Chapter VIII: Part 8

ARBO'GA, an old Swedish city, province of Westmannland; once an important commercial town, now only of historical interest from having been at one time a residence of the family of Vasa, the scene of Church assemblies and national diets, and for the antiquities in its neighbourhood. Pop. 5050.

ARBOIS ([.a]r-bwae), a town of France, department of Jura; famous for its wines. Pop. 5000.

ARBOR DAY, a day officially set apart in the United States for the annual planting of trees by the people, and especially by school-children. The custom was instituted in 1872.

ARBORE'TUM (Lat. _arbor_, a tree), a place in which a collection of different trees and shrubs is cultivated for scientific or educational purposes. The largest arboretum in Britain, perhaps the finest in the whole world, is that of the Royal Gardens, at Kew, inaugurated in 1762, to which 180 acres are now devoted. Next in celebrity are the arboreta at Edinburgh (Inverleith) and at Dublin (Glasnevin), the Botanical Gardens at Oxford, and the Botanic Gardens at Glasgow. Other arboreta are that of the Jardin des Plantes, Paris, and the Arnold Arboretum, at Jamaica Plain, Boston. The term arboretum has also been applied in a restricted sense, as in the _Arboretum Fruticetum Britannicum_, the monumental work by J. C. Loudon.

AR'BORICULTURE includes the culture of trees and shrubs, as well as all that pertains to the preparation of the soil, the sowing of the seeds, and the treatment of the plants in their young state, the preparation of the land previous to their final transplantation, their just adaptation to soil and situation, their relative growth and progress to maturity, their management during growth, and the proper season and period for felling them.

ARBOR VITAE (literally, 'tree of life'), the name of several coniferous trees of the genus Thuja, allied to the cypress, with flattened branchlets, and small imbricated or scale-like leaves. The name is derived from valuable medicinal properties having formerly been ascribed to the aromatic resin they mostly yield. Those generally cultivated in Britain are: the common Arbor Vitae (_Thuja occident[=a]lis_), a native of North America, where it grows to a height of 40 or 50 feet, introduced into Britain about 1566; the giant Arbor Vitae or Red Cedar (_Thuja gigantea_), introduced in 1854; and the Chinese Arbor Vitae (_Thuja orient[=a]lis_).

ARBROATH (ar-br[=o]th'), or ABERBROTHOCK, a royal municipal and police burgh and seaport in the county of Forfar, Scotland, at the mouth of the small River Brothock. Its ancient abbey, founded by William the Lion in 1178, and dedicated to Saints Mary and Thomas a Becket, is now a picturesque ruin. There are numerous flax and hemp spinning-mills and factories, and much canvas and linen is made; also tanning, shoemaking, and fishing, and a small shipping trade, but the harbour is bad. Pop. 19,499. It unites with Montrose, Forfar, Brechin, and Inverbervie (the Montrose burghs) in sending a member to Parliament.

ARBUTH'NOT, John, an eminent physician and distinguished wit, born at Arbuthnot, Kincardineshire, Scotland, 1667, died 1735. He received the degree of Doctor of Medicine at the University of St. Andrews, and went to London, where he soon distinguished himself by his writings and by his skill in his profession. In 1704 he was chosen Fellow of the Royal Society, and soon after he was appointed physician extraordinary, and then physician in ordinary to Queen Anne. About this time he became intimate with Swift, Pope, Gay, and other wits of the day. His writings, other than professional or scientific, include his contributions (in conjunction with Swift and Pope) to the _Memoirs of Martinus Scriblerus_, _History of John Bull_, _Art of Political Lying_, &c. He was conspicuous not only for learning and wit, but also for worth and humanity.

AR'BUTUS, a genus of plants belonging to the Ericaceae, or heath order, and comprising a number of small trees and shrubs, natives chiefly of Europe and N. America. _Arb[)u]tus Un[)e]do_ abounds near the lakes of Killarney, where its fine foliage adds charms to the scenery. The bright red or yellow berries, somewhat like the strawberry, have an unpleasant taste and narcotic properties. The Corsicans make wine from them. The trailing arbutus or may-flower of N. America, a plant with fragrant and beautiful blossoms, is _Epigaea repens_, of the same nat. ord.

ARC, a portion of a curved line, especially of a circle. It is by means of circular arcs that all angles are measured.--_Electric_ or _Voltaic arc_, the luminous arc of intense brightness and excessively high temperature which is formed by an electric current in crossing over the interval of space between the carbon points of an electric lamp. See _Arc-light_.

ARC, Jeanne d'. See _Joan of Arc_.

AR'CA, a genus of bivalve molluscs, family Arcadae, whose shells are known as _ark-shells_.

ARCACHON ([.a]r-k[.a]-sh[=o][n.]), a town of S.W. France, department Gironde, on the almost landlocked basin of Arcachon, a much-frequented bathing-place, with great oyster-breeding establishments. It is connected by railway with Bordeaux. Pop. 10,266.

ARCADE, a series of arches supported on piers or pillars, used generally as a screen and support of a roof, or of the wall of a building, and having beneath the covered part an ambulatory as round a cloister, or a footpath with shops or dwellings, as frequently seen in old Italian towns. Sometimes a porch or other prominent part of an important building is treated with arcades. At the present day Bologna, Padua, and Berne have fine examples of mediaeval arcaded streets, and among more modern work various streets in Turin, and the Rue de Rivoli, Paris, are lined with arcades, with shops underneath. In mediaeval architecture the term arcade is also applied to a series of arches supported on pillars forming an ornamental dressing or enrichment of a wall, a mode of treatment of very frequent occurrence in the towers, apses, and other parts of churches. In modern use the name arcade is often applied to a passage or narrow street containing shops arched over and covered with glass, as for example the Burlington Arcade, London, the Royal Arcade at Newcastle, and the Galleria Vittorio Emmanuele in Milan.

ARCA'DIA, the central and most mountainous portion of the Peloponnesus (Morea), the inhabitants of which in ancient times were celebrated for simplicity of character and manners. Their occupation was almost entirely pastoral, and thus the country came to be regarded as typical of rural simplicity and happiness. At the present day Arcadia forms a nomarchy of the kingdom of Greece. Area, 2028 sq. miles. Pop. 162,324.

