Chapter IX: Part 9

AREZZO ([.a]-ret's[=o]; ancient ARRETIUM), a city of Central Italy, capital of a province of the same name in Tuscany, near the confluence of the Chiana with the Arno. It has a noble cathedral, containing some fine pictures and monuments; remains of an ancient amphitheatre, &c. It was one of the twelve chief Etruscan towns, and in later times fought long against the Florentines, to whom it had finally to succumb. It is the birthplace of Maecenas, Petrarch, Pietro Aretino, Redi, and Vasari. Pop. 50,093.--The province of Arezzo contains 1274 sq. miles, and 292,763 inhabitants (1915).

AR'GAL, ARGOL, or TARTAR, a hard crust formed on the sides of vessels in which wine has been kept, red or white according to the colour of the wine. It is an impure bitartrate of potassium.

AR'GALI, a species of wild sheep (_Capr[)o]vis Arg[)a]li_ or _Ovis ammon_) found on the mountains of Siberia, Central Asia, and Kamtchatka. It is 4 feet high at the shoulders, and proportionately stout in its build, with horns nearly 4 feet in length measured along the curve, and at their base about 19 inches in circumference. It lives in small herds. This true argali must not be confounded with the North-African wild sheep, called the bearded argali and known as the arni, the Algerian moufflon, and the Barbary sheep.

AR'GALL, Sir Samuel (1572-1639), one of the early English adventurers to Virginia. He planned and executed the abduction of Pocahontas, the daughter of the Indian chief Powhattan, in order to secure the ransom of English prisoners. He was deputy-governor of Virginia (1617-9), and was accused of many acts of rapacity and tyranny. In 1620 he served in an expedition against Algiers, and was knighted by James I.

AR'GAND LAMP, a lamp named after its inventor, Aime _Argand_, a Swiss chemist and physician (born 1755, died 1803), the distinctive feature of which is a burner forming a ring or hollow cylinder covered by a chimney, so that the flame receives a current of air both on the inside and on the outside.

ARGAUM ([.a]r-g[.a]'[u:]m), a village of India, in Berar, celebrated for the victory of General Wellesley (Duke of Wellington) over the Mahrattas under Scindia and the Rajah of Berar, 29th Nov., 1803.

AR'GELANDER, Friedrich Wilhelm August, German astronomer, born in 1799. He added to the knowledge of the progressive motion of the solar system in space, and published a catalogue of 560 stars having 'proper motion'. His works include: _Atlas des noerdlichen gestirnten Himmels_ (1857), _Neue Uranometrie_ (1843), &c. He died in 1875.

ARGEMONE ([.a]r-jem'o-n[=e]), a small genus of ornamental American plants of the poppy order. From the seeds of _A. mexic[=a]na_ is obtained an oil very useful to painters. The handsomest species is _A. grandifl[=o]ra_, which has large flowers of a pure white colour.

ARGENSOLA ([.a]r-_h_en-s[=o]'l[.a]), Lupercio and Bartolome Leonardo de, brothers, born at Barbastro, in Aragon, the former in 1565, died in 1613; the latter born in 1566, died in 1631. Lupercio produced tragedies and lyric poems; Bartolome a number of poems and a historical work, _The Conquest of the Moluccas_. Their writings are singularly alike in character, and are reckoned among the Spanish classics. The tragedies are of the heavy Senecan type, but the satirical writings of both brothers are full of pungent wit of a pleasing kind.

ARGENSON ([.a]r-zh[.a][n.]-s[=o][n.]), Marc Pierre de Voyer, Comte d', celebrated French statesman, born in 1696, died 1764. After holding a number of subordinate offices he became minister for foreign affairs, and succeeded in bringing about the Congress of Breda, which was the prelude to that of Aix-la-Chapelle. He was present at the battle of Fontenoy, and was exiled to his estate for some years through the machinations of Madame Pompadour. His _Considerations sur le Gouvernement de la France_ was a very advanced study on the possibility of combining with a monarchic form of government democratic principles and local self-government. _Les Essais, ou Loisirs d'un Ministre d'Etat_, published in 1785, is a collection of characters and anecdotes in the style of Montaigne.

AR'GENT, in coats of arms, the heraldic term expressing silver: represented in engraving by a plain white surface.

ARGENTAN ([.a]r-zh[.a][n.]-tae[n.]), a French town, department of Orne (Normandy), with an old castle and some manufactures. Pop. 6300.

ARGENTEUIL ([.a]r-zh[.a][n.]-teu-y[.e]), a town in France, department Seine-et-Oise, 7 miles below Paris; it has an active trade in wine, fruit, and vegetables. Pop. 24,282.

ARGENTIE'RA, or KIM[=O]LI (ancient, CIM[=O]LUS), an island in the Grecian Archipelago, one of the Cyclades, about 18 miles in circumference, rocky and sterile. It produces a detergent chalk called _Cimolian earth_ (q.v.), used in washing and bleaching. Pop. 1337.

AR'GENTINE, a silvery-white slaty variety of calc-spar, containing a little silica with laminae usually undulated. It is found in primitive rocks and frequently in metallic veins.--Argentine is also the name of a small British fish (_Scop[)e]lus bore[=a]lis_) less than 2 inches long and of a silvery colour.

