or was strangled.

APPLE (_Pyrus Malus_), the fruit of a well-known tree of the nat. ord. Rosaceae, or the tree itself. The apple belongs to the temperate regions of the globe, over which it is almost universally spread and cultivated. The tree attains a moderate height, with spreading branches; the leaf is ovate; and the flowers are produced from the wood of the former year; but more generally from very short shoots or spurs from wood of two years' growth. The original of all the varieties of the cultivated apple is the wild crab, which has a small and extremely sour fruit, and is a native of most of the countries of Europe. Apples have been used as food and cultivated for upwards of 4000 years, and were probably introduced into Britain by the Romans. The greater number of the varieties now grown have, however, been cultivated only within the last century or so. To the facility of multiplying varieties by grafting is to be ascribed the amazing extension of the sorts of apples, the number of varieties known being over 2000. Many of the more marked varieties are known by general names, as pippins, codlins, rennets, &c. The oldest apple in cultivation is a variety called 'the lady', which originated in Britain early in the seventeenth century. Apples for the table are characterized by a firm juicy pulp, a sweetish acid flavour, regular form, and beautiful colouring; those for cooking by the property of forming by the aid of heat into a pulpy mass of equal consistency, as also by their large size and keeping properties; apples for cider must have a considerable degree of astringency, with richness of juice. The propagation of apple trees is accomplished by seeds, cuttings, suckers, layers, budding, or grafting, the last being almost the universal practice. The tree thrives best in an open situation where it will receive the maximum amount of sunshine and protection from cold winds. The protection is particularly necessary in districts where cold winds and frosts prevail during the flowering season. The wood of the apple tree or the common crab is hard, close-grained, and often richly coloured, and is suitable for turning and cabinet work. The fermented juice (_verjuice_) of the crab is employed in cookery and medicine. Apples are largely imported into Great Britain from the Continent and the United States and Canada. The designation apple, with various modifying words, is applied to a number of fruits having nothing in common with the apple proper, as alligator-apple, love-apple, &c.--Cf. A. E. Wilkinson, _The Apple_.

AP'PLEBY, county town of Westmorland, England, on the Eden, 28 miles S.S.E. of Carlisle. Disfranchised in 1832, it gave its name to a parliamentary division of the county until 1918. It has an old castle, the keep of which, called Caesar's Tower, is still fairly well preserved. Pop. (1921), 1786.

APPLE OF DISCORD, according to the story in Greek mythology, the golden apple thrown into an assembly of the gods by the goddess of discord (Eris) bearing the inscription 'for the fairest'. Aphrod[=i]t[=e] (Venus), Hera (Juno), and Ath[=e]n[=e] (Minerva) became competitors for it, and its adjudication to the first by Paris so inflamed the jealousy and hatred of Hera to all of the Trojan race (to which Paris belonged) that she did not cease her machinations till Troy was destroyed.

APPLE OF SODOM, a fruit described by old writers as externally of fair appearance, but turning to ashes when plucked; probably the fruit of _Sol[=a]num sodom[=e]um_.

AP'PLETON, a city of Wisconsin, United States, 100 miles N.W. of Milwaukee by rail. It has many flour, paper, saw, and woollen mills, and other manufactories, and is the seat of a collegiate institute and of the Lawrence University. Pop. (1920), 19,561.

APPLIQUE, in needlework or metal-work, a design or feature having the appearance of being independently made and attached to the surface of the object it adorns. When the ornament is sunk into the body of the object it is called _inlay_.

APPOGGIATURA ([.a]p-poj-[.a]-toe'r[.a]), in music, a small additional note of embellishment preceding the note to which it is attached, and taking away from the principal note a portion of its time.

APPOINT'MENT, a term in English law signifying the exercise of some power, reserved in a conveyance or settlement, of burdening, selling, or otherwise disposing of the lands or property conveyed. Such a reserved power is termed a _power of appointment_.

APPOMATT'OX COURT-HOUSE, a village in Virginia, United States, 20 miles E. of Lynchburg. Here, on 9th April, 1865, General Lee surrendered to General Grant, and thus virtually concluded the American Civil War.

APPONYI, Albert, Count, Hungarian statesman, born in 1846. Leader of the Conservative National party, he joined the Liberal party in 1899, and in 1901 was elected President of the Chamber of Deputies. He was Minister of Education in 1906 and 1917, and again in 1918. In 1920 he was at the head of the delegation which came to Paris to settle the peace-terms with Hungary.

APPOSI'TION, in grammar, the relation in which one or more nouns or substantive phrases or clauses stand to a noun or pronoun, which they explain or characterize without being predicated of it, and with which they agree in case; as Cicero, the _orator_, lived in the first century before Christ; the opinion, _that a severe winter is generally followed by a good summer_, is a vulgar error.

APPRAI'SER, a person employed to value property, and duly licensed to do so by licence taken out every year. The valuation must be duly set down in writing, and there is a certain fixed scale of charges for the appraiser's services.

APPREHEN'SION, the seizing of a person as a criminal whether taken in the act or on suspicion, and with or without a warrant, a warrant being necessary when the person apprehending is not present at the commission of the offence. See _Arrest_.