ARCA'DIUS, born in 377, died 408; son of the Emperor Theodosius, on whose death in 395 the empire was divided, he obtaining the East, and his brother Honorius the West. He proved a feeble and pusillanimous prince.

ARCANUM, THE GREAT (meaning secret), a term applied in the Middle Ages to the highest problems of alchemy and the discovery of the supposed great secrets of nature, such as the philosopher's stone and the elixir of life. See _Alchemy_.

ARCATURE, in architecture, a small arcade built into a wall or applied against it, decorative rather than structural. Arcatures occur in Anglo-Norman churches of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries.

ARCESILAUS ([.a]r-ses-i-l[=a]'us), a Greek philosopher, the founder of the second or middle academy, was born about 315 B.C., died 239 B.C. He left no writings, and of his opinions so little is known that it has been doubted whether he was a strict Platonist or a sceptic.

_a._ Abutments. _i._ Impost. _p._ Piers. _v._ Voussoirs or arch-stones. _k._ Keystone. s. Springers. _In._ Intrados. _Ex._ Extrados. ]

ARCH, a structure composed of separate pieces, such as stones or bricks, having the shape of truncated wedges, arranged on a curved line, so as to retain their position by mutual pressure. The separate stones which compose the arch are called _voussoirs_ or _arch-stones_; the extreme or lowest voussoirs are termed _springers_, and the uppermost or central one is called the _keystone_. The under or concave side of the voussoirs is called the _intrados_, and the upper or convex side the _extrados_ of the arch. The supports which afford resting and resisting points to the arch are called _piers_ and _abutments_. The upper part of the pier or abutment, where the arch rests--technically where it _springs from_--is the _impost_. The _span_ of an arch is in circular arches the length of its chord, and generally the width between the points of its opposite imposts whence it springs. The _rise_ of an arch is the height of the highest point of its intrados above the line of the imposts; this point is sometimes called the _under side of the crown_, the highest point of the extrados being the _crown_. Arches are designated in various ways, as from their shape (circular, elliptic, &c.), or from the resemblance of the whole contour of the curve to some familiar object (lancet arch, horse-shoe arch), or from the method used in describing the curve, as equilateral, three-centred, four-centred, ogee, and the like; or from the style of architecture to which they belong, as Roman, pointed, and Saracenic arches.--_Triumphal arch_, originally a simple decorated arch under which a victorious Roman general and army passed in triumph. At a later period the triumphal arch was a richly-sculptured, massive, and permanent structure, having an archway passing through it, with generally a smaller arch on either side. The name is sometimes given to an arch, generally of wood decorated with flowers or evergreens, erected on occasion of some public rejoicing, &c.

ARCHAEAN (aer-k[=e]'an) ROCKS (Gr. _archaios_, ancient), the oldest rocks of the earth's crust, mostly crystalline in character, and embracing granites, gneisses, mica-schists, &c., all devoid of fossil remains. These rocks underlie a group of stratified and igneous masses that are usually distinguished from them as Huronian; the first beds with a well-marked fauna (lowest Cambrian) lie above the Huronian, and the Huronian and the Archaean groups are often conveniently classed together as pre-Cambrian, and are separated from the stratified and fossiliferous formations, which indeed have chiefly taken origin from them. The core of the Malvern range, and the rocks of N.W. Sutherland, are examples of Archaean masses in Great Britain.

ARCHAEOL'OGY (Gr. _archaios_, ancient, and _logos_, a discourse), the study of antiquity, or the science which takes cognizance of the history of nations and peoples as evinced by the remains, architectural, implemental, or otherwise, which belong to the earlier epoch of their existence. In a more extended sense the term embraces every branch of knowledge which bears on the origin, religion, laws, languages, science, arts, and literature of ancient peoples. It is to a great extent synonymous with _prehistoric annals_, as a large if not the principal part of its field of study extends over those periods in the history of the human race in regard to which we possess almost no information derivable from written records. Archaeology divides the primeval period of the human race, more especially as exhibited by remains found in Europe, into the _stone_, the _bronze_, and the _iron_ ages, these names being given in accordance with the materials employed for weapons, implements, &c., during the particular period. The _stone_ age has been subdivided into the _palaeolithic_ and _neolithic_, the former being that older period, in which the stone implements were not polished as they are in the latter and more recent period. The _bronze_ age, which admits of a similar subdivision, is that in which implements were of copper or bronze. In this age the dead were burned and their ashes deposited in urns or stone chests, covered with conical mounds of earth or cairns of stones. Gold and amber ornaments appear in this age. The _iron_ age is that in which implements, &c., of iron begin to appear, although stone and bronze implements are found along with them. The word _age_ in this sense (as explained under _Age_) simply denotes the stage at which a people has arrived. The phrase stone age, therefore, merely marks the period before the use of bronze, the bronze age that before the employment of iron, among any specific people. See _Excavations_; _Crete_; _Egypt_; &c--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sir J. Evans, _Stone Implements of Great Britain_; Boyd-Dawkins, _Early Man in Britain_; J. Geikie, _Prehistoric Europe_; R. Munro, _Lake Dwellings of Europe_; Sir W. Ridgeway, _Early Age of Greece_; H. R. Hall, _Aegean Archaeology_; W. M. Flinders Petrie, _Methods and Aims in Archaeology_; A. P. F. Michaelis, _A Century of Archaeological Discoveries_.

ARCHAEOPTERYX (aer-k[=e]-op'te-riks), a fossil bird from the oolitic limestone of Solenhofen, of the size of a rook, and differing from all known birds in having two free claws representing the thumb and forefinger projecting from the wing, and about twenty tail vertebrae free and prolonged as in mammals.

ARCHANGEL (aerk'[=a]n-jel; Gr. prefix, _arch-_, denoting chief), an angel of superior or of the highest rank. The only archangel mentioned by name in Scripture is Michael in the _Epistle of Jude_.