AR'GENTINE REPUBLIC, formerly called the United Provinces of LA PLATA, a vast country of South America, the extreme length of which is 2300 miles, and the average breadth a little over 500 miles, the total area 1,153,119 sq. miles. It consists of fourteen provinces, ten territories, and one federal district. It is bounded on the N. by Bolivia; on the E. by Paraguay, Brazil, Uruguay, and the Atlantic; on the S. by the Antarctic Ocean; and on the W. by the Andes. It comprises four great natural divisions: (1) the Andine region, containing the provinces of Mendoza, San Juan, Rioja, Catamarca, Tucuman, Salta, and Jujuy; (2) the Pampas, containing the provinces of Santiago, Santa Fe, Cordova, San Luis, and Buenos Ayres, with the territories Formosa, Pampa, and Chaco; (3) the Argentine 'mesopotamia', between the Rivers Parana and Uruguay, containing the provinces of Entre Rios and Corrientes, and the territory Misiones; (4) Patagonia, including the eastern half of Tierra del Fuego. With the exception of the N.W., where lateral branches of the Andes run into the plain for 150 or 200 miles, and the province of Entre Rios, which is hilly, the characteristic feature of the country is the great monotonous and level plains called 'pampas'. In the north these plains are partly forest-covered, but all the central and southern parts present vast treeless tracts, which afford pasture to immense herds of horses, oxen, and sheep, and are varied in some places by brackish swamps, in others by salt steppes. The great water-course of the country is the Parana, having a length of fully 2000 miles from its source in the mountains of Goyaz, Brazil, to its junction with the Uruguay, where begins the estuary of La Plata. The Parana is formed by the union of the Upper Parana and Paraguay Rivers, near the N.E. corner of the State. Important tributaries are the Pilcomayo, the Vermejo, and the Salado. The Parana, Paraguay, and Uruguay are valuable for internal navigation. Many of the streams which tend eastward terminate in marshes and salt lakes, some of which are rather extensive. Not connected with the La Plata system are the Colorado and the Rio Negro, the latter formerly the southern boundary of the State, separating it from Patagonia. The source of the Negro is Lake Nahuel Huapi, in Patagonia (area, 1200 sq. miles), in the midst of magnificent scenery. The level portions of the country are mostly of tertiary formation, and the river and coast regions consist mainly of alluvial soil of great fertility. In the pampas clay have been found the fossil remains of extinct mammalia, some of them of colossal size.

European grains and fruits, including the vine, have been successfully introduced, and large areas are now under wheat, maize, flax, and other crops, another source of wealth consisting in the countless herds of cattle and horses and flocks of sheep, which are pastured on the pampas, and which multiply there very rapidly. Gold, silver, nickel, copper, tin, lead, and iron, besides marble, jasper, precious stones, and bitumen, are found in the mountainous districts of the N.W., while petroleum wells have been discovered on the Rio Vermejo; but the development of this mineral wealth has hitherto been greatly retarded by the want of proper means of transport. As a whole there are not extensive forests in the State except in the region of the Gran Chaco (which extends also into Bolivia), where there is known to be 60,000 sq. miles of timber. Thousands of square miles are covered with thistles, which grow to a great height in their season. Cacti also forms great thickets. Peach and apple trees are abundant in some districts. The native fauna includes the puma, the jaguar, the tapir, the llama, the alpaca, the vicuna, armadillos, the rhea or nandu, a species of ostrich, &c. The climate is agreeable and healthy, 97deg being about the highest temperature experienced. The rainfall is very scanty in some districts, and is nowhere very large.

As a whole this vast country is very thinly inhabited, some parts of it as yet being very little known. The native Indians were never very numerous, and have given little trouble to the European settlers. Tribes of them yet in the savage state still inhabit the less-known districts, and live by hunting and fishing. Some of the Gran Chaco tribes are said to be very fierce, and European travellers have been killed by them. The European element is strong in the republic, more than half the population being Europeans or of pure European descent. Large numbers of immigrants arrive from Southern Europe, the Italians having the preponderance among those of foreign birth. The typical inhabitants of the pampas are the _Gauchos_, a race of half-breed cattle-rearers and horse-breakers; they are almost continually on horseback, galloping over the plains, collecting their herds and droves, taming wild horses, or catching and slaughtering cattle. In such occupations they require a marvellous dexterity in the use of the lasso and bolas.

The River La Plata was discovered in 1512 by the Spanish navigator Juan Diaz de Solis, and the La Plata territory had been brought into the possession of Spain by the end of the sixteenth century. In 1810 the territory cast off the Spanish rule, and in 1816 the independence of the United States of the Rio de la Plata was formerly declared, but it was long before a settled government was established. The present constitution dates from 1853, being modified in 1866 and 1898. The executive power is vested in a president--elected by the representatives of the fourteen provinces for a term of six years. A national congress of two chambers--a Senate and a House of Deputies--wields the legislative authority, and the republic is making rapid advances in social and political life. The national revenue for 1918 amounted to about L32,860,306, while the expenditure amounted to L34,407,074; the public debt was, at the end of 1916, about L120,000,000. There are about 22,000 miles of railway opened. The external commerce is important, the chief exports being beef and mutton, wheat, maize, and linseed, wool, skins and hides, tallow. The imports are chiefly manufactured goods. The trade is largely with Britain and France, and is increasing rapidly, the exports having advanced from L9,000,000 in 1876 and L73,200,000 in 1908 to L201,360,000 in 1920. The imports in 1920 were L170,820,000. The chief denomination of money is the dollar or _peso_, value (in gold) 4s. Buenos Ayres (or Aires) is the capital. Other towns are Rosario, Cordova, La Plata, Tucuman, Mendoza, and Santa-Fe. The population of the republic, which is rapidly increasing by immigration, was, in 1905, 5,678,197, and 8,284,266 in 1918; of the capital, 1,637,155 (1918).--BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. E. Akers, _History of South America, 1854 to 1904_; W. H. Hudson, _The Naturalist in La Plata_; Keane and Markham, _Central and South America_ (in Stanford's _Compendium of Geography and Travel_); Martinez and Lewandowski, _Argentine in the Twentieth Century_; Sir John Foster Fraser, _The Amazing Argentine_; H. Stephens, _Illustrated Descriptive Argentina_; _The Argentine Year Book_.

AR'GENTITE, sulphide of silver, a blackish or lead-grey mineral, a valuable ore of silver found in the crystalline rocks of many countries.

ARGENTOMETER. See _Hydrometer_.

ARGILLACEOUS ROCKS are rocks in which clay prevails (including shales and slates).

ARGIVES ([.a]r'j[=i]vz), or ARGIVI, the inhabitants of Argos; used by Homer and other ancient authors as a generic appellation for all the Greeks.

AR'GO. See _Argonauts_.

ARGOL. See _Argal_.

ARGOLIS. See _Argos_.