ARCHANGEL (aerk-[=a]n'jel), a seaport, capital of the Russian government of same name, on the right bank of the Northern Dvina, about 20 miles above its mouth in the White Sea. Below the town the river divides into several branches and forms a number of islands, on one of which, called Sollenbole, is the harbour. The houses are mostly of wood; the place has some manufactures and an important trade, exporting linseed, flax, tow, tallow, train-oil, mats, timber, pitch and tar, &c. The port is closed for six months by ice. Archangel, founded in 1584, was long the only port which Russia possessed. Pop. 43,388.--The province, which before the Russian revolution extended from the Ural Mountains to Finland, had an area of 326,063 sq. miles. Pop. 483,500.--For the Archangel Expedition of 1918, see _Murmansk_, _Russia_.

ARCHANGEL'ICA. See _Angelica_.

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ARCHAEOLOGY: ANTIQUITIES OF THE STONE, BRONZE, AND IRON AGES

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ARCHBISHOP (aerch-), a chief bishop, or bishop over other bishops; a metropolitan prelate. The establishment of this dignity is to be traced up to an early period of Christianity, when the bishops and inferior clergy met in the capitals to deliberate on spiritual affairs, and the bishop of the city where the meeting was held presided. In England there are two archbishops--those of Canterbury and York; the former styled _Primate of all England_, the latter _Primate of England_. The Archbishop of Canterbury is the first peer of the realm, having precedence before all great officers of the Crown and all dukes not of royal birth. He crowns the sovereign, and when he is invested with his archbishopric he is said to be enthroned. He can grant special licences to marry at any time or place, and can confer degrees otherwise to be obtained only from the universities. He is addressed by the titles of _your grace_ and _most reverend father in God_, and writes himself _by divine providence_, while the Archbishop of York and the bishops only write _by divine permission_. The first Archbishop of Canterbury was Augustine, appointed A.D. 598 by Ethelbert. Next in dignity is the Archbishop of York, between whom and the Archbishop of Canterbury the Lord High-Chancellor of England has his place in precedency. The first Archbishop of York was Paulinus, appointed in 622. The incomes of the sees are L15,000 and L10,000 respectively. An Archbishop of Wales was first appointed in 1920. Scotland had two archbishops--St. Andrews and Glasgow. Ireland had four, but the Episcopal Church has but two--Armagh and Dublin, the former being _Primate of all Ireland_, the latter _Primate of Ireland_. There are four Roman Catholic archbishops in England and Wales--Westminster, Cardiff, Birmingham, and Liverpool; two in Scotland--St. Andrews and Edinburgh, and Glasgow; four in Ireland--Armagh, Dublin, Cashel, and Tuam.

ARCHDEACON (aerch-), in England, an ecclesiastical dignitary next in rank below a bishop, having a certain jurisdiction over a part of the diocese. From two to four archdeacons are appointed by the bishops, under whom they perform their duties, and they hold courts which decide cases subject to an appeal to the bishop.

ARCHDUKE, a title peculiar to the royal family of Austria--the Habsburgs, who ruled until 1918.

ARCHELAUS ([.a]r-k[=e]-l[=a]'us), the name of several personages in ancient history, one of whom was the son of Herod the Great. He received from Augustus the sovereignty of Judea, Samaria, and Idumea. The people, tired of his tyrannical and bloody reign, accused him before Augustus, who banished him to Gaul.

ARCHER, William, journalist and miscellaneous writer, born at Perth, Scotland, in 1856. Educated at Edinburgh University, he went to London after some experience of journalism at Edinburgh, and after a visit to Australia was called to the bar, and was dramatic critic for _The World_ from 1884 to 1905. Subsequently he has been dramatic critic for _The Tribune_ and _The Nation_. He has done much to introduce Ibsen to the English public, by translating his dramas and otherwise, and has written _English Dramatists of To-day_; _A Life of Macready_; _About the Theatre: Essays and Studies_; _Masks or Faces?: a Study on the Psychology of Acting_; _The Theatrical World_ (a collection of his dramatic criticisms) (5 vols.); _Study and Stage_; _America To-Day_ (the result of a visit in 1900); _Poets of the Younger Generation_; _Real Conversations_ (the result of a series of interviews with persons of note); _Through Afro-America_ (1910); _The Life, Trial, and Death of Francisco Ferrer_ (1911); _Play-Making_ (1912); _The Thirteen Days_ (1915); _India and the Future_ (1917); _War is War_.

ARCHER-FISH, a name given to the _Tox[)o]tes jacul[=a]tor_, a scaly-finned, acanthopterygian fish, about 6 inches long, inhabiting the seas around Java, which has the faculty of shooting drops of water to the distance of 3 or 4 feet at insects, thereby causing them to fall into the water, when it seizes and devours them. The soft, and even the spiny portions of their dorsal fins are so covered with scales as to be scarcely distinguishable from the rest of the body.

ARCH'ERY, the art of shooting with a bow and arrow. The use of these weapons in war and the chase dates from the earliest antiquity. Ishmael, we learn from _Gen_. xxi, "became an archer". The Egyptians, Assyrians, Persians, Parthians, excelled in the use of the bow; and while the Greeks and Romans themselves made little use of it, they employed foreign archers as mercenaries. Coming to much more recent times, we find the Swiss famous as archers, but they generally used the arbalist or cross-bow, and were no match for their English rivals, who preferred the long-bow. (See _Bow_.) The English victories of Cressy, Poietiers, and Agincourt, gained against apparently overwhelming odds, may be ascribed to the bowmen. Archery disappeared gradually as firearms came into use, and as an instrument of war or the chase the bow is now confined to the most savage tribes of both hemispheres. But though the bow has been long abandoned among civilized nations as a military weapon, it is still cherished as an instrument of healthful recreation, encouraged by archery clubs or societies, which have been established in many parts of Britain. The oldest, and by far the most historically important of these societies, is the Royal Company of Archers, called also the King's Body-guard for Scotland, formed originally, it is said, by James I, but constituted in its present form by an Act of the Privy Council of Scotland, in 1676, and having its head-quarters in Edinburgh, counting among its members many of the nobility and gentry of the northern kingdom, and holding annual meetings, where prizes are competed for. In recent years a number of clubs have been formed in the United States. Archery has the merit of forming a sport open to women as well as men.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: William Garrard, _The Arte of Warre_; E. S. Morse, _Archery, Ancient and Modern_; H. A. Ford, _The Theory and Practice of Archery_.

ARCHES, COURT OF, the chief and most ancient consistory court, belonging to the archbishopric of Canterbury, for the debating of spiritual causes. It is named from the church in London, St. Mary le Bow, or Bow Church (so called from a fine _arched_ crypt), where it was formerly held. The jurisdiction of this court extends over the province of Canterbury. The office of president or dean is now merged in that of the judge appointed by the Public Worship Regulation Act (1874). The court now sits in the library of Lambeth Palace.

ARCHIL, or ORCHIL ([.a]r'kil, or'kil), a red, violet, or purple colouring matter obtained from various kinds of lichens, the most important of which are the _Roccella tinctoria_ and the _R. fuciformis_, natives of the rocks of the Canary and Cape Verde Islands, Mozambique and Zanzibar, South America, &c., and popularly called dyer's-moss. The dye is used for improving the tints of other dyes, as from its want of permanence it cannot be employed alone; but the aniline colours have largely superseded it. Cudbear and litmus are of similar origin.

ARCHILOCHUS ([.a]r-kil'o-kus) OF PAROS, one of the earliest Ionian lyric poets, the first Greek poet who composed iambic verses according to fixed rules. He flourished about 700 B.C. His iambic poems were renowned for force of style, liveliness of metaphor, and a powerful but bitter spirit of satire. In other lyric poems of a graver character he was also considered as a model. All his works are lost but a few fragments.

ARCHIMAN'DRITE, in the Greek Church, an abbot or abbot-general, who has the superintendence of many abbots and convents. The title dates from the fourth century.

ARCHIME'DEAN SCREW, a machine for raising water, said to have been invented by Archimedes. It is formed by winding a tube spirally round a cylinder so as to have the form of a screw, or by hollowing out the cylinder itself into a double or triple-threaded screw and enclosing it in a water-tight case. When the screw is placed in an inclined position and the lower end immersed in water, by causing the screw to revolve, the water may be raised to a limited extent.

ARCHIMEDES ([.a]r-ki-m[=e]'d[=e]z), a celebrated ancient Greek physicist and geometrician, born at Syracuse, in Sicily, about 287 B.C. He devoted himself entirely to science, and enriched mathematics with discoveries of the highest importance, upon which the moderns have founded their admeasurements of curvilinear surfaces and solids. Archimedes is the only one among the ancients who has left us anything satisfactory on the theory of mechanics and on hydrostatics. He first taught the hydrostatic principle to which his name is attached, "that a body immersed in a fluid loses as much in weight as the weight of an equal volume of the fluid", and determined by means of it that an artist had fraudulently added too much alloy to a crown which King Hiero had ordered to be made of pure gold. He discovered the solution of this problem while bathing; and it is said to have caused him so much joy that he hastened home from the bath undressed, and crying out, _Eur[=e]ka! Eur[=e]ka!_ 'I have found it, I have found it!' Practical mechanics also received a great deal of attention from Archimedes, who boasted that if he had a fulcrum or stand-point he could move the world. He is the inventor of the compound pulley, probably of the endless screw, the Archimedean screw, &c. During the siege of Syracuse by the Romans he is said to have constructed many wonderful machines with which he repelled their attacks, and he is stated to have set on fire their fleet by burning-glasses. At the moment when the Romans gained possession of the city by assault (212 B.C.), tradition relates that Archimedes was slain while sitting in the market-place contemplating some mathematical figures which he had drawn in the sand.

ARCHIPEL'AGO, a term originally applied to the Aegean, the sea lying between Greece and Asia Minor, then to the numerous islands situated therein, and subsequently to any cluster of islands. In the Grecian Archipelago the islands nearest the European coast lie together almost in a circle, and for this reason are called the _Cyclades_ (Gr. _kyklos_, a circle); those nearest the Asiatic, being farther from one another, the _Sporades_ ('scattered'). (See these articles, and _Negropont_, _Scio_, _Samos_, _Rhodes_, _Cyprus_, &c.) The Malay, Indian, or Eastern Archipelago, on the east of Asia, includes Borneo, Sumatra, and other large islands.

ARCHITEC'TURE, in a general sense, is the art of designing and constructing houses, bridges, and other buildings for the purposes of civil life; or, in a more limited but very common sense, that branch of the fine arts which has for its object the production of edifices not only convenient for their special purpose, but characterized by unity, beauty, and often grandeur.--The first habitations of man were such as nature afforded, or cost little labour to the occupant--caves, huts, and tents. But as soon as men rose in civilization and formed settled societies they began to build more commodious and comfortable habitations. They bestowed more care on the materials, preparing bricks of clay or earth, which they at first dried in the air, but afterwards baked by fire; and subsequently they smoothed stones and joined them at first without, and at a later period with, mortar or cement. After they had learned to build houses, they erected temples for their gods on a larger and more splendid scale than their own dwellings. The Egyptians are the most ancient nation known to us among whom architecture had attained the character of a fine art. Other ancient peoples among whom it had made great progress were the Babylonians, whose most celebrated buildings were temples, palaces, and hanging gardens; the Assyrians, whose capital, Nineveh, was rich in splendid buildings; the Phoenicians, whose cities, Sidon, Tyre, &c., were adorned with equal magnificence; and the Israelites, whose temple was a wonder of architecture. But comparatively few architectural monuments of these nations have remained till our day.

This is not the case with the architecture of Egypt, however, of which we possess ample remains in the shape of pyramids, temples, sepulchres, obelisks, &c. Egyptian chronology is far from certain, but the greatest of the architectural monuments of the country, the pyramids of Ghizeh, are at least as old as 2800 or 2700 B.C. The Egyptian temples had walls of great thickness and sloping on the outside from bottom to top; the roofs were flat, and composed of blocks of stone reaching from one wall or column to another. The columns were numerous, close, and very thick, generally without bases, and exhibiting great variety in the designs of their capitals. The principle of the arch, though known, was not employed for architectural purposes. Statues of enormous size, sphinxes carved in stone, and on the walls sculptures in outline of deities and animals, with innumerable hieroglyphics, are the decorative objects which belong to this style.