ARGON, a gas which is fairly widely distributed in the free state and is a constant constituent of the atmosphere, of which it forms about 1 per cent by volume. It was discovered by Lord Rayleigh and Professor Ramsay in 1894. During their determinations of the density of nitrogen they noticed that the density of nitrogen derived from the air differed from the density of nitrogen derived from ammonia and other compounds of nitrogen, and after a series of very careful experiments they succeeded in isolating a new gas, which they named Argon. The gas occurs in sea and river water, in plants, in the blood of animals, and the gases issuing from volcanoes and mineral springs. It is always in the free state and never in combination, and is associated with nitrogen. It is colourless, odourless, and tasteless, and may be liquefied and solidified. It is heavier than air, and is chemically a very inert substance. It is usually referred to as one of the _rare_ gases of the atmosphere. Argon is manufactured in fairly large quantity from air, making use of the inertness of the substance compared to oxygen and nitrogen, the chief constituents of the air. Several methods are in use, e.g. nitrogen may be removed by passing it repeatedly over red-hot magnesium; thus the nitrogen is absorbed and the argon left. When oxygen and nitrogen of air are absorbed by a mixture of 90 per cent calcium carbide and 10 per cent calcium chloride previously heated to redness _in vacuo_, a gas becoming richer and richer in argon is obtained. Another method of preparing argon is by fractionation of liquid air. It is used for filling electric bulbs.

AR'GONAUT, a molluscous animal of the genus Argonauta, belonging to the dibranchiate or two-gilled cuttle-fishes, distinguished by the females possessing a single-chambered external shell, not organically connected with the body of the animal. The males have no shell and are of much smaller size than the females. The shell is fragile, translucent, and boat-like in shape; it serves as the receptacle of the ova or eggs of the female, which sits in it with the respiratory tube or 'funnel' turned towards the carina or 'keel'. This famed mollusc swims only by ejecting water from its funnel, and it can crawl in a reversed position, carrying its shell over its back like a snail. The account of its floating on the surface of the sea, with its sail-shaped arms extended to catch the breeze, and with the six other arms as oars, is a mere fable. The argonaut, or _paper-nautilus_, must be carefully distinguished from the _pearly-nautilus_ or nautilus proper (_Nautilus Pompilius_).

ARGONAUTS, in the legendary history of Greece, those heroes who performed a hazardous voyage to Colchis, a far-distant country at the eastern extremity of the Euxine (Black Sea), with Jason in the ship _Argo_, for the purpose of securing a golden fleece, which was preserved suspended upon a tree, and under the guardianship of a sleepless dragon. By the aid of Medea, daughter of the King of Colchis, Jason was enabled to seize the fleece, and, after many strange adventures, to reach his home at Iolcos in Thessaly. Among the Argonauts were Hercules, Castor and Pollux, Orpheus and Theseus.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. R. Hope Moncrieff, _Classic Myth and Legend_; Kingsley, _The Heroes_; N. Hawthorne, _The Wonder-book_.

ARGO-NAVIS, the southern constellation of the Ship, is almost entirely invisible in Britain. It contains Canopus, next to Sirius the brightest fixed star. In the great nebula in Argo is situated the remarkable star Eta Argus. It is variable, generally faint, but in 1837 it became temporarily one of the brightest stars in the sky.

ARGONNE, a district of France, between the Rivers Meuse, Marne, and Aisne, celebrated for the campaign of Dumouriez against the Prussians in 1792, and for the military movements and actions which took place therein previous to the battle of Sedan, in 1870.

ARGONNE, BATTLE OF. When, in the autumn of 1914, the Allies retreated towards the Marne, the German Crown Prince's army endeavoured to invest Verdun. His right wing advanced through the thick and extensive forest of Argonne, but took precipitate flight after the battle of the Marne before the army of General Sarrail. In the summer of 1915 the Crown Prince endeavoured to hack his way through the French Argonne lines, using much heavy artillery, poison-gas, liquid-fire, and tear-shells. A final effort to break through was made in September, between Le Four de Paris and Vienne-le-Chateau, but, after gaining a footing in the first line of French trenches, the Germans were hurled back by a dashing counter-attack. The great salient from the Argonne to St. Mihiel was the salvation of Verdun.

AR'GOS, a town of Greece, in the north-east of the Peloponnesus, between the Gulfs of Aegina and Nauplia or Argos. This town and the surrounding territory of Argolis were famous from the legendary period of Greek history onwards. Here, besides Argos, was Mycenae, where Agamemnon ruled. Modern Argos is a straggling place of 10,000 inhabitants, with some ancient remains. The territory Argolis forms a nomarchy of Greece. Pop., Argolis and Corinthia, 153,172. The capital is Nauplia.

ARGOS'TOLI, a city of the Ionian Islands, capital of Cephalonia, and the residence of a Greek bishop. Pop. 14,000.

AR'GOSY, a poetical name for a large merchant-vessel; derived from _Ragusa_, a port which was formerly more celebrated than now, and whose vessels did a considerable trade with England. It is popularly but erroneously connected with the ship _Argo_ in which Jason sailed. See _Argonauts_.

ARGOT (Fr.; [.a]r-g[=o]), the jargon, slang, or peculiar phraseology of a class or profession; originally the conventional slang of thieves and vagabonds, invented for the purpose of disguise and concealment. Some of Francois Villon's poems are written in argot.--Cf. W. von Knoblauch, _Dictionary of Argot_.

ARGUIM, or ARGUIN ([.a]r-gwim', [.a]r-gwin'), a small island on the west coast of Africa, not far from Cape Blanco, formerly a centre of trade. Its possession was violently disputed between the Portuguese, Dutch, English, and French.

AR'GUMENT, a term sometimes used as synonymous with the _subject_ of a discourse, but more frequently appropriated to any kind of method employed for the purpose of confuting or at least silencing an opponent. Logicians have reduced arguments to a number of distinct heads, such as the _argumentum ad judicium_, which founds on solid proofs and addresses to the judgment; the _argumentum ad verecundiam_, which appeals to the modesty or bashfulness of an opponent by reminding him of the great names or authorities by whom the view disputed by him is supported; the _argumentum ad ignorantiam_, the employment of some logical fallacy towards persons likely to be deceived by it; and the _argumentum ad hominem_, an argument which presses a man with consequences drawn from his own principles and concessions, or his own conduct. See _Fallacy_, _Logic_.

ARGUMENT OF THE PEOPLE, the document set forth by the Council of the Army on 15th Jan., 1649, fifteen days before the execution of King Charles I. See _Levellers_.

AR'GUS, in Greek mythology, a fabulous being, said to have had a hundred eyes, placed by Juno to guard Io. Hence 'argus-eyed', applied to one who is exceedingly watchful.