The earliest architectural remains of Greece are of unknown antiquity, and consist of massive walls built of huge blocks of stone. In historic times the Greeks developed an architecture of noble simplicity and dignity. The discoveries in Crete and Argolis have shown that Greek architecture owes much less than was supposed to Egyptian and Chaldaean architecture. It is considered to have attained its greatest perfection in the age of Pericles, or about 460-430 B.C. The great masters of this period were Phidias, Ictinus, Callicrates, &c. All the extant buildings are more or less in ruins. The style is characterized by beauty, harmony, and simplicity in the highest degree. Distinctive of it are what are called the _orders_ of architecture, by which term are understood certain modes of proportioning and decorating the column and its superimposed entablature. The Greeks had three orders, called respectively the _Doric_, _Ionic_, and _Corinthian_. (See articles under these names.) Greek buildings were abundantly adorned with sculptures, and painting was extensively used, the details of the structures being enriched by different colours or tints. Lowness of roofs and the absence of arches were distinctive features of Greek architecture, in which, as in that of Egypt, horizontality of line is another characteristic mark. The most remarkable public edifices of the Greeks were temples, of which the most famous is the Parthenon at Athens. Others exist in various parts of Greece as well as in Sicily, Southern Italy, Asia Minor, &c., where important Greek communities were early settled. Their theatres were semicircular on one side and square on the other, the semicircular part being usually excavated in the side of some convenient hill. This part, the auditorium, was filled with concentric seats, and might be capable of containing 20,000 spectators. A number exist in Greece, Sicily, and Asia Minor, and elsewhere. By the end of the Peloponnesian War (_c._ 400 B.C.) the best period of Greek architecture was over; a noble simplicity had given place to excess of ornament. After the death of Alexander the Great (323 B.C.) the decline was still more marked.

Among the Romans there was no original development of architecture as among the Greeks, though they early took the foremost place in the construction of such works as aqueducts and sewers, the arch being in early and extensive use among this people. As a fine art, however, Roman architecture had its origin in copies of the Greek models, all the Grecian orders being introduced into Rome, and variously modified. Their number, moreover, was augmented by the addition of two new orders--the _Tuscan_ and the _Composite_. The Romans became acquainted with the architecture of the Greeks soon after 200 B.C., but it was not till about two centuries later that the architecture of Rome attained (under Augustus) its greatest perfection. Among the great works now erected were temples, aqueducts, amphitheatres, magnificent villas, triumphal arches, monumental pillars, &c. The _amphitheatre_ differed from the theatre in being a completely circular or rather elliptical building, filled on all sides with ascending seats for spectators and leaving only the central space, called the _arena_, for the combatants and public shows. The Coliseum is a stupendous structure of this kind. The _thermae_, or baths, were vast structures in which multitudes of people could bathe at once. Magnificent tombs were often built by the wealthy. Remains of private residences are numerous, and the excavations at Pompeii in particular have thrown great light on the internal arrangements of the Roman dwelling-house. Almost all the successors of Augustus embellished Rome more or less, erected splendid palaces and temples, and adorned, like Hadrian, even the conquered countries with them. But after the period of Hadrian (A.D. 117-138) Roman architecture is considered to have been on the decline. The refined and noble style of the Greeks was neglected, and there was an attempt to embellish the beautiful more and more. This decline was all the more rapid at a later time owing to the disturbed state of the Empire and the incursions of the barbarians.

In Constantinople, after its virtual separation from the Western Empire, arose a style of art and architecture which was practised by the Greek Church during the whole of the Middle Ages. This is called the Byzantine style. The church of St. Sophia at Constantinople, built by Justinian (reigned 527-565), offers the most typical specimen of the style, of which the fundamental principle was an application of the Roman arch, the dome being the most striking feature of the building. In the most typical examples the dome or cupola rests on four pendentives.

After the dismemberment of the Roman Empire the beautiful works of ancient architecture were almost entirely destroyed by the Goths, Vandals, and other barbarians in Italy, Greece, Asia, Spain, and Africa; or what was spared by them was ruined by the fanaticism of the Christians. A new style of architecture now arose, two forms of which, the Lombard and the Norman Romanesque, form important phases of art. The Lombard prevailed in North Italy and South Germany from the eighth or ninth to the thirteenth century (though the Lombard rule came to an end in 774); the Norman Romanesque flourished, especially in Normandy and England, from the eleventh to the middle of the thirteenth century. The semicircular arch is the most characteristic feature of this style. With the Lombard Romanesque were combined Byzantine features, and buildings in the pure Byzantine style were also erected in Italy, as the church of St. Mark at Venice.

ARCHITECTURE

The conquests of the Moors introduced a fresh style of architecture into Europe after the eighth century--the Moorish or Saracenic. This style accompanied the spread of Mahommedanism after its rise in Arabia in the seventh century. The edifices erected by the Moors and Saracens in Spain, Egypt, and Turkey are distinguished, among other things, by a peculiar form of the arch, which forms a curve constituting more than half a circle or ellipse. A peculiar flowery decoration, called _arabesque_, is a common ornament of this style, of which the building called the Alhambra (q.v.) is perhaps the chief glory.

The Germans were unacquainted with architecture until the time of Charlemagne. He introduced into Germany the Byzantine and Romanesque styles. Afterwards the Moorish or Arabian style had some influence upon that of the Western nations, and thus originated the mixed style which maintained itself till the middle of the thirteenth century. Then began the modern Gothic style, which grew up in France, England, and Germany. Its striking characteristics are its pointed arches, its pinnacles and spires, its large buttresses, clustered pillars, vaulted roofs, profusion of ornament, and, on the whole, its lofty, bold character. Its most distinctive feature, as compared with the Greek or the Egyptian style, is the predominance in it of perpendicular or rising lines, producing forms that convey the idea of soaring or mounting upwards. Its greatest capabilities have been best displayed in ecclesiastical edifices. The Gothic style is divided into four principal epochs: the Early Pointed, or general style of the thirteenth century; the Decorated, or style of the fourteenth century; the Perpendicular, practised during the fifteenth and early part of the sixteenth centuries; and the Tudor, or general style of the sixteenth century. This style lasted in England up to the seventeenth century, being gradually displaced by that branch of the Renaissance or modified revival of ancient Roman architecture which is known as the _Elizabethan style_, and which is perhaps more purely an English style than any other that can be named.