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ARGUS-PHEASANT (_Argus gigant[=e]us_), a large, beautiful, and very singular species of pheasant, found native in the south-east of Asia, more especially in Sumatra and some of the other islands. The males measure from 5 to 6 feet from the tip of the beak to the extremity of the tail, which has two greatly-elongated central feathers. The plumage is exceedingly beautiful, the secondary quills of the wings, which are longer than the primary feathers, being each adorned with a series of ocellated or eye-like spots (whence the name--see _Argus_) of brilliant metallic hues. The general body plumage is brown.

ARGYLL, or ARGYLE ([.a]r-g[=i]l'), an extensive county in the south-west of the Highlands of Scotland, consisting partly of mainland and partly of islands belonging to the Hebrides group, the chief of which are Islay, Mull, Jura, Tiree, Coll, Luing, Lismore, and Colonsay, with Iona and Staffa. On the land side the mainland is bounded north by Inverness; east by Perth and Dumbarton; elsewhere surrounded by the Firth of Clyde and its connections and the sea; area, 3255 sq. miles (or over 2,000,000 acres), of which the islands comprise about 1000 sq. miles. It is greatly indented by arms of the sea, which penetrate far inland, the most important of these being Loch Sunart, Loch Linnhe (the extremities of which are Loch Eil and Loch Leven), Loch Etive, Loch Fyne, Loch Tarbert, Loch Riddon, Loch Striven, and Loch Long. The mainland is divided into six districts of Northern Argyle, Lorn, Argyle, Cowal, Knapdale, and Kintyre; the two first being subdivided into the sub-districts of Lochiel, Ardgour, Sunart, Ardnamurchan, Morven, and Appin. The county is exceedingly mountainous, the chief summits being Bidean-nam-Bian (3766 feet), Ben Laoigh (3708 feet), Ben Cruachan (3611 feet), Benmore, in Mull (3185 feet), the Paps of Jura (2565 feet), and Ben Arthur or the Cobbler (2891 feet). There are several lakes, the principal of which is Loch Awe. Cattle and sheep are reared in numbers, and fishing is largely carried on, as is also the making of whisky. There is but little arable land. The chief minerals are slate, marble, limestone, and granite. County town, Inveraray; others, Campbeltown, Oban, and Dunoon. Pop. (1921), 76,856.

ARGYLL, CAMPBELLS OF, a historic Scottish family, raised to the peerage in the person of Sir Duncan Campbell of Lochow, in 1445. The more eminent members are: Archibald, 2nd Earl, killed at the battle of Flodden, 1513.--Archibald, 5th Earl, attached himself to the party of Mary of Guise, and was the means of averting a collision between the Reformers and the French troops in 1559; was commissioner of regency after Mary's abdication, but afterwards commanded her troops at the battle of Langside; died 1575.--Archibald, 8th Earl and 1st Marquess, born 1598: a zealous partisan of the Covenanters; created a marquess by Charles I. It was by his persuasion that Charles II visited Scotland, and was crowned at Scone in 1651. At the Restoration he was committed to the Tower, and afterwards sent to Scotland, where he was tried for high treason, and beheaded in 1661.--Archibald, 9th Earl, son of the preceding, served the king with great bravery at the battle of Dunbar, and was excluded from the general pardon by Cromwell in 1654. On the passing of the Test Act in 1681 he refused to take the required oath except with a reservation. For this he was tried and sentenced to death. He managed to escape to Holland, from whence he returned with a view of aiding the Duke of Monmouth. His plan, however, failed, and he was taken and conveyed to Edinburgh, where he was beheaded in 1685.--Archibald, 10th Earl and 1st Duke, son of the preceding, died 1703; took an active part in the Revolution of 1688-9, which placed William and Mary on the throne, and was rewarded by several important appointments and the title of duke.--John, 2nd Duke and Duke of Greenwich, son of the above, born 1678, died 1743; served under Marlborough at the battles of Ramillies, Oudenarde, and Malplaquet, and assisted at the sieges of Lisle and Ghent. He incurred considerable odium in his own country for his efforts in promoting the union. In 1712 he had the military command in Scotland, and in 1715 he fought an indecisive battle with the Earl of Mar's army at Sheriffmuir, near Dunblane, and forced the Pretender to quit the kingdom. He was long a supporter of Walpole, but his political career was full of intrigue. He is the Duke of Argyll in Scott's _Heart of Midlothian_.--George Douglas Campbell, K.G., K.T., &c., 8th Duke (of United Kingdom, 1892), was born in 1823. He early took a part in politics, especially in discussions regarding the Presbyterian Church of Scotland. In 1852 he became Lord Privy Seal under Lord Aberdeen, and again under Lord Palmerston in 1859; Postmaster-General in 1860; Secretary for India from 1868 to 1874; again Lord Privy Seal in 1880, but retired, being unable to agree with his colleagues on their Irish policy. He died in 1900. He wrote _The Reign of Law_, _Scotland as it Was and as it Is_, &c.--John Douglas Sutherland Campbell, 9th Duke of, son of the 8th Duke and a daughter of the 2nd Duke of Sutherland, was born in 1845, and succeeded his father in 1900. He completed his education at Trinity College, Cambridge, sat in Parliament as member for Argyllshire, 1868-78, was Governor-General of Canada from 1878 to 1883, and again sat in Parliament as member for South Manchester from 1895 to 1900, as a Liberal-Unionist. He married the Princess Louise of Great Britain, fourth daughter of Queen Victoria, in 1871. He died in 1914. His works include: _The United States after the War_, _Imperial Federation_, _Canadian Pictures_, _Memories of Canada and Scotland_, _Life of Lord Palmerston_, _Tales and Poems_, _The Psalms in English Verse_, _Life and Times of Queen Victoria_, _Yesterday and To-day in Canada_, &c.

ARGYLL AND SUTHERLAND HIGHLANDERS (Princess Louise's), raised by the 5th Duke of Argyll (1794), received their present title in 1872. The regiment served under Sir David Baird in Cape Colony, and at Balaklava made itself immortal as Sir Colin Campbell's 'thin red line'. It was further distinguished in the European War at Gheluvelt, Le Cateau, and the second battle of Ypres.

ARGYRO-CASTRO ([.a]r'gi-r[=o]-), a town in Albania, 40 miles north-west of Janina; built on three ridges intersected by deep ravines, across which are several bridges. It was occupied by the Greeks in 1916. Pop. about 10,000.

ARGYROPU'LOS, Johannes, one of the principal revivers of Greek learning in the fifteenth century. Born in Constantinople 1415, died at Rome 1486.

ARIA, in music. See _Air_.

ARIADNE (a-ri-ad'ne), in Greek mythology, a daughter of Minos, King of Crete. She gave Theseus a clue of thread to conduct him out of the labyrinth after his defeat of the Minotaur. Theseus abandoned her on the Isle of Naxos, where she was found by Dionysus, who married her.

ARIA'NA, the ancient name of a large district in Asia, forming a portion of the Persian Empire; bounded on the north by the provinces of Bactriana, Margiana, and Hyrcania; east by the Indus; south by the Indian Ocean and the Persian Gulf; west by Media.

ARIANO (ae-r[=e]-ae'n[=o]), a town in South Italy, province of Avellino, 44 miles north-east of Naples, the seat of a bishop, with a handsome cathedral. Pop. 17,650.

AR'IANS, the adherents of the Alexandrian presbyter Arius, who, about A.D. 318, promulgated the doctrine that Christ was a created being inferior to God the Father in nature and dignity, though the first and noblest of all created beings; and also that the Holy Spirit is not God, but created by the power of the Son. Arianism has been defined as an attempt to determine the relations of the Persons of the Trinity on a basis of distinction and subordination. It does not seem to have sprung from any strong ethical impulse; its philosophy was pagan, and the object of the leaders political rather than religious. The doctrines were condemned by the Council of Nicaea in 325. Arius died in 336, and after his death his party gained considerable accessions, including several emperors, and for a time held a strong position. Since the middle of the seventh century, however, the Arians have nowhere constituted a distinct sect, although similar opinions have been advanced by various theologians in modern times. The Arian controversy was revived in England during the eighteenth century by William Whiston and Dr. Samuel Clarke.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. M. Gwatkin, _Studies of Arianism_; J. H. Newman, _Arians of the Fourth Century_; J. H. Colligan, _Arian Movement in England_.

ARICA ([.a]-r[=e]'k[.a]), a seaport of Chile, 30 miles S. of Tacna; previous to 1880 it belonged to Peru. It has suffered frequently from earthquakes, being in 1868 almost entirely destroyed, part of it being also submerged by an earthquake wave. Pop. about 4000. It has a wireless station.

ARICA. See _Tacna-Arica Dispute_.

ARICHAT (-shat'), a seaport town and fishing station of Nova Scotia, on a small bay, south coast of Madame Island. Pop. about 2500.

ARIEGE ([.a]-r[=e]-[=a]zh), a mountainous department of France, on the northern slopes of the Pyrenees, comprising the ancient countship of Foix and parts of Languedoc and Gascony. The principal rivers are the Ariege, Arize, and Salat, tributaries of the Garonne. Sheep and cattle are reared; the arable land is small in quantity. Chief town, Foix. Area, 1892 sq. miles. Pop. (1921), 172,851.

A'RIEL, a symbolic name for Jerusalem in the Old Testament; in the demonology of the later Jews a spirit of the waters. In Shakespeare's _Tempest_, Ariel was the "tricksy spirit" whom Prospero had in his service.

ARIES ([=a]'ri-[=e]z; Lat.), the Ram, a northern constellation. It is the first of the twelve signs of the zodiac, which the sun enters at the vernal equinox, about the 21st of March. The "First Point in Aries" is where the equator cuts the ecliptic in the ascending node, from which point the right ascensions of heavenly bodies are reckoned on the equator, and their longitudes upon the ecliptic. Owing to the precession of the equinoxes the sign Aries no longer corresponds with the constellation Aries, which it did 2000 years ago.

AR'IL, or ARIL'LUS, in some plants, as in the nutmeg, an extra covering of the seed, outside of the true seed-coats, proceeding from the placenta, partially investing the seed, and falling off spontaneously. It is either succulent or cartilaginous, coloured, elastic, rough, or knotted. In the nutmeg it is known as _mace_.

ARIMAS'PIANS, in ancient Greek traditions, a people who lived in the extreme north-east of the ancient world. They were said to be one-eyed and to carry on a perpetual war with the gold-guarding griffins, whose gold they endeavoured to steal. Cf. Milton, _Paradise Lost_, II, 943.

ARIMATHAE'A, a town of Palestine, identified with the modern _Ramleh_, 22 miles W.N.W. of Jerusalem.

ARI'ON, an ancient Greek poet and musician, born at Methymna, in Lesbos, flourished about 625 B.C. He lived at the Court of Periander of Corinth, and afterwards visited Sicily and Italy. Returning from Tarentum to Corinth with rich treasures, the avaricious sailors resolved to murder him. Apollo, however, having informed him in a dream of the impending danger, Arion in vain endeavoured to soften the hearts of the crew by the power of music. He then threw himself into the sea, when one of a shoal of dolphins, which had been attracted by his music, received him on his back and bore him to land. The sailors, having returned to Corinth, were confronted by Arion and convicted of their crime. The lyre of Arion, and the dolphin which rescued him, became constellations in the heavens. A fragment of a hymn to Poseidon, ascribed to Arion, is extant.

ARIOS'TO, LUDOVI'CO, one of the most celebrated poets of Italy, was born at Reggio, in Lombardy, 8th Sept., 1474, of a noble family; died 6th June, 1533. His lyric poems in the Italian and Latin languages, distinguished for ease and elegance of style, introduced him to the notice of the Cardinal Ippolito d'Este, son of Duke Ercole I of Ferrara. In 1503 Ippolito employed him in his service and used his counsel in the most important affairs. In this service he began and finished, in ten or eleven years, his immortal poem, the _Orlando Furioso_, which was published in 1515, and immediately became highly popular. He afterwards entered the service of Alfonso I, Duke of Ferrara, the cardinal's brother, a lover of the arts, who put much confidence in him. After quelling disturbances that had broken out in the wild and mountainous Garfagnana, he returned to Ferrara, where he employed himself in the composition of his comedies, and in putting the last touches to his _Orlando_. The _Orlando Furioso_ is a continuation of the _Orlando Innamorato_ of Bojardo, details the chivalrous adventures of the paladins of the age of Charlemagne, and extends to forty-six cantos. The best English translation is that of Rose (1823). Cf. E. Gardner, _Ariosto: the Prince of Court Poets_; J. S. Nicholson, _Life and Genius of Ariosto_.

ARISH. See _El Arish_.