The rise of the Renaissance style in Italy is the greatest event in the history of architecture after the introduction of the Gothic style. The Gothic style had been introduced into the country and extensively employed, but had never been thoroughly naturalized. The Renaissance is a revival of the classic style based on the study of the ancient models; and having practically commenced in Florence about the beginning of the fifteenth century, it soon spread with great rapidity over Italy and the greater part of Europe. The most illustrious architects of this early period of the style were Brunelleschi, who built at Florence the dome of the cathedral, the Pitti Palace, &c., besides many edifices at Milan, Pisa, Pesaro, and Mantua; Alberti, who wrote an important work on architecture, and erected many beautiful churches; Bramante, who began the building of St. Peter's, Rome, and Michael Angelo, who erected its magnificent dome. On St. Peter's were also employed Raphael, Peruzzi, and San Gallo. The noblest building in this style of architecture in Britain is St. Paul's, London, the work of Sir Christopher Wren.

Since the Renaissance period there has been no architectural development requiring special note. In buildings erected at the present day some one of the various styles of architecture is employed according to taste. Modern dwelling-houses have necessarily a style of their own as far as stories and apartments and windows and chimneys can give them one. In general the Grecian style, as handed down by Rome and modified by the Italian architects of the Renaissance, from its right angles and straight entablatures, is more convenient, and fits better with the distribution of our common buildings, than the pointed and irregular Gothic. But the occasional introduction of the Gothic outline and the partial employment of its ornaments has undoubtedly an agreeable effect both in public and private edifices; and we are indebted to it, among other things, for the spire, a structure exclusively Gothic, which, though often misplaced, has become an object of general approbation and a pleasing landmark to cities and villages. The works most characteristic of the present day are the large bridges, viaducts, &c., in many of which iron is the sole or most characteristic portion of the material.

A few words may be added on the architecture of India and China. Although many widely-differing styles are to be found in India, the oldest and only true native style of Indian ecclesiastical architecture is the Buddhist, the earliest specimens dating from 250 B.C. Among the chief objects of Buddhist art are _stupas_ or _topes_, built in the form of large towers, and employed as _dagobas_ to contain relics of Buddha or of some noted saint. Other works of Buddhist art are temples or monasteries excavated from the solid rock, and supported by pillars of the natural rock left in their places. Buddhist architecture is found in Ceylon, Tibet, Java, &c., as well as in India. The most remarkable Hindu or Brahmanical temples are in Southern India. They are pyramidal in form, rising in a series of stories. The Saracenic or Mohammedan architecture afterwards introduced into India is, of course, of foreign origin. The Chinese have made the _tent_ the elementary feature of their architecture; and of their style any one may form an idea by inspecting the figures which are depicted upon common chinaware. Chinese roofs are concave on the upper side, as if made of canvas instead of wood. (For further information see _Greek_, _Roman_, _Gothic_, _English_, _French_, _Russian Architecture_; and _Building_, _Fine Arts_, _Arch_, _Column_, _Aqueduct_, _Corinthian_, _Doric_, _Ionic_, _Theatre_, &c.)--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Ruskin, _Seven Lamps of Architecture_; E. A. Freeman, _History of Architecture_; Viollet-le-Duc, _How to build a House_; J. T. Micklethwaite, _Modern Parish Churches_; H. H. Statham, _Architecture for General Readers_ and _Critical History of Architecture_; J. Fergusson, _History of Architecture in all Countries_; F. M. Simpson, _A History of Architectural Development_; _Cyclopedia of Architecture_.

ARCHITRAVE (aer'ki-traev), in architecture, the part of an entablature which rests immediately on the heads of the columns, being the lowest of its three principal divisions, the others being the _frieze_ and the _cornice_.

ARCHIVES (aer'k[=i]vz). See _Records_.

ARCHIVOLT (aer'ki-volt), in architecture, the ornamental band of mouldings on the face of an arch and following its contour.

ARCHONS (aer'konz), the chief magistrates of ancient Athens, chosen to superintend civil and religious concerns. They were nine in number; the first was properly the _arch[=o]n_, or _arch[=o]n ep[=o]n[)y]mos_, by whose name the year was distinguished in the public records; the second was called _arch[=o]n basileus_, or king archon, who exercised the functions of high priest; the third, _polemarchos_, or general of the forces. The other six were called _thesmoth[)e]tai_, or legislators.

ARCHYTAS ([.a]r-k[=i]'tas), an ancient Greek mathematician, statesman, and general, who flourished about 400 B.C., and belonged to Tarentum in Southern Italy. The invention of the analytic method in mathematics is ascribed to him, as well as the solution of many geometrical and mechanical problems. He constructed various machines and automata, among the most celebrated of which was his flying pigeon. He was a Pythagorean in philosophy, and Plato and Aristotle are said to have been both deeply indebted to him. Only inconsiderable fragments of his works are extant.

ARCIS-SUR-AUBE ([.a]r-s[=e]-s[.u]r-[=o]b), a small town of France, department Aube, at which, in 1814, was fought a battle between Napoleon and the Allies, after which the latter marched to Paris. Pop. 3000.

ARC-LIGHT, a certain kind of electric light in which the illuminating source is the current of electricity passing between two sticks of carbon kept a short distance apart, one of them being in connection with the positive, the other with the negative terminal of a battery or dynamo.

ARCO, a town of Tyrol, near Lake Garda, a favourite winter resort of invalids. Pop. 3800.

ARCOLE ([.a]r'ko-l[.a]), a village in North Italy, 15 miles S.E. of Verona, celebrated for the battles of 15th, 16th, and 17th Nov., 1796, fought between the French under Bonaparte and the Austrians, in which the latter were defeated with great slaughter.

ARCOS' DE LA FRONTE'RA, a city of Spain, 30 miles E. by N. from Cadiz, on the Guadalete, here crossed by a stone bridge, on a sandstone rock 570 feet above the level of the river. On the highest part of the rock stands the castle of the dukes of Arcos, partly in ruins. The principal manufactures are leather, hats, and cordage. Pop. 13,980.