ARISTAEUS, in Greek mythology, son of Apollo and Cyrene, the introducer of bee-keeping. Cf. Virgil, _Georgics_, IV, 315-558.

ARISTARCHUS (a-ris-taer'kus), an ancient Greek grammarian, born at Samothrace 220 B.C., died at Cyprus 143 B.C. He edited Homer's poems with the greatest acuteness and ability, endeavouring to restore the text to its genuine state, and to clear it of all interpolations and corruptions; hence the phrase, Aristarchian criticism. His edition of Homer furnished the basis of all subsequent ones.

ARISTARCHUS, an ancient Greek astronomer belonging to Samos, flourished about 155 B.C., and first asserted the revolution of the earth about the sun; also regarded as the inventor of the sun-dial.

ARIS'TEAS, a personage of ancient Greek legend, represented to have lived over many centuries, disappearing and reappearing by turns.

ARISTIDES (a-ris-t[=i]'d[=e]z), a statesman of ancient Greece, for his strict integrity surnamed the _Just_. He was one of the ten generals of the Athenians when they fought with the Persians at Marathon, 490 B.C. Next year he was eponymous archon, and in this office enjoyed such popularity that he excited the jealousy of Themistocles, who succeeded in procuring his banishment by ostracism (about 483). Three years after, when Xerxes invaded Greece with a large army, the Athenians hastened to recall him, and Themistocles now admitted him to his confidence and councils. In the battle of Plataea (479) he commanded the Athenians, and had a great share in gaining the victory. To defray the expenses of the Persian war he persuaded the Greeks to impose a tax, which should be paid into the hands of an officer appointed by the States collectively, and deposited at Delos. The confidence which was felt in his integrity appeared in their entrusting him with the office of apportioning the contribution. He died at an advanced age about 468 B.C., so poor that he was buried at the public expense.

ARISTIP'PUS (c. 425-366 B.C.), a disciple of Socrates, and founder of a philosophical school among the Greeks, which was called the _Cyrenaic_, from his native city Cyr[=e]n[=e], in Africa; flourished 380 B.C. His moral philosophy differed widely from that of Socrates, and was a science of refined voluptuousness. His fundamental principles were--that all human sensations may be reduced to two, pleasure and pain. Pleasure is a gentle, and pain a violent emotion. All living beings seek the former and avoid the latter. Happiness is nothing but a continued pleasure, composed of separate gratifications; and as it is the object of all human exertions, we should abstain from no kind of pleasure. Still we should always be governed by taste and reason in our enjoyments. His doctrines were taught only by his daughter Ar[)e]t[=e], and by his grandson Aristippus the younger, by whom they were systematized. Other Cyrenaics compounded them into a particular doctrine of pleasure, and are hence called _Hedonici_. His writings are lost.

ARISTOC'RACY (Gr. _aristos_, best, _kratos_, rule), a form of government by which the wealthy and noble, or any small privileged class, rules over the rest of the citizens. The term has now become almost entirely social in meaning, and is mostly applied to the nobility or chief persons in a State.

ARISTOGEITON (-g[=i]'ton), a citizen of Athens, whose name is rendered famous by a conspiracy (514 B.C.) formed in conjunction with his friend Harmodius against the tyrants Hippias and Hipparchus, the sons of Pisistratus. Both Aristogeiton and Harmodius lost their lives through their attempts to free the country, and were reckoned martyrs of liberty.

ARISTOLOCHIA (-l[=o]'ki-a), a genus of plants, the type of the ord. Aristolochiaceae, which consists of dicotyledonous monochlamydeous plants, with an inferior 3-6-celled fruit, found for the most part in the hotter parts of the world, and in many cases used medicinally on account of their tonic and stimulating properties. The genus has emmenagogic qualities, especially the European species _A. rotunda_, _A. longa_, and _A. Clemat[=i]tis_. _A. bracte[=a]ta_ is used in India as an anthelminthic; _A. odoratissima_, a West Indian species, is a valuable bitter and alexipharmic. _A. serpentaria_ is the Virginian snake-root, popularly regarded as a remedy for snake bites.

ARISTOPHANES (-tof'a-n[=e]z), the greatest comic poet of ancient Greece, born at Athens probably about the year 455 B.C., died 375 B.C. Little is known of his life. He appeared as a poet in 427 B.C., and having indulged in some sarcasms on the powerful demagogue Cleon, was ineffectually accused by the latter of having unlawfully assumed the title of an Athenian citizen. He afterwards revenged himself on Cleon in his comedy of the _Knights_, in which he himself acted the part of Cleon, because no actor had the courage to do it. Of fifty-four (or forty-four) comedies attributed to him, eleven only remain; believed to be the flower of the ancient comedy, and distinguished by wit, humour, and poetry, as also by grossness. In them there is constant reference to the manners, actions, and public characters of the day, the freedom of the old Greek comedy allowing an unbounded degree of personal and political satire. The names of his extant plays are _Acharnians_, _Knights_, _Clouds_, _Wasps_, _Peace_, _Birds_, _Lysistrata_, _Thesmophoriazusae_, _Frogs_, _Ecclesiasuzae_, and _Plutus_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: B. B. Rogers, _Complete Works of Aristophanes, with verse translation_ (by far the best translation); Hookham-Frere, _Translation_ (five plays only); Couat, _Aristophane et l'ancienne comedie attique_.