AR'COT, two districts and a town of India, within the Presidency of Madras.--_North Arcot_ is an inland district with an area of 7616 sq. miles. The country is partly flat and partly mountainous, where intersected by the Eastern Ghats. Pop. 2,200,000.--_South Arcot_ lies on the Bay of Bengal, and has two seaports, Cuddalor and Porto Novo. Area 5217 sq. miles. Pop. 2,170,000.--The town _Arcot_ is in North Arcot, on the Palar, about 70 miles W. by S. of Madras. There is a military cantonment at 3 miles' distance. The town contains handsome mosques, a nabob's palace in ruins, and the remains of an extensive fort. Arcot played an important part in the wars which resulted in the ascendancy of the British in India. It was taken by Clive, 31st Aug., 1751, and heroically defended by him against an apparently overwhelming force under Raja Sahib. Pop. 11,475.

ARCTIC ([.a]rk'tik), an epithet given to the north pole from the proximity of the constellation of the Bear, in Greek called _arktos_. The _Arctic Circle_ is an imaginary circle on the globe, parallel to the equator, and 23deg 28' distant from the north pole. This and its opposite, the _Antarctic_, are called the two polar circles.

ARCTIC EXPEDITIONS. See _North Polar Expeditions_.

ARCTIC OCEAN, that part of the water surface of the earth which surrounds the north pole, and washes the northern shores of Europe, Asia, and America; its southern boundary roughly coinciding with the Arctic Circle (lat. 66deg 30' N.). It encloses many large islands, and contains large bays and gulfs which deeply indent the northern shores of the three continents. Its great characteristic is ice, which is perpetual nearly everywhere.

ARCTIC REGIONS, the regions round the north pole, and extending from the pole on all sides to the Arctic Circle in lat. 66deg 30' N. The Arctic or North Polar Circle just touches the northern headlands of Iceland, cuts off the southern and narrowest portion of Greenland, crosses Fox's Strait north of Hudson's Bay, whence it goes over the American continent to Behring's Strait. Thence it runs to Obdorsk at the mouth of the Obi, then crossing Northern Russia, the White Sea, and the Scandinavian Peninsula, returns to Iceland. Though much skill and heroism have been displayed in the exploration of this portion of the earth, there is still an area round the pole estimated at 2,500,000 sq. miles, which is a blank to geographers. Many have adopted the belief in the existence of an open polar sea about the north pole. But this belief is not supported by any positive evidence. Valuable minerals, fossils, &c., have been discovered within the Arctic regions. In the archipelago north of the American continent excellent coal frequently occurs. The mineral cryolite is mined in Greenland. Fossil ivory is obtained in islands at the mouth of the Lena. In Scandinavia, parts of Siberia, and north-west America, the forest region extends within the Arctic Circle. The most characteristic of the natives of the Arctic regions are the Esquimaux. The most notable animals are the white-bear, the musk-ox, the reindeer, and the whalebone whale. Fur-bearing animals are numerous. The most intense cold ever registered in those regions was 74deg below zero F. The aurora borealis is a brilliant phenomenon of Arctic nights. See _North Polar Expeditions_.

ARC'TIUM. See _Burdock_.

ARC'TOMYS. See _Marmot_.

ARCTU'RUS, or ALPHA BOOETIS, a fixed star of the first magnitude in the constellation of Booetes (the Ploughman), is one of the brightest stars in the northern heavens, yellow in colour. Its light is believed to be intrinsically at least 140 times as brilliant as the sun's, and to take over 40 years to reach us. It is notable as having a comparatively large proper motion.

ARDAHAN', a small fortified town about 6400 feet above the sea, between Kars and Batum in Armenia. It was captured by the Russians in 1877, and ceded to them by the Berlin Treaty, 1878. It was handed over to Turkey by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in 1918, but the Turkish troops evacuated it after the armistice in 1918.

AR'DEA, the genus to which the heron belongs, type of the family Ard[=e]idae, which includes also cranes, storks, bitterns, &c.

AR'DEBIL, or ARDABIL, a Persian town, province of Azerbaijan, near the Karasu, a tributary of the Aras, about 40 miles from the Caspian, in an elevated and healthy situation; it has mineral springs and a considerable trade. Pop. 16,000.

ARDECHE ([.a]r-d[=a]sh), a department in the south of France (Languedoc), on the west side of the Rhone, taking its name from the River Ardeche, which rises within it, and falls into the Rhone after a course of 46 miles; area, 2144 sq. miles. It is generally of a mountainous character, and contains the culminating point of the Cevennes. Silk and wine are produced. Annonay is the principal town, but Privas is the capital. Pop. (1921), 294,308.

ARDEN, FOREST OF, a wood in Warwickshire. Shakespeare is supposed to have used it as a setting for _As You Like It_.

ARDENNES ([.a]r-den'), an extensive tract of hilly land stretching over a large portion of the north-east of France and south-west of Belgium. Anciently the whole tract formed one immense forest (_Arduenna Silva_ of Caesar); but large portions are now occupied by cultivated fields and populous towns.

ARDENNES ([.a]r-den'), a frontier department in the north-east of France; area, 2027 sq. miles, partly consisting of the Forest of Ardennes. There are extensive slate-quarries, numerous ironworks, and important manufactures of cloth, ironware, leather, glass, earthenware, &c. It was the scene of many battles during the European War (1914-8). Chief towns, Mezieres (the capital), Rocroi, and Sedan. Pop. 277,791.

ARDNAMURCHAN (-mur'_h_an) POINT, the most westerly point of the Island of Great Britain, in Argyllshire, having a lighthouse, 180 feet above sea-level, visible 18 to 20 miles off.

AR'DOCH, a parish in south Perthshire, celebrated for its Roman remains, one, a camp, being the most perfect existing in Scotland.

ARDROSS'AN, a seaport of Scotland, in Ayrshire, on the Firth of Clyde. It has a large harbour and shipbuilding yards, and is a centre of steamship services with Arran, Ireland, and Douglas, I.O.M. Pop. (1921), 7214.

ARDS'LEY, East and West, an urban district or town of England, W. Riding of Yorkshire, several miles north-west of Wakefield, with collieries, iron-mines, ironworks, &c. Pop. (1921), 7058.