AR'ISTOTLE (Gr. _Aristot'eles_), a distinguished philosopher and naturalist of ancient Greece, the founder of the Peripatetic school of philosophy, was born in 384 B.C. at Stagira, in Macedonia; died at Chalcis, 322 B.C. His father, Nicomachus, was physician to Amyntas II, King of Macedonia, and claimed to be descended from Aesculapius. Aristotle had lost his parents before he came, at about the age of seventeen, to Athens to study in the school of Plato. With that philosopher he remained for twenty years, became pre-eminent among his pupils, and was known as the 'Intellect of the School'. Upon the death of Plato, 348 B.C., he took up his residence at Atarneus, in Mysia, on the invitation of his former pupil Hermeias, the ruler of that city, on whose assassination by the Persians, 343 B.C., he fled to Mitylene with his wife Pythias, a near relative of Hermeias. During his residence at Mitylene he received an invitation from Philip of Macedon to superintend the education of his son Alexander, then in his fourteenth year. This relationship between the great philosopher and the future conqueror continued for five or six years, during which the prince was instructed in grammar, rhetoric, poetry, logic, ethics, and politics, and in those branches of physics which had even then made some considerable progress. On Alexander succeeding to the throne Aristotle continued to live with him as his friend and councillor till he set out on his Asiatic campaign (334 B.C.). He returned to Athens and established his school in the Lyceum, a gymnasium attached to the temple of Apollo Lyceius, which was assigned to him by the State. He delivered his lectures in the wooded walks of the Lyceum while walking up and down with his pupils. From the action itself, or more probably from the name of the walks (_peripatoi_), his school was called Peripatetic. Pupils gathered to him from all parts of Greece, and his school became by far the most popular in Athens. The statement that he had two circles of pupils, the _exoteric_ and the _esoteric_ has given rise to much controversy. By some it has been held that Aristotle published during his lifetime popular discourses with a view to make way for his doctrines in Athenian society, then impregnated with Platonic theories, and that these are called exoteric in contradistinction to those in which are embodied his matured opinions. It was during the time of his teaching at Athens that Aristotle is believed to have composed the great bulk of his works. But it is not possible to speak with any certainty about the chronology of his writings, as the references may be additions of editors. On the death of Alexander a revolution occurred in Athens hostile to the Macedonian interests with which Aristotle was identified. He therefore retired to Chalcis, where he soon after died. Sir Charles Walston, in 1891, opened a tomb near Eretria which he supposed to be that of Aristotle. According to Strabo he bequeathed all his works to Theophrastus, who, with other disciples of Aristotle, amended and continued them. They afterwards passed through various hands, till, about 50 B.C., Andronicus of Rhodes put the various fragments together and classified them according to a systematic arrangement. Many of the books bearing his name are spurious, others are of doubtful genuineness. The whole are generally divided into logical, theoretical, and practical. The logical works are comprehended under the title _Organon_ (Instrument). The theoretical are divided into physics, mathematics, and metaphysics. The physical works (including those on natural history) are on the _General Principles of Physical Science_, _The Heavens_, _Generation and Destruction_, _Meteorology_, _Natural History of Animals_, _On the Parts of Animals_, _On the Generation of Animals_, _On the Locomotion of Animals_, _On the Soul_, _On Memory_, _Sleep and Waking_, _Dreams_, _Divination_. In mathematics there are two treatises, _On Indivisible Lines_ and _Mechanical Problems_. _The Metaphysics_ consist of fourteen books; the title (_Ta meta ta Physika_, 'the things following the Physics',) is the invention of an editor. The practical works embrace ethics, politics, economics, and treatises on art, and comprise the _Nicomachaean Ethics_ (so called because dedicated to his son, Nicomachus), _The Politics_, _Oeconomics_, _Poetry_, and _Rhetoric_. Among the lost works are the dialogues and others termed exoteric. A treatise _On the Constitution of Athens_ was discovered in 1891. His style is devoid of grace and elegance. His works were first printed in a Latin translation, with the commentaries of Averroes, at Venice in 1489; the first Greek edition was that of Aldus Manutius (5 vols., 1495-8). See _Peripatetic Philosophy_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Blakesley, _Life of Aristotle_; S. H. Butcher, _Poetics_ (with translation and excursus); R. Shute, _History of the Aristotelian Writings_; J. C. Wilson, _Aristotelian Studies_; E. Zeller, _Aristotle and the Earlier Peripatetics_; E. Barker, _Political Thought of Plato and Aristotle_.

ARISTOX'ENUS, an ancient Greek musician and philosopher of Tarentum, born about 324 B.C. He studied music under his father Mnesias, and philosophy under Aristotle, whose successor he aspired to be. He endeavoured to apply his musical knowledge to philosophy, and especially to the science of mind, but it only appears to have furnished him with far-fetched analogies and led him into a kind of materialism. We have a work on the _Elements of Harmony_ by him.

ARITH'METIC (Gr. _arithmos_, number) is primarily the science of numbers. As opposed to algebra it is the practical part of the science. Although the processes of arithmetical operations are often highly complicated, they all resolve themselves into the repetition of four primary operations--addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Of these the two latter are only complex forms of the two former, and subtraction again is merely a reversal of the process of addition. Little or nothing is known as to the origin and invention of arithmetic. Some elementary conception of it is in all probability coeval with the first dawn of human intelligence. In consequence of their rude methods of numeration, the science made but small advance among the ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, and it was not until the introduction of the decimal scale of notation and the Arabic, or rather Indian, numerals into Europe that any great progress can be traced. In this scale of notation every number is expressed by means of the ten digits, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0, by giving each digit a local as well as its proper or natural value. The value of every digit increases in a tenfold proportion from the right towards the left; the distance of any figure from the right indicating the power of 10, and the digit itself the number of those powers intended to be expressed: thus 3464 = 3000 + 400 + 60 + 4 = 3 x 10^3 + 4 x 10^2 + 6 x 10 + 4. The earliest arithmetical signs appear to have been hieroglyphical, but the Egyptian hieroglyphics were too diffuse to be of any arithmetical value. The units were successive strokes to the number required, the ten an open circle, the hundred a curled palm-leaf, the thousand a lotus flower, ten thousand a bent finger. The letters of the alphabet afforded a convenient mode of representing figures, and were used accordingly by the Chaldeans, Hebrews, and Greeks. The first nine letters of the Hebrew alphabet represented the units, the second nine tens, the remaining four together with five repeated with additional marks, hundreds; the same succession of letters with added points was repeated for thousands, tens of thousands, and hundreds of thousands. The Greeks followed the same system up to tens of thousands. They wrote the different classes of numbers in succession as we do, and they transferred operations performed on units to numbers in higher places; but the use of different signs for the different ranks clearly shows a want of full perception of the value of place as such. They adopted the letter M as a sign for 10,000 and by combining this mark with their other numerals they could note numbers as high as 100,000,000. The Roman numerals, which are still used in marking dates or numbering chapters, were almost useless for purposes of computation. From one to four were represented by vertical strokes [I], [II], [III], [IIII], five by [V], ten by [X], fifty by [L], one hundred by [square C], afterwards [C], five hundred by [D], a thousand by [M]. These signs were derived from each other according to particular rules, thus [V] was the half of [X], [inverted V] being also used; [L] was likewise the half of [C]. [M] was artistically written [M] and [cIc*] and [Ic*], afterwards [D], became five hundred. [ccI] represented 5000, [ccIc*c*] 10,000, [Ic*c*c*] 50,000, [cccIc*c*c*] 100,000. They were also compounded by addition and subtraction, thus [IV] stood for four, [VI] for six, [XXX] for thirty, [XL] for forty, [LX] for sixty. Arithmetic is divided into _abstract_ and _practical_: the former comprehends notation, numeration, addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, measures and multiples, fractions, powers and roots; the latter treats of the combinations and practical applications of these and the so-called rules, such as reduction, compound addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, proportion, interest, profit and loss, &c. Another division is _integral_ and _fractional_ arithmetic, the former treating of integers, or whole numbers, and the latter of fractions. Decimal fractions were invented in the sixteenth century, and logarithms, embodying the last great advance in the science, in the seventeenth century.