ARE (aer), the unit of the French land measure, equal to 100 sq. metres, or 1076.44 English sq. feet. A _hectare_ is 100 ares, equal to 2.47 English acres. The tenth part of an are is called a _deciare_, and a hundredth part a _centiare_.

A'REA, the superficial content of any figure or space, the quantity of surface it contains in terms of any unit. See _Mensuration_.

ARE'CA, a genus of lofty palms with pinnated leaves, and a drupe-like fruit enclosed in a fibrous rind. _A. Cat[)e]chu_ of the Coromandel and Malabar coasts is the common areca palm which yields areca or betel-nuts, and also the astringent juice catechu. _A. olerac[)e]a_ is the cabbage tree or cabbage palm of the West Indies. With lime and the leaves of the betel-pepper, the areca-nuts when green form the celebrated masticatory of the East. They are an important article in Eastern trade.

ARECIBO ([.a]-re-th[=e]'b[=o]), a seaport town on the north coast of the Island of Porto Rico. Pop. 9612.

AREIOPAGUS. See _Areopagus_.

ARE'NA, the enclosed space in the central part of the Roman amphitheatres, in which took place the combats of gladiators or wild beasts. It was usually covered with sand or saw-dust to prevent the gladiators from slipping, and to absorb the blood. See _Amphitheatre_.

ARENACEOUS ROCKS include all sediments in which quartz sand is the most important constituent. Owing to its resistance to comminution and to chemical attack, quartz accumulates in sea-beaches while other mineral matter becomes removed. Hence sands gather near a shore and ultimately become consolidated by various natural cements into sandstones, those cemented by silica being styled quartzites. Sand-dunes in deserts or on coasts are unconsolidated arenaceous rock-masses.

AR'ENDAL a seaport of Southern Norway, exporting timber, wood pulp, and iron, and owning numerous ships. It is a well-built place, having been rebuilt since the great fire of 1868. Wood pulp, paper, and cotton are manufactured. Pop. 11,000.

ARENENBERG CASTLE (mediaeval, NARRENBERG), a castle and estate in the Swiss Canton Thurgau, the possession of Queen Hortense, who died there in 1837. In 1855 it became the property of the Empress Eugenie.

ARENGA, a term sometimes used as the generic name of the areng or gomuti palm, which is then botanically designated _Arenga saccharifera_. See _Gomuti_.

ARENIC'OLA. See _Lobworm_.

ARE'OLAR TISSUE, an assemblage of fibres in bundles, pervading almost every part of the animal structure, and connected with each other so as to form innumerable small cavities, the whole serving as a means by which the various organs and parts of organs are connected together. It is called also _Cellular Tissue_ and _Connective Tissue_. The fibres are of two kinds--white fibrous tissue and yellow elastic fibrous tissue, and interspersed among the bundles or occupying the cellular cavities are cells and corpuscles of several kinds. It is a tissue found in large quantities under the skin, covering the muscles, the blood-vessels, and nerves, and in various parts forming a kind of protective covering for delicate and important organs. It is because of its general distribution, and because of its binding various structures together, that it is called _connective_.--In botany the term is sometimes applied to the _non_-vascular substance, composed entirely of untransformed cells, which forms the soft substance of plants.

AREOM'ETER (from Gr. _araios_, thin, _metron_, a measure), an instrument for measuring the specific gravity of liquids; a _hydrometer_ (q.v.).

AREOP'AGUS, the oldest of the Athenian courts of justice, an assembly having a position more august than an ordinary court, and in its best days exercising a general supervision over public morals. It obtained its name from its place of meeting, on the Hill of Ares (Mars), near the Acropolis or citadel of Athens. Another explanation connects the word with _Arae_ (Curses), commonly known as _Semnae_ (Awful Goddesses), who were the guardians of the hill. It existed from very remote times, and the crimes tried before it were wilful murder, poisoning, robbery, and arson, while it had under its control also dissoluteness of morals, and innovations in the State and in religion. Its meetings were held in the open air, and its members were selected from those who had held the office of archon. The tribunal eventually lost many of its powers, but it continued to exist in name at least as late as the time of Cicero or later, having had an existence of seven or eight hundred years.

AREQUIPA ([.a]-r[=a]-k[=e]'p[.a]), a city of Peru, capital of a province of same name, situated in a fertile valley, 7850 feet above sea-level, at a distance of about 55 miles from the coast and on the railway which runs from its port Mollendo inland to Puno on Lake Titicaca. Behind the city rises the volcano of Arequipa, or Peak of Misti (20,328 feet). The climate is healthy but the locality is liable to earthquakes, one of which almost completely destroyed the town in 1868, after which it was rapidly rebuilt. A considerable trade is carried on through Mollendo, there being a large transit trade with the interior, and the town carries on various industries, manufacturing cotton and woollen goods, &c. It was founded in 1540. Pop. 35,000 to 40,000.--The province has an area of 21,947 sq. miles, and a pop. of 229,007.

ARES ([=a]'r[=e]z). See _Mars_.

ARETHU'SA, in Greek mythology, a daughter of Nereus and Doris, a nymph changed by Art[)e]mis into a fountain in order to free her from the pursuit of the river-god Alpheus. This fountain was said to exist in the small Island of Ortygia, near Syracuse, and was fabled to have a subterranean connection with the River Alpheus in Greece.

ARETINO (ae-r[=a]-t[=e]'noe), Guido. See _Guido_.

ARETINO, Pietro, Italian poet, born at Arezzo 1492, died at Venice 1556, the natural son of a nobleman called Luigi Bacci. He early displayed a talent for satirical poetry, and when still a young man was banished from Arezzo on account of a sonnet against indulgences. He went to Perugia, and thence to Rome (1517), where he secured the papal patronage, but subsequently lost it through writing licentious sonnets. Through the influence of the Medici family he found an opportunity to insinuate himself into the favour of Francis I. In 1527 Aretino went to Venice, where he acquired powerful friends, among them the Bishop of Vicenza. By his devotional writings he regained the favour of the Roman Court. He called himself 'the divine', and 'the scourge of princes', but he was also their abject flatterer, and that solely to obtain money. The obscenity of some of his writings was such that his name has become proverbial for licentiousness. Among them are five comedies and a tragedy.