ARITHMET'ICAL, pertaining to arithmetic or its operations.--_Arithmetical mean_, the middle term of three quantities in arithmetical progression, or half the sum of any two proposed numbers; thus 11 is the arithmetical mean to 8 and 14.--_Arithmetical progression_, a series of numbers increasing or decreasing by a common difference, as 1, 3, 5, 7, &c.--_Arithmetical signs_, certain symbols used in arithmetic, and indicating processes or facts. The common signs used in arithmetic are the following: [plus sign] signifying that the numbers between which it is placed are to be added; [minus sign] - that the second is to be subtracted from the first; [times sign] that the one is to be multiplied by the other; [divide sign] that the former is to be divided by the latter; [equals sign] signifies that the one number is equal to the other; [proportional signs - colons] are the signs placed between the members of a proportional series, as 4 : 6 :: 8 : 12. A small figure placed on the right hand of another at the top signifies the corresponding power of the number beside which it is placed, as 5^2, 4^3, meaning the square of 5 and the cube of 4. [cube root] placed before or over a number signifies the square root of that number; with a figure it signifies the root of a higher power, as [cube root], which means cube root. A period placed to the left of a series of figures indicates that they are decimal fractions.

A'RIUS, the originator of the Arian heresy. See _Arians_.

ARIZO'NA, a former territory of the United States, admitted into the union as a sovereign State on 14th Feb., 1912, is bounded south by Mexico, west by California and Nevada (the River Colorado forming the greater part of the boundary), north by Utah, and east by New Mexico; area, 113,956 sq. miles. The surface is generally mountainous, but many fertile and well-watered valleys lie between the ridges. Part of the surface consists of deserts often entirely destitute of vegetation. The territory belongs to the basin of the Colorado, which passes through a portion of it, besides forming the boundary; while the Gila and Little Colorado, tributaries of the Colorado, traverse it from east to west. The canyons of the Colorado form a wonderful feature, the river flowing for hundreds of miles in a deep rocky channel with walls rising perpendicularly to the height of 1500 to 6000 feet. In some parts timber is plentiful. The rainfall is small, and irrigation has been employed for agricultural purposes. Large tracts of elevated land have been found excellently adapted as pastures for sheep and cattle. The territory is rich in copper, gold, silver, lead, and other minerals, and mining is largely carried on, with much copper smelting and refining. The capital is Phoenix. Pop. 29,053. The Southern and the Santa Fe Pacific Railways traverse it. Pop. (1920), 333,903 (of which 171,468 are white), exclusive of Apaches and other Indians on reservations (area, 29,017 sq. miles; pop. (1920), 42,400).

ARJISH DAGH, the loftiest peak of the peninsula of Asia Minor, at the western extremity of the Anti-Taurus Range, 13,150 feet; an extinct volcano; on the N. and N.E. slopes are extensive glaciers.

ARK, the name applied in our translation of the Bible to the boat or floating house in which Noah resided during the flood or deluge; to the floating vessel of bulrushes in which the infant Moses was laid; and to the chest in which the tables of the law were preserved--the _ark of the covenant_. This last was made of shittim-wood, overlaid within and without with gold, about 3 3/4 feet long by 2 1/4 feet high and broad, and over it were placed the golden covering or mercy-seat and the two cherubim. It was placed in the sanctuary of the temple of Solomon; before his time it was kept in the tabernacle, and was moved about as circumstances dictated. At the captivity it appears to have been either lost or destroyed.

ARKANSAS (ar'kan-s[a:] or ar-kan'sas), one of the United States of America, bounded north by Missouri; east by the Mississippi, which separates it from the States of Mississippi and Tennessee; south by Louisiana and Texas; and west by the Indian Territory and Texas; area, 53,335 sq. miles. The surface in the east is low, flat, and swampy, densely wooded, and subject to frequent inundations from the numerous streams which water it. Towards the centre it becomes more diversified, presenting many undulating slopes and hills of moderate elevation. In the west it rises still higher, being traversed by a range of hills called the Ozark, which attains a height of 2000 feet, some peaks rising to 3000. In various parts the prairies are of great extent; the forests also are extensive, principally of oak, hickory, ash, cotton, linden, maple, locust, and pine. Coal and other minerals are worked. The principal rivers, all tributaries of the Mississippi, are the Arkansas, the Red River, the St. Francis, and the Washita. Near the centre of the State are warm springs, much resorted to for chronic rheumatic and paralytic affections. The climate is subject to great extremes of heat and cold, and in the lower districts is unhealthy to new settlers. The staple products are cotton and maize; fruit is tolerably abundant. Many districts are admirably adapted for grazing, and great numbers of excellent cattle are reared. Arkansas was colonized as early as 1685 by the French. As part of Louisiana it was purchased by the United States in 1803. It was made into a separate territory in 1819, and admitted into the Union in 1836. It was one of the seceding States. The capital is Little Rock. The enumerated population in 1920 was 1,750,995.

ARKANSAS, a river of the United States, which gives its name to the above State, the largest affluent of the Mississippi after the Missouri. It rises in the Rocky Mountains, about lat. 39deg N., long. 107deg W., flows in a general south-easterly direction through Colorado, Kansas, the Indian Territory, and lastly through the State of Arkansas, and after a course of 2170 miles enters the Mississippi. During greater part of the year it is navigable for steamboats for 800 miles.

ARKITE. See _Explosives_.

ARK'LOW, a town in Ireland, County Wicklow, on the right bank of the Avoca, which falls into the sea about 500 yards below the town; the scene of a severe fight during the rebellion of 1798. Fishing is the chief industry. Pop. 5